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$Drilling-induced tensile wall-fractures - Stanford University$

Cover Outcrop Band N 100 meters 20 meters Figure 7.3. Compaction band trace map representing bands unequivocally identifiable as fins on the air photo (Figure 7.1). Gaps not due to sedimentary cover, fault damage or shadows represent outcrop areas where bands are scarce, absent or lack identifiable fins. Much of the band-trend variability apparent on the map is due to topography. The density of bands captured in the map is approximately one third that visible in outcrop. 174
To produce a consistent and representative CB map for flow modeling, we applied the simple criteria that only band traces that could unequivocally be identified on the high- resolution scan were included on the map. In particular, no attempt was made to interpolate band patterns through areas of poor exposure due to sediment cover or the damage caused by younger, mid-Tertiary strike-slip faulting. Nor was any attempt made to extrapolate band patterns in order to increase the area of coverage. In this way, a consistent and conservative standard of objectivity was maintained while complications and uncertainties associated with pattern matching and infilling were avoided. The resulting 150,000 m 2 CB map (Figure 7.3) represents more than 2000 individual band traces ranging from a few meters to more than 100 m in length, with an average spacing of about 1.5 to 2 m. Successive intersections between bands occasionally form through-going trends hundreds of meters long. Average band thickness measured in the field is about 1 cm while spacing averages about 0.5 to 0.75 m—roughly one third that captured on the map. Clustering of CBs (mm spacing) is also common, resulting in composite bands up to 10 cm and more in total thickness. Field checking indicated that most gaps within the mapped array not attributable to sedimentary cover or fault damage do represent real interruptions in the continuity of the band fabric, although the absence of distinct fins and/or poor image resolution was occasionally to blame. All areas of bands identified and mapped on the scan were found to exist in outcrop. 4. Flow simulation model In the scenarios considered below, both single-phase and two-phase flow simulations are performed. The basic governing equation for incompressible single-phase flow in porous media is obtained by combining Darcy's law with conservation of mass: ⎛ k ⎞ ∇ ⋅⎜ ∇p⎟ + Q = 0 , (1) ⎝ µ ⎠ where p is pressure and Q represents sources and/or sinks (e.g., production/injection wells). The fluid is described by its viscosity µ , while k represents the absolute (intrinsic) permeability of the rock. Consistent with core measurements for the sandstone systems considered here, we take k to be locally isotropic for both the compaction bands 175
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STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY, PROPAGATION MEC
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Abstract Low-porosity, low-permeabi
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delivered with fortitude, humor, su
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Chapter 3—Energy-release model of
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List of Illustrations Figure A. Cov
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Figure A. Cover photo that accompan
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likely present in subsurface sandst
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hooking-tip interactions—using th
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and sandstone, my co-authors—Moha
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the hard data from which accurate p
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Although the Aztec sandstone experi
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Waterpocket Fault 36 o 26‘ N 0 1
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Cenozoic Mesozoic Paleozoic Quatern
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3.3. Deformation The Aztec also has
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There also are relatively high-angl
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(e) (f) (c) 500µm compaction band
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dihedral angle of 80° or more, and
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5. Compaction band orientations Ori
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n = 20 M n = 20 P n = 22 B n = 20 R
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were encountered, giving the dihedr
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Eichhubl et al., 2004) did not lend
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P (a) (c) S P S Figure 1.10. Stereo
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possible, and use these to better c
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1.5(ρgz) (b) WEST Willow Tank Uppe
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9. Acknowledgements My sincere than
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The term compaction band (CB) was c
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Pollard, 2002). The particular util
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Hue-based image analysis using MATL
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a direct genetic relationship (Hill
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Compaction band fin Depositional be
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suggests—that to first approximat
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Porosity Porosity 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15
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pore-clogging clay—due presumably
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500 µm Figure 2.9. Electron backsc
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(a) (b) σ 3 σ 1 x 3 x 1 x 1 (c) u
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6. Elastic properties Despite a lon
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Comparison of the two approaches es
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term in (6a) and (6c) begins to dom
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MPa MPa 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0
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2002) and use a BEM approach (Crouc
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MPa 10 4 10 3 10 2 10 1 10 −5 10
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concentration of quartz plasticity
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conducted on well-cemented sandston
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~ 62 m compaction band trend 500µm
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Sternlof et al. (2005) have suggest
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2005). It consists of a long (infin
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⎡ ∆ ⎤ ⎧ p 1 ∆ ⎛ M ⎞
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which point the inelastic strain ha
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they can exert significant effects
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interact is inversely proportional
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(a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 4.3. Typical
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Viewed individually, CB traces tend
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Figure 4.7.
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1973; Mardon, 1988; Peck et al., 19
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undamaged host rock. That CBs canno
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0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
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Normalized stress magnitude 3 2.5 2
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helps to explain why the oblique ap
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and ts = G·ds + H·dn (2) where tn
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plastic compaction, as suggested by
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To determine the sensitivity of pro
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segments will self-correct to provi
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6.3. Approaching tip interactions A
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0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 −0.05 −0.1
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0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 −0.05 −0.1
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the hooking patterns commonly obser
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(a) (b) (c) σ1 compaction band max
Page 136 and 137: σ 3 σ 2 σ 1 Figure 4.24. Schemat
Page 138 and 139: NV UT CA AZ Park Road Map Detail Pa
Page 140 and 141: compaction band Figure 5.2. Typical
Page 142 and 143: 3. Computational method The methodo
Page 144 and 145: compaction band A 5 mm A‘ compact
Page 146 and 147: 4. Application to the Aztec sandsto
Page 148 and 149: Permeability (mD) 10 4 10 3 10 2 10
Page 150 and 151: B‘ A‘ A c f m c m c f c f c f c
Page 152 and 153: equivalent of the Aztec sandstone,
Page 154 and 155: effective permeability represents a
Page 156 and 157: NV UT CA AZ Park Road Map Detail Pa
Page 158 and 159: Commonly from ~1 mm to ~1.5 cm in t
Page 160 and 161: Although systematic arrays of DBs p
Page 162 and 163: to 2 m, with both sets in a cross-h
Page 164 and 165: y identical blocks all subject to t
Page 166 and 167: contiguous areas. This type of char
Page 168 and 169: (0,b) n 3 (0,0) f 2 n 2 n 1 (a,0) (
Page 170 and 171: 6.1. Parallel Effective permeabilit
Page 172 and 173: By contrast, band-parallel effectiv
Page 174 and 175: Relative Effective Permeability 1.0
Page 176 and 177: (a) (b) (c) 0 meters 3 = 10-2 kb /k
Page 178 and 179: Though grossly systematic, anastomo
Page 180 and 181: 168
Page 182 and 183: 100 meters 5 meters NV UT CA AZ Par
Page 184 and 185: compaction band trend 500µm Figure
Page 188 and 189: (CBs) and the matrix rock in all si
Page 190 and 191: The finite volume discretization fo
Page 192 and 193: isotropic) can lead to numerical di
Page 194 and 195: 5. Simulations Three sets of 2-D si
Page 196 and 197: Normalized ∆P ∆P ratio (n/p) 4.
Page 198 and 199: P P P P I I P P Case 1 P P Case 2 I
Page 200 and 201: Case 1 Case 1 Case 1 (a) (b) (c) In
Page 202 and 203: 5.2.2. Discussion The elliptical pa
Page 204 and 205: 5.3.1. Results With the regional gr
Page 206 and 207: (a) (b) Leak 200 meters Regional gr
Page 208 and 209: anticipated sustainable pumping rat
Page 210 and 211: Finally, there is the issue of fore
Page 212 and 213: 200
Page 214 and 215: Bakke, S., and Øren, P. E., 1997,
Page 216 and 217: Carpenter, D. G., and Carpenter, J.
Page 218 and 219: Eichhubl, P., Taylor, W. L., Pollar
Page 220 and 221: Karimi-Fard, M., Durlofsky, L. J.,
Page 222 and 223: -, 1987, Fracture from a straight c
Page 224 and 225: Shipton, Z. K., and Cowie, P. A., 2
Page 226: Wong, T. F., David, C., and Zhu, W.
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