Higher education in Asian countries and the role of international ...

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5.4 Effect and impact 222 It is very difficult to assess the impact of the IGO‟s initiatives on any country‟s higher education because the level of success of an actor depends upon other factors too, as it is explained by game theory related to organizations. The performance of IGOs measured in terms of outcomes may not be appropriate when these organizations are constrained by various political and other factors, which are outside of their control; in such cases, it is difficult to link outcomes causally to the role of the international organizations (Gutner & Thompson, 2010). In this context, it is inappropriate to credit or blame solely an IGO for certain outcomes either as a result of achieving the set objectives or vice versa. However, to study the IGO‟s role, one should see how actively that IGO tried to track the goals and whether it efficiently played its role in its member countries through policy directions, capacity building, technical assistance, information sharing monitoring and reporting. Despite all limitations and criticisms regarding the study of IGOs‟ role, it is true that IGOs are contributing active players in the process of development of higher education but not wholly solely responsible for developing higher education of/ in any country or region. As society and state are the key players at national level so the major responsibility lies with them to work for the development of higher education through effective initiatives including cooperation and collaboration with the IGOs that are engaged with this sub-sector. Like in other parts of the world in Asia also, the OECD, UNESCO and the World Bank have been supporting and contributing to higher education for the last many decades through a variety of initiatives. The principal aim of their initiatives and activities is to encourage, support and create higher education friendly environment through policy and institutional reforms and assistance in capacity building that ultimately increase the participation rate, improve the quality, and enhance accessibility and acceptability. 5.4.1 Education Sector Reform Process in Asia In most of the Asian countries, states follow functionalist and pragmatic approach while endeavoring to boost education sector for development. These countries consider education as a mean to achieve socio-economic progress. Two decade back, primary and secondary level education was the priority areas in education sector in many Asian countries. As the data on basic education show except that of Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan all rest of the Asian
223 countries has achieved 100% GER at primary level before the advent of the 21 st century. Consequently in these countries demand for secondary education started growing very rapidly. Furthermore the industrial progress and economic development enhanced the demand for higher education as well. As a result a process of reform, restructurization and re-organization started in all parts of Asia in order to respond the changing needs and new challenges. Still the higher education in these countries is passing through the period of transition. UNESCO responded to the changing need by designing responsive strategies; encouraged policy reform, focused the capacity building and launched different initiatives to promote quality, equity, accessibility, relevance etc. Whereas the Bank re-positioned itself by reframing lending policies towards higher education and it provided financial assistance to member states and since then Bank‟s investment in higher education is on the rise. In this context OECD, being a think tank, provided policy guidelines, systematic analyses, and a forum to share ideas and experiences to find innovative solutions. In addition to this, OECD also played its role in the joint programs with UNESCO and the World Bank. Though OECD does not have much presence in Asia, it is influencing this region through its innovative ideas and initiatives that have a global visibility and implication. Likewise the process of reforms in other sectors is also pushing for reforms in the education system. To meet these challenges, multi-level reforms have been introduced that includes reforms of: educational philosophy, educational administration and management system, school system and financing system have been introduced. This has resulted in advanced curriculum, effective methodologies, decentralization of management, shared responsibility in financing education, enhancement of quality, promotion of vocational and technical education, more independence to stake holders and elevated participation of the society (IBE 2006). According to the UNESCO statistics higher education in all Asian countries is expending very rapidly so there is need for multipronged strategy to meet the rising demand. In the following information on the reform process has been presented on different Asian regions in the selected. 5.4.1.1 East Asian countries China In China, the reforms in education system are driven by economic, political, scientific and technological forces. The reforms process is transforming educational philosophy, educational
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Higher education in Asian countries
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ii Dedicated to my parents
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ii 3 CONCEPTUAL WORK ..............
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iv 4.2.3 Europeans in Asia ........
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vi 5.2 ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC CO
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viii 5.3.8.1.2.2 The Robert S. McNa
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Figures x Table 24 The World Bank i
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xii Abbreviations ADB Asian Develop
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xiv UNLD United Nations Literacy De
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2 productivity that has become esse
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4 Central Commission for Navigation
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6 and international levels and over
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1 Presentation of the research 1.1
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10 tertiary level is less than 15%,
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12 These hypotheses are general in
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14 the scope of the study and by de
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16 Participation observation to ha
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18 The count of IGO‟s activities
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20 aims, objectives, priorities and
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22 important actors at internationa
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24 capital theory in order to study
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26 performed by that organization.
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28 According to Bernoux (1985) “E
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30 Before World War I, IGOs were mo
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32 3.3.2 Classification on the basi
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34 council exercise certain of its
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3.3.4.1.1 Hybrid character 36 Conve
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3.4 Theories of International Organ
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40 translate into loss of powers if
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3.4.4.1 Neo-institutionalism 42 Neo
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44 socio-economic development at na
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46 changing needs and meet the new
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48 Game theory deals with parties (
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50 perfect information and imperfec
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3.5.1.2 Cooperative game 52 In a co
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54 economic development, national n
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3.6 Definition of higher education
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58 between 17 to 20 years and durat
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4 Asia and higher education 4.1 Int
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1. East Asia: China, Japan, Mongoli
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65 Similarly in East Asian region a
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4.3 History of Education 67 Educati
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69 institutions, financing and fund
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71 because in these economies the e
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73 capacity, and for developing oth
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75 This region is passing through a
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77 Whereas the average value for As
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79 is evident from the state polici
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81 Thailand and Malaysia are the le
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83 According to the World Bank, wid
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Source: The University of Texas Lib
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4.8 Economic Growth and higher educ
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89 provide objective and effective
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91 purpose of existence and t three
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93 general and of human knowledge,
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95 To approve the draft program sub
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97 non UN intergovernmental organiz
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99 The Bureau of Field Coordination
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101 4. UNESCO Office in Beijing - C
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Chairs And Networks Field Offices 5
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105 and centers function as capacit
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107 5.1.1.7.1 International Institu
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7. Caribbean Development Bank 8. Co
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111 34. International Association o
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113 5. Netherlands Organization for
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115 friendly policies and strategie
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117 Protocol Instituting a Concili
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119 In today‟s globalized world i
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121 and a bridge between research,
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Figure 9 Distribution of UNESCO cha
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5.1.2.7 Open Distant Education (ODL
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127 In this regard both organizatio
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129 At national level UNESCO, throu
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131 was adopted by WCHE in 1998, to
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5.1.2.13 Cluster offices 133 A clus
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2. Jakarta Regional Bureau for Scie
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137 Regional Bureau for Education B
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139 Assessment, Information System
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141 concerned. It assists in the pr
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143 5.1.4 UNESCO-Bangkok office rol
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145 has produced 51 publications on
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147 In the field of higher educatio
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Summary 149 UNESCO is the heir of I
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151 policy reforms. APEID is contri
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5.2.2 History and creation of OECD
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5.2.3.2 Council 155 Governance stru
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157 Directorate for Employment, Lab
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159 Non-Members (CCNM) develops and
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161 laws against spam. They may als
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163 5.2.5.1.1 Program for Internati
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165 students, at age 15, are prepar
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167 The CELE is actively working to
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169 33rd session of its General Con
Page 189 and 190: 171 Phase 2: an exploration of appr
Page 191 and 192: 173 European Federation for Retirem
Page 193 and 194: UN Development Group (UNDG) UN Deve
Page 195 and 196: 177 5.2.8 OECD in the World and its
Page 197 and 198: 179 Status of the Asian Countries i
Page 199 and 200: 181 Knowledge based economy and inf
Page 201 and 202: 183 documents belongs to these cate
Page 203 and 204: 185 A large part of the OECD‟s ac
Page 205 and 206: 5.3.1 A glance at the World Bank 18
Page 207 and 208: of payments and international reser
Page 209 and 210: 191 these countries to meet the ter
Page 211 and 212: 193 by the president of the World B
Page 213 and 214: 5.3.2 The World Bank 195 The World
Page 215 and 216: 197 including early childhood educa
Page 217 and 218: Member states of: 199 All five WBG
Page 219 and 220: 201 The European Bank for Reconstru
Page 221 and 222: 203 transforming and changing in al
Page 223 and 224: 205 graduate studies that are award
Page 225 and 226: 207 despite of two economic recessi
Page 227 and 228: 209 Summary of the total lending in
Page 229 and 230: 211 education sector where 21% of t
Page 231 and 232: 213 West Asia comprises of 15 sover
Page 233 and 234: 215 South East Asia where the Bank
Page 235 and 236: 217 Several projects successfully
Page 237 and 238: 219 infrastructure development; fro
Page 239: 221 The Independent Evaluation Grou
Page 243 and 244: 225 universities. State and institu
Page 245 and 246: Malaysia 227 In Malaysia all educat
Page 247 and 248: 229 primary, secondary and tertiary
Page 249 and 250: 231 government gave more focus to v
Page 251 and 252: 233 transform the higher education
Page 253 and 254: 235 Development (DESD) in 2005, UNE
Page 255 and 256: 237 The time series data, from 1970
Page 257 and 258: 239 Present higher education system
Page 259 and 260: 241 toolkits for teachers and other
Page 261 and 262: 243 these legal instruments. IIEP i
Page 263 and 264: 245 partner countries in Asia and n
Page 265 and 266: 6.3 Response to research questions
Page 267 and 268: 7 Discussion 249 What is the role o
Page 269 and 270: 251 development of human capital, w
Page 271 and 272: 253 In the 1980s the differences be
Page 273 and 274: 255 certainly today we have had a d
Page 275 and 276: 7.4 A shift in IGOs’ stance 257 A
Page 277 and 278: 259 as responsive and high quality
Page 279 and 280: 261 education. The following table
Page 281 and 282: Conclusions 263 The increased numbe
Page 283 and 284: 265 the countries, for the last two
Page 285 and 286: 267 Outcomes; quality teaching in h
Page 287 and 288: 269 Barnett, M., & Press, M. F. (20
Page 289 and 290: 271 Dincauze, D. F. (2000). Environ
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273 IIEP-UNESCO. (2010). Strategic
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275 McLean, I., & McMillan, A. (200
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277 Powersa, J. B., & McDougall, P.
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279 The World Bank. (2000). Higher
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281 UNESCO. (2010). Recognition of
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283 Yusuf, S. (2007). University-In
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285 is awarded by an institution of
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287 identifying, formulating, and i
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289 Annex II- List of the UNESCO-AP
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291 20th AAOU Annual Conference: Re
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1997-1998 293 Regional Conference o
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Source: Table is based on the data
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Net enrolment rate. Secondary. All
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299 School life expectancy (years).
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301 Educational expenditure by natu
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303 . Public expenditure per pupil
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305 Arab and European States Border
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. 307 Convention on the Recognition
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309 Higher education UNESCO-Bangkok
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. . 311 A glance at education Repub
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. A glance at education Philippines
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315 A glance at education in India
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317 A glance at education in Afghan
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319 A glance at education Syrian Ar
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Annex VI - List of the UNESCO Chair
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323 UNITWIN Network on emergency pr
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325 UNITWIN Network on Economics Te
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327 Major higher education UNESCO p
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Résumé L'augmentation du nombre d
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331 comment, quand et pourquoi ces
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333 laboratoire d'idées, un produc
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335 différents. Le bureau de Bangk
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337 Direction de l'Education de l'O
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339 spécialisées de l'ONU, dix-se
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341 Les résultats des activités d
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L’OCDE 343 OCDE n'est pas puremen
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Author’s introduction Mr. Amjad A
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