Higher education in Asian countries and the role of international ...
Higher education in Asian countries and the role of international ...
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3.6 Def<strong>in</strong>ition <strong>of</strong> higher <strong>education</strong><br />
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There exist different <strong>education</strong> systems <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> world <strong>and</strong> usually <strong>in</strong> every system <strong>the</strong> total<br />
duration <strong>of</strong> formal school<strong>in</strong>g can be divided <strong>in</strong>to three broader levels; primary, secondary <strong>and</strong><br />
tertiary or higher but <strong>the</strong> duration <strong>of</strong> each level is not necessarily <strong>the</strong> same <strong>in</strong> all systems. In<br />
Armenia, Russia, <strong>and</strong> Turkmenistan primary school<strong>in</strong>g duration is only three years while <strong>in</strong><br />
Irel<strong>and</strong> it is eight years. Similarly <strong>the</strong>re exists a great variation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> duration <strong>of</strong> school<strong>in</strong>g at<br />
lower secondary level: <strong>the</strong> duration ranges from four years to n<strong>in</strong>e years <strong>in</strong> different <strong>countries</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> world. At tertiary <strong>and</strong> higher <strong>education</strong> level also <strong>the</strong>re exist great variation <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong><br />
duration <strong>and</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>education</strong>, which has made def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g higher or tertiary <strong>education</strong> more<br />
complicated. Any <strong>education</strong> entered after successful completion <strong>of</strong> secondary <strong>education</strong>, which<br />
may <strong>in</strong>clude vocational post-secondary <strong>education</strong> (lead<strong>in</strong>g to a certificate) <strong>and</strong> higher <strong>education</strong><br />
(lead<strong>in</strong>g to a degree), even though <strong>the</strong> designation is <strong>of</strong>ten used synonymously with higher<br />
<strong>education</strong> (Campbell & Rozsnyai, 2002)<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> American Heritage Dictionary, “higher <strong>education</strong> is a level that comes afar <strong>the</strong><br />
secondary level, particularly <strong>the</strong> <strong>education</strong> at college or university level” (The American<br />
Heritage Dictionary, 2009). Where Britannica Concise Encyclopedia def<strong>in</strong>es it as, “<strong>Higher</strong><br />
<strong>education</strong> or post-secondary <strong>education</strong> refers to a level <strong>of</strong> <strong>education</strong> that is provided at<br />
academies, universities, colleges, sem<strong>in</strong>aries, <strong>in</strong>stitutes <strong>of</strong> technology, <strong>and</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
collegiate-level <strong>in</strong>stitutions, such as vocational schools, trade schools, <strong>and</strong> career colleges, that<br />
award academic degrees or pr<strong>of</strong>essional certifications” (The Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011).<br />
<strong>Higher</strong> <strong>education</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Encyclopedia Britannica has def<strong>in</strong>ed as “any <strong>of</strong> various types <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>education</strong> given <strong>in</strong> postsecondary <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>of</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> usually at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> a course <strong>of</strong><br />
study degree, diploma, or certificate are conferred. These higher-<strong>education</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
universities, colleges <strong>and</strong> various pr<strong>of</strong>essional schools that provide preparation <strong>in</strong> such fields as<br />
law, <strong>the</strong>ology, medic<strong>in</strong>e, bus<strong>in</strong>ess, music, <strong>and</strong> art. <strong>Higher</strong> <strong>education</strong> also <strong>in</strong>cludes teacher-<br />
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g schools, junior colleges, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutes <strong>of</strong> technology.” (The Encyclopædia Britannica,<br />
2011) Accord<strong>in</strong>g to this Encyclopedia “mostly higher <strong>education</strong> starts after <strong>the</strong> completion <strong>of</strong><br />
secondary <strong>education</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> usual entrance age is about 18 years.”<br />
Tertiary <strong>education</strong> is formal, non-compulsory, <strong>education</strong> that follows secondary <strong>education</strong>.<br />
Tertiary <strong>education</strong>, <strong>in</strong> most sett<strong>in</strong>gs, is non-compulsory <strong>education</strong> provided via a specialist