Copyright Malvin Porter, Jr. 2010 - acumen - The University of ...

complex nature, sexual and racial harassment are not the focus of this study; however, these
variables have implications for future studies.
Age and Gender
Age and gender differences might seem logically distinctive with regard to bullying and
victimization. Research evidence suggests fewer age-related differences in children’s aggressive
behavior and more gender-related differences (Crick, 1997; Cullerton-Sen & Crick, 2005a).
While there are relatively few gender differences in infancy and toddlerhood (Hay & Ross, 1982;
Loeber & Hay, 1993), preschoolers demonstrate striking differences (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1980)
in that boys tend to engage in more conflict and forceful acts (e.g., physical, verbal, and
instrumental) (Hartup, 1974; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1980; Smith & Green, 1984). Girls use more
verbal objection and negotiation during conflict than boys, thereby preventing conflict escalation
(Eisenberg, Fabes, Nyman, Bernzweig, & Pinuelas, 1994). One study found no differences in the
percentage of young (age 4) boys and the percentage of young (age 4) girls who bully others
(Curtner-Smith et al., 2006). However, gender differences in bullying among boys and girls are
consistently found in studies of older children. Findings from longitudinal and cross-sectional
studies of children who range in age from 8 to 15 years indicated that boys, age 8 years, tended
to engage in overt aggressive behaviors such as kicking, hitting, pushing, shoving, threatening,
exclaiming profanity, and name-calling (Bjorkqvist, Osterman, & Kaukiainen, 1992; Galen &
Underwood, 1997; Olweus, 2003; Rigby, 2002b). Girls, age 8, engage in both physical and
relational aggression. However, by age 15, girls develop a preferred pattern of relational
aggression such as manipulating friendship patterns, ostracizing, humiliating, and excluding
certain peers from social activities.
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