Copyright Malvin Porter, Jr. 2010 - acumen - The University of ...
Copyright Malvin Porter, Jr. 2010 - acumen - The University of ... Copyright Malvin Porter, Jr. 2010 - acumen - The University of ...
complex nature, sexual and racial harassment are not the focus of this study; however, these variables have implications for future studies. Age and Gender Age and gender differences might seem logically distinctive with regard to bullying and victimization. Research evidence suggests fewer age-related differences in children’s aggressive behavior and more gender-related differences (Crick, 1997; Cullerton-Sen & Crick, 2005a). While there are relatively few gender differences in infancy and toddlerhood (Hay & Ross, 1982; Loeber & Hay, 1993), preschoolers demonstrate striking differences (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1980) in that boys tend to engage in more conflict and forceful acts (e.g., physical, verbal, and instrumental) (Hartup, 1974; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1980; Smith & Green, 1984). Girls use more verbal objection and negotiation during conflict than boys, thereby preventing conflict escalation (Eisenberg, Fabes, Nyman, Bernzweig, & Pinuelas, 1994). One study found no differences in the percentage of young (age 4) boys and the percentage of young (age 4) girls who bully others (Curtner-Smith et al., 2006). However, gender differences in bullying among boys and girls are consistently found in studies of older children. Findings from longitudinal and cross-sectional studies of children who range in age from 8 to 15 years indicated that boys, age 8 years, tended to engage in overt aggressive behaviors such as kicking, hitting, pushing, shoving, threatening, exclaiming profanity, and name-calling (Bjorkqvist, Osterman, & Kaukiainen, 1992; Galen & Underwood, 1997; Olweus, 2003; Rigby, 2002b). Girls, age 8, engage in both physical and relational aggression. However, by age 15, girls develop a preferred pattern of relational aggression such as manipulating friendship patterns, ostracizing, humiliating, and excluding certain peers from social activities. 22
Longitudinal studies of children enrolled in the 2 nd through the 9 th grades found that boys continued to engage in physical aggression over time, whereas girls dramatically increased over time in the use of direct ostracism as well as the use of subtle and indirect means of harassment, such as intentionally excluding someone from the group, spreading rumors, and manipulating friendship relations, which can be as psychologically harmful and distressing as more direct and open forms of harassment (Cairns, Cairns, Neckerman, Ferguson, & Gariepy, 1989; Foster, DeLawyer, & Guevremont, 1986; T. Nansel et al., 2001a; Olweus, 2003). Gender differences widen as girls outgrow the tendency toward oppositional behavior at earlier ages than boys (Richman, Stevenson, & Graham, 1982). Gender differences may be mediated by differential biological development and corresponding social experiences (Hay, Nash, & Pedersen, 1983) and awareness of social rules for possession and resolving conflict. Cullerton-Sen et al. (2008) argue that a gender-informed approach to aggressive behavior in children should include both physical and relational aggression. However, gender difference is not always consistent (Crick & Grotpeter, 1996). Even in studies in which boys and girls do not differ in their self-reported relational victimization, girls are significantly more likely to be the target of relational aggression than physical aggression (Phelps, 2001). Girls also report higher levels of negative affect than boys in response to relational victimization (Crick, 1995; Crick, Grotpeter, & Bigbee, 2002; Paquette & Underwood, 1999). Although both boys and girls use physical and relational aggression, evidence suggests that girls attend more to and are affected more by relational conflicts than boys. In contrast to boys, girls are more likely to perceive relationally aggressive acts as mean and hurtful and to experience heightened emotional and physiological distress in response to such behaviors (Coyne, Archer, & Elsea, 2006; Galen & Underwood, 1997; Giles & Heyman, 2005). 23
- Page 1 and 2: CHILDREN’S SOCIAL REASONING IN TH
- Page 3 and 4: ABSTRACT The purpose of this study
- Page 5 and 6: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation w
- Page 7 and 8: Victim ............................
- Page 9 and 10: Story Character Role ..............
- Page 11 and 12: LIST OF TABLES 1. CBVS Sample Demog
- Page 13 and 14: 30. Chi-Square (Ҳ 2 ) Test for Ind
- Page 15 and 16: CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO THE PROB
- Page 17 and 18: anxiety, loneliness, and self-worth
- Page 19 and 20: Research Questions and Hypotheses T
- Page 21 and 22: . Null Hypotheses: There is no rela
- Page 23 and 24: information will be helpful to prac
- Page 25 and 26: Justice/Fair Justifications. An exp
- Page 27 and 28: CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW Chapt
- Page 29 and 30: actively involved, or as defenders
- Page 31 and 32: who are victimized themselves), and
- Page 33 and 34: Bullying often occurs within the co
- Page 35: manipulate social relationships to
- Page 39 and 40: Bully Bullying also damages the bul
- Page 41 and 42: for the nonbully/nonvictim. From co
- Page 43 and 44: Being victimized has been correlate
- Page 45 and 46: Linking Social Support and Bullying
- Page 47 and 48: (Bandura, 1986, 1991). Bandura (198
- Page 49 and 50: Social-cognitive learning theory ha
- Page 51 and 52: influenced and guided by informatio
- Page 53 and 54: ignore him or her, or that it is be
- Page 55 and 56: (Dodge, 1980a; Dodge & Frame, 1982)
- Page 57 and 58: during a child’s early years and
- Page 59 and 60: The reader is reminded that the pur
- Page 61 and 62: CBVS is scored by comparing the dif
- Page 63 and 64: Other research suggests that childr
- Page 65 and 66: their behaviors, which may explain
- Page 67 and 68: Aggressive) and Justification Choic
- Page 69 and 70: Cohen-Posey, 1995; Coloroso, 2003;
- Page 71 and 72: children’s arrival, answered ques
- Page 73 and 74: esponse to either being bullied or
- Page 75 and 76: Peers (7 items) and the Aggressive
- Page 77 and 78: Children’s Social Experience Ques
- Page 79 and 80: Standard Deviations, ranges, and Cr
- Page 81 and 82: Prosocial with Peers and CBS Aggres
- Page 83 and 84: Choices (e.g., Prosocial, Aggressiv
- Page 85 and 86: CHAPTER IV: RESULTS The purpose of
Longitudinal studies <strong>of</strong> children enrolled in the 2 nd through the 9 th grades found that boys<br />
continued to engage in physical aggression over time, whereas girls dramatically increased over<br />
time in the use <strong>of</strong> direct ostracism as well as the use <strong>of</strong> subtle and indirect means <strong>of</strong> harassment,<br />
such as intentionally excluding someone from the group, spreading rumors, and manipulating<br />
friendship relations, which can be as psychologically harmful and distressing as more direct and<br />
open forms <strong>of</strong> harassment (Cairns, Cairns, Neckerman, Ferguson, & Gariepy, 1989; Foster,<br />
DeLawyer, & Guevremont, 1986; T. Nansel et al., 2001a; Olweus, 2003).<br />
Gender differences widen as girls outgrow the tendency toward oppositional behavior at<br />
earlier ages than boys (Richman, Stevenson, & Graham, 1982). Gender differences may be<br />
mediated by differential biological development and corresponding social experiences (Hay,<br />
Nash, & Pedersen, 1983) and awareness <strong>of</strong> social rules for possession and resolving conflict.<br />
Cullerton-Sen et al. (2008) argue that a gender-informed approach to aggressive behavior in<br />
children should include both physical and relational aggression. However, gender difference is<br />
not always consistent (Crick & Grotpeter, 1996). Even in studies in which boys and girls do not<br />
differ in their self-reported relational victimization, girls are significantly more likely to be the<br />
target <strong>of</strong> relational aggression than physical aggression (Phelps, 2001). Girls also report higher<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> negative affect than boys in response to relational victimization (Crick, 1995; Crick,<br />
Grotpeter, & Bigbee, 2002; Paquette & Underwood, 1999).<br />
Although both boys and girls use physical and relational aggression, evidence suggests<br />
that girls attend more to and are affected more by relational conflicts than boys. In contrast to<br />
boys, girls are more likely to perceive relationally aggressive acts as mean and hurtful and to<br />
experience heightened emotional and physiological distress in response to such behaviors<br />
(Coyne, Archer, & Elsea, 2006; Galen & Underwood, 1997; Giles & Heyman, 2005).<br />
23
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