the City Edge

A star fort or trace italienne is a fortification in the style that evolved during
the age of black powder, when cannons came to dominate the battlefield,
and was first seen mid-15th century in Italy.
Star fortifications were further developed in the late fifteenth and early
sixteenth century in response, primarily, to the French invasion of the Italian
peninsula. The French army was equipped with new cannons and bombards
that were able to easily destroy traditional fortifications built in the Middle
Ages.
Towards the 17 th century, the bastioned wall with its associated features
such as pincers, ravelins etc became a must, more out of a political stunt of
show of power rather than need for defense. The city was completely,
cruelly cut off from the countryside. This thwarted the growth of European
cities to a large extent.
Fortification plan
THE CITY EDGE
Bourtange fortification, restored to 1750 situation,
Groningen, Netherlands