the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...
the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ... the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...
foreigners reflects the inadequacy of the state, which rarely has the desire or the ability to limit development without loosing what are perceived as valuable jobs and revenue (France, 1997). The neo-Iiberal paradigm is concerned with market forces. It typifies the mass tourism industry in which multinational companies based in the developed nations shape and direct the developed world demand, regardless of whether the destinations are in the developed or less developed areas or nations. Even though the profit margins per tourist may be small, the total financial returns to these companies are generally large. Other related characteristics include the limited or negligible role both of local lifestyles and the majority of local people involved in low income, low-status occupations. These realities are often hidden behind glossy advertising which highlights distinctive traditions and customs as attractions for tourists. The much vaunted jobs and revenue are just as deceptive. The former are frequently considered by Western academics, and even by the tourists themselves, as low-income and low-status. This, however, may not be the attitude of many of those employed in such jobs within relatively poor destination countries, where alternatives may be even less financially rewarding, less secure and more distasteful. A significant amount of the revenue fails to accrue to local people as it is leaked out of the local, regional and national economy (France, 1997). There are several convergent ideas within neo-populist development, with its focus on a bottom-up approach involving local people from the beginning. Some of these can be traced to sustainable forms of development and related to tourism. Alternative approaches that stem from grass-roots development, including certain types of ecotourism and community-based tourism, such as the Campfire project in Zimbabwe and the Casamance scheme in Senegal, show more suitable characteristics than does mass package tourism. These examples also illustrate the desire to generate small-scale enterprises, such as the increasing use of local agricultural produce in islands like St Lucia and Barbados in the Caribbean. Movements to return to traditional values and skills can result in cultural and craft revivals that can act as important tourist attractions, as well as increase local pride and self-confidence and boost the local economy. It is not just through cultural events like carnivals and local craft production that participation in tourism can emerge, but also through agricultural diversification that important linkages may 98
develop with other sectors of the economy. Over time education, training and government support can uplift local people into managerial roles within the tourism industry and as knowledge and experience are diffused, so their role in decision making, and hence in more active participation, increases. This can then be extended to include a degree of empowerment. However, the multinational nature of tourism makes it an activity within which the full empowerment of local people is less likely to occur. It is perhaps more suitable to envisage a spectrum, from neo-colonial paternalism to empowerment, along which attempts should be made to move away from the extreme aspects of paternalism towards empowerment (France, 1997). 3.7 Summary and Conclusion This chapter presented a broad overview of the various theoretical approaches to understand tourism and development. It highlighted the transformation of tourist spaces, from modernity to globalisation, and resultant socio-economic changes. The growth of multi-national corporations and disintegration of the nation state, the use of tourism to achieve economic growth and issues of commodification were also analysed. Finally, the structures and mechanisms which underlie existing world-wide economic development problems and the processes that aid and abate regional underdevelopment were also considered, to better understand the local transformations resulting from global capitalist processes. Despite all intentions at bringing about economic growth and development in rural areas, rural poverty persists throughout southern Africa, and hence there is an increasing need for new perspectives on development processes and socio economic changes in rural areas. So far, the dominant theories of 'development' have been produced by First World theorists (Truman, Rostow, Perroux) or from within international organisations such as the United Nations and the World Bank. Third World contributions have been limited to the 'dependency school' and the Tanzanian attempt to define and practice 'self-reliant' development, which have brought about little improvement. However, if Third World governments were free to apply policies based upon their own cultures and history, and if Third World intellectuals had time to formulate proposals outside 99
- Page 71 and 72: These range from the numerous impac
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- Page 85 and 86: 1981). Butler (1991) recognises tha
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- Page 91 and 92: also be described as a 'deep ecolog
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- Page 105 and 106: conceptualised as a global process
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- Page 125 and 126: Methodology 4.1 Introduction CHAPTE
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develop with o<strong>the</strong>r sectors <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> economy. Over time education, tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and<br />
government support can uplift local people <strong>in</strong>to managerial <strong>role</strong>s with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>tourism</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry and as knowledge and experience are diffused, so <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>role</strong> <strong>in</strong> decision<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g, and hence <strong>in</strong> more active participation, <strong>in</strong>creases. This can <strong>the</strong>n be<br />
extended to <strong>in</strong>clude a degree <strong>of</strong> empowerment. However, <strong>the</strong> mult<strong>in</strong>ational nature <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>tourism</strong> makes it an activity with<strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong> full empowerment <strong>of</strong> local people is less<br />
likely to occur. It is perhaps more suitable to envisage a spectrum, from neo-colonial<br />
paternalism to empowerment, along which attempts should be made to move away<br />
from <strong>the</strong> extreme aspects <strong>of</strong> paternalism towards empowerment (France, 1997).<br />
3.7 Summary and Conclusion<br />
This chapter presented a broad overview <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> various <strong>the</strong>oretical approaches to<br />
understand <strong>tourism</strong> and development. It highlighted <strong>the</strong> transformation <strong>of</strong> tourist<br />
spaces, from modernity to globalisation, and resultant socio-economic changes. The<br />
growth <strong>of</strong> multi-national corporations and dis<strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> nation state, <strong>the</strong> use<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>tourism</strong> to achieve economic growth and issues <strong>of</strong> commodification were also<br />
analysed. F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>the</strong> structures and mechanisms which underlie exist<strong>in</strong>g world-wide<br />
economic development problems and <strong>the</strong> processes that aid and abate regional<br />
underdevelopment were also considered, to better understand <strong>the</strong> local<br />
transformations result<strong>in</strong>g from global capitalist processes.<br />
Despite all <strong>in</strong>tentions at br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g about economic growth and development <strong>in</strong> rural<br />
areas, rural poverty persists throughout sou<strong>the</strong>rn Africa, and hence <strong>the</strong>re is an<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g need for new perspectives on development processes and socio<br />
economic changes <strong>in</strong> rural areas.<br />
So far, <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant <strong>the</strong>ories <strong>of</strong> 'development' have been produced by First World<br />
<strong>the</strong>orists (Truman, Rostow, Perroux) or from with<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational organisations such<br />
as <strong>the</strong> United Nations and <strong>the</strong> World Bank. Third World contributions have been<br />
limited to <strong>the</strong> 'dependency school' and <strong>the</strong> Tanzanian attempt to def<strong>in</strong>e and practice<br />
'self-reliant' development, which have brought about little improvement. However, if<br />
Third World governments were free to apply policies based upon <strong>the</strong>ir own cultures<br />
and history, and if Third World <strong>in</strong>tellectuals had time to formulate proposals outside<br />
99
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