Copyright Malvin Porter, Jr. 2010 - acumen - The University of ...

symptoms of depression and other clinical symptoms when support from peers and teachers was
high compared to when it was low (Conners-Burrow et al., 2009; Flashpohler et al., 2009).
In contrast, Cullerston-Sen and Crick (2005) found that teachers were less likely to
intervene in covert relational victimization than in cases of overt physical victimization; in part,
because teachers were generally unaware of such experiences among their students. Studies have
shown that teachers often identified girls who were the targets of vicious rumors, but teachers
were not aware of peers exclusionary behaviors until severe experiences of exclusion caused the
girls to contemplate suicide (Craig, Henderson, & Murphy, 2000; Owens, Slee, & Shute, 2000).
Owens et al. (2000) suggest several reasons for why teachers may not be aware of children’s
relational victimization. First, victimization becomes more complex and differentiated as
children age and aggression becomes more covert, which makes it difficult to observe by the
time students become teenagers (e.g., via instant messaging, stealing boyfriends).
In summary, children who are victims of bullies and children who bully are associated
with negative consequences (T. Nansel et al., 2001a; Rigby, 2001; Rigby, 2003), whereas social
support has a positive influence on the behaviors and social-emotional health of children
(Colarossi & Eccles, 2003; Demaray & Malecki, 2002; Gilman & Huebner, 2006a).
Research on Children’s Social Reasoning
Social-Cognitive Learning Theory
Social-cognitive learning theory explains how children learn new behaviors and under
what conditions they will exhibit the newly learned behavior. Social-cognitive learning theory is
widely used to explain how children learn both desirable prosocial behaviors and undesirable
antisocial aggressive behaviors (M. S. Tisak, Tisak, & Goldstein, 2006). Albert Bandura
theorized that children base their behavioral judgments on the resultant outcomes they expect
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