the role of tourism in natural resource management in the okavango ...

Hence, the government must take action to propel the economy from the
uncoordinated, low-income, no-Iong-run-growth static equilibrium to the co­
ordinated, high-income, dynamic equilibrium, 'golden-growth' path (Adelman and
Morris, 2001).
Neoclassical development theorists hold the view that internal trade can provide a
substitute for low aggregate demand. They state that the only things governments
need do to position an economy on an autonomous, sustained-growth path is to
remove barriers to international trade in commodities. Hence, in this view, domestic
and international liberalisation programmes suffice to bring about sustained
economic growth and structural change (Adelman and Morris, 2001).
3.6.1 Development Theories and Tourism
Different paradigms or styles of development can be applied to tourism and common
strands within the various paradigms and theories can be used to describe and
explain the evolution of tourism and provide pointers towards potential new
directions (France, 1997).
The classic approach to development, which is top-down, state instigated and
expert-led, generally involves a three stage process where problems and
opportunities are identified by external agents; technical measures are developed
and selected by the state, with the co-operation of the community; and plans are
implemented through a mixture of encouragement and coercion (Blaikie, 1996).
Resultant failures tend to be partly technical, due to inadequate research; partly a
result of a lack of fit between techniques adopted and local lifestyles; and partly due
to the inadequacies of state bureaucracies (Blaikie, 1996). Aspects of modernisation
theory and underdevelopment theory, as applied to tourism show some similarities
with these concepts. The top-down, expert-led approach is apparent in the control
exerted by multinational companies, with their external capital, expertise, technology
and ideas. Generally operating in a neo-colonial role, they either disregard local
tradition and culture (underdevelopment theory) or view it as being antithetical
(modernisation theory), which is one of the failures clearly identified in relation to the
classic approach to tourism. The entrepreneurial role of elites and the lack of
planning control over large-scale package tourism that is generally aimed at
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