Fact or folklore: the Viking attack on London Bridge
Fact or folklore: the Viking attack on London Bridge
Fact or folklore: the Viking attack on London Bridge
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Fact</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> folkl<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>e: <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Viking</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong><br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong><br />
Jan Ragnar Hagland<br />
Bruce Wats<strong>on</strong><br />
One of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most dramatic events in L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>’s<br />
hist<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>y is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Viking</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g>, led by Óláfr (<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> Olaf)<br />
Haraldss<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong>. However, as it is<br />
not menti<strong>on</strong>ed in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Anglo-Sax<strong>on</strong> Chr<strong>on</strong>icle,<br />
some hist<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ians doubt it took place. Brooke<br />
summed up <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> problem of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> hist<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical<br />
au<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>nticity of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus: “How much of this<br />
vivid scene bel<strong>on</strong>gs to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of St Olaf, how<br />
much to imaginati<strong>on</strong> playing <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> old wooden<br />
bridge in its last days at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 12th and<br />
13th centuries, is a nice questi<strong>on</strong>. What is certain<br />
is that Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred returned, and that in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>fused<br />
campaigns which followed L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> remained <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
key to his power; it is equally certain that St<br />
Olaf’s mem<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>y was kept alive in L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dedicati<strong>on</strong> of six churches to him, <strong>on</strong>e, in<br />
Southwark, very close to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bridge he is<br />
supposed to have pulled down”. 1 We wish to reexamine<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> hist<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical c<strong>on</strong>text and date of this<br />
alleged <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> light of new research. Also<br />
we wish to rec<strong>on</strong>sider <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> w<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> poet <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
skáld, Ottarr <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Black, who was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first pers<strong>on</strong><br />
to describe this event. Clark recently reviewed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
linguistic <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>igins of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong> nursery<br />
rhyme, debunking <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> popularly held belief that it<br />
enshrines an English folk mem<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>y of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Viking</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 2<br />
The Scandinavian invasi<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
England 991–1013<br />
In 991 <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Scandinavian <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Viking</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ces led by<br />
Óláfr Tryggvass<strong>on</strong>, Jostein and Guthmund<br />
Steitass<strong>on</strong> defeated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Anglo-Sax<strong>on</strong> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ces at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Battle of Mald<strong>on</strong>. 3 This crushing defeat f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ced <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
English King Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred II ‘<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Unready’, 4 to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>clude a peace treaty with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> vict<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>s and pay<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m £10,000 in Danegeld (tribute) in gold and<br />
silver. 5 It is widely believed that such tribute was<br />
paid by Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred to get <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Scandinavians to<br />
return home, when in fact it was paid to c<strong>on</strong>clude<br />
treaties and truces <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> make <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m change sides. 6<br />
Óláfr Tryggvass<strong>on</strong>, who was a N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>wegian<br />
adventurer, now became <strong>on</strong>e of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> commanders<br />
of Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred’s mercenary army and he was<br />
baptised in 994. In 995–7 he returned home to<br />
become King of N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>way. He <strong>on</strong>ly reigned until<br />
1000 when he was defeated at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Battle of Svöld<br />
and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> vict<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Eirik Hak<strong>on</strong>ars<strong>on</strong>, became ruler of<br />
N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>way, but as a Danish vassal. It is quite likely<br />
that Óláfr Tryggvass<strong>on</strong> had received English<br />
assistance in his bid f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> power, in an attempt by<br />
Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred to weaken his enemies. 7<br />
The years after 991 were followed by m<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Scandinavian raids <strong>on</strong> England and by fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
payments of Danegeld in 994, 1002 and 1006. In<br />
1009 Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>red a fleet at Sandwich to<br />
repel <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> expected invasi<strong>on</strong>, but this measure<br />
failed as a large part of his fleet ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r went<br />
raiding al<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> south coast <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> was lost in<br />
st<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ms. The remaining vessels were withdrawn to<br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> to bar <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Thames to Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kell <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tall’s<br />
invasi<strong>on</strong> fleet. In August 1009 Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kell’s army<br />
landed in Kent, and <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed Canterbury, which<br />
promptly paid <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m £3,000 in Danegeld to save<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> city from destructi<strong>on</strong>, and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
unsuccessfully <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>. 8 It is possible<br />
that this failure was due to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> presence of a<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>tified bridge, which had been built since <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> in September 993, to<br />
prevent fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r marine incursi<strong>on</strong>s up <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Thames. 9<br />
Certainly, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is both archaeological and<br />
hist<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical evidence f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> existence of L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>Bridge</strong> by c. 1000. The first phase of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Saxo-<br />
N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>man <strong>Bridge</strong> was c<strong>on</strong>structed of timber felled<br />
c. 987–1032, and it was replaced by a sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
bridge c<strong>on</strong>structed after 1056. 10 The existence of<br />
a Saxo-N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>man L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong> is first<br />
documented in a law code known as ‘IV<br />
Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred’, which includes a secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong><br />
tolls and regulati<strong>on</strong>s. Interestingly this secti<strong>on</strong><br />
ends with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> w<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds – ‘if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> king c<strong>on</strong>cede that to<br />
us’, which implies that it was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>ers who<br />
were codifying <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own rules. 11 It is widely<br />
accepted that this code is a hybrid document and<br />
328 L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> Archaeologist Spring 2005
Fig. 1: a rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1014 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Viking</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong> by Peter Jacks<strong>on</strong><br />
when it was issued is uncertain. However, recent<br />
research suggests that it may have been issued by<br />
Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> mid-990s. 12<br />
In 1012 Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kell made peace with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> English<br />
and his army received £48,000 in Danegeld. 13<br />
Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kell remained in England afterwards with a<br />
fleet of 45 ships to defend <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> country against his<br />
fellow Scandinavians as a part of his arrangement<br />
with Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred. 14 This acti<strong>on</strong> would have meant<br />
Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kell had renounced any allegiance he may<br />
have owed to Swein F<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kbeard, King of<br />
Denmark. 15 Interestingly, this arrangement seems<br />
similar to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e that Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred had f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>merly<br />
made with Óláfr Tryggvass<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In 1013 Swein invaded England. His motives<br />
were undoubtedly to extend his own domains and<br />
to check Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kell’s power as a potential rival.<br />
Swein’s campaign was a brilliant success and<br />
so<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> whole of sou<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn England n<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>th of<br />
Watling Street, apart from L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, had<br />
capitulated to him. In L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred and<br />
Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kell still held out. However, sh<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>tly bef<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Swein’s death in February 1014 L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong><br />
capitulated to Swein. Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred was deposed and<br />
he fled to N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>mandy, but Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kell’s fleet<br />
remained at Greenwich. 16 After Swein’s death<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was regal chaos. The Scandinavian army in<br />
England chose Swein’s sec<strong>on</strong>d s<strong>on</strong> Cnut as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
king, but at home in Denmark Cnut’s bro<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
Harold became king and it was <strong>on</strong>ly after his<br />
death in 1018 <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1019 that Cnut took over <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Danish thr<strong>on</strong>e. The Witan asked Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred to<br />
return to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> thr<strong>on</strong>e, so he returned home and<br />
Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kell got his old employer back plus £21,000<br />
in Danegeld. 17 The fact that <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> people of<br />
Lindsey (N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>th Lincolnshire) supp<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted Cnut and<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> English nobility felt able to invite<br />
Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred to return, implies Cnut had little c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
over Swein’s newly c<strong>on</strong>quered territ<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ies.<br />
Presumably Swein had realised that L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> was<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> key to c<strong>on</strong>trolling <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> kingdom, so he would<br />
have garris<strong>on</strong>ed it with trustw<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>thy troops to<br />
ensure <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> loyalty of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> city. Acc<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ding to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
skalds Ottarr <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Black and Sigvat, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>Bridge</strong> and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southwark bridgehead were<br />
str<strong>on</strong>gly defended by such troops. 18 So Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred<br />
first sought to recapture L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> from Anglo-<br />
Scandinavian f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ces loyal to Cnut. The recapture<br />
of L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> apparently involved <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ships of Óláfr<br />
Haraldss<strong>on</strong> ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>wegian adventurer.<br />
Óláfr Haraldss<strong>on</strong> and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong><br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong><br />
The chr<strong>on</strong>ology of Óláfr’s early career as a<br />
soldier is uncertain. It is possible that he had<br />
previously served as a mercenary with Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kell’s<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ces in England <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> Jutland. 19 Acc<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ding to<br />
Sn<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ri Sturlus<strong>on</strong> (1178/9–1241), <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Icelandic<br />
hist<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ian, Óláfr was <strong>on</strong>e of Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred’s army<br />
commanders, who volunteered to lead his ships in<br />
a daring <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong>. Sn<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ri states<br />
that this <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> was <strong>on</strong>ly undertaken to help<br />
Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred regain his thr<strong>on</strong>e, which places it after<br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> Archaeologist Spring 2005 329
Swein’s death and bef<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred’s own death<br />
in 1016. 20 The <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bridge in 1014<br />
involved sailing westwards upstream to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
defended timber bridge, fixing ropes and<br />
grappling ir<strong>on</strong>s to it, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n sailing downstream<br />
again and pulling down <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> badly damaging <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
superstructure of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bridge and compelling its<br />
defenders to surrender L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> to Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred’s<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ces (Fig. 1). 21 Next, Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred’s f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ces defeated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Scandinavians and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir allies in Lindsey,<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>cing Cnut into exile. 22 Acc<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ding to Sn<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ri,<br />
Óláfr <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n helped Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred recover Canterbury<br />
and o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r territ<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ies and he may have remained in<br />
England until 1016, after which he probably went<br />
raiding in western Europe. 23<br />
In 1016 Cnut returned to England with a large<br />
army intending to seize <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> English thr<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
Sh<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>tly after his arrival <strong>on</strong> 23 April, Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred<br />
died in L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> (aged c. 50) w<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>n out by years of<br />
‘great toil and difficulties’. 24 The successi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> English thr<strong>on</strong>e was disputed; <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>ers<br />
wanted Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred’s eldest s<strong>on</strong> Edmund Ir<strong>on</strong>side to<br />
rule, but o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs preferred Cnut. In May 1016<br />
Cnut’s f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ces attempted to sail up <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Thames,<br />
but <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were unable to capture L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong><br />
and dragged <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir ships overland across n<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>th<br />
Southwark, so <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y could c<strong>on</strong>tinue upstream. 25<br />
The matter of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> successi<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> English thr<strong>on</strong>e<br />
was decided <strong>on</strong> 30 November 1016 by Edmund’s<br />
sudden death, an event which made Cnut <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Great <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> undisputed king of England until his<br />
own death in 1035. 26 In 1017 Cnut partiti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
England into four provinces, ruling Wessex<br />
himself and giving East Anglia to Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kell, by<br />
way of thanks f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> his supp<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>t. 27<br />
The part Óláfr played in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se events is uncertain,<br />
as acc<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ding to traditi<strong>on</strong>al chr<strong>on</strong>ology he gained<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> thr<strong>on</strong>e of N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>way in 1016, presumably taking<br />
advantage of Cnut’s preoccupati<strong>on</strong> with English<br />
affairs. Recently, it has been argued that in 1017<br />
Óláfr over-wintered in N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>mandy and took part in<br />
an unsuccessful <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> England with<br />
Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred’s younger s<strong>on</strong>s and <strong>on</strong>ly returned to<br />
N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>way in 1018 to become king. 28 However, in<br />
1029 Óláfr was driven into exile by f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ces loyal<br />
to Cnut. The following year Óláfr died at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Battle of Stiklestad attempting to regain his<br />
thr<strong>on</strong>e. After Óláfr’s death Cnut ruled N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>way.<br />
Óláfr was buried at Nidaros (Tr<strong>on</strong>dheim), where<br />
miracles begun to occur, which led to his<br />
can<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong>. His popularity as a saint was greatly<br />
boosted by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> widespread hatred of Cnut’s s<strong>on</strong><br />
Swein, who ruled N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>way as his fa<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r’s regent.<br />
After Cnut’s death in 1035 <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>wegians asked<br />
Óláfr’s s<strong>on</strong> Magnus ‘<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> good’ to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir king,<br />
and he ruled until 1047. St Óláfr was a popular<br />
saint in England too; <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> parish church at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sou<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn end of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bridge was <strong>on</strong>e of six<br />
churches in medieval L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> and Southwark<br />
dedicated to him. 29<br />
Ottarr <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Black – Icelandic poet<br />
(skáld)<br />
The oldest sagas about Óláfr Haraldss<strong>on</strong> (St Olaf)<br />
relate a st<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>y about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> poet Ottarr Svarti (<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
black) who <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e occasi<strong>on</strong> was compelled to<br />
compose a drápa (elab<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate poem) about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> king<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>der to pacify him and thus save his own<br />
head. 30 Such a poem was referred to as<br />
HÄfuðlausn ‘Head-Ransom’. Just a few stanzas<br />
of Ottarr’s poem are quoted in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sagas about<br />
Óláfr Haraldss<strong>on</strong>. A poem of 20 stanzas has,<br />
n<strong>on</strong>e<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>less, been pieced toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r from different<br />
sources, mainly from manuscripts of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Heimskringla, by scholars of later times. The<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>der of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> stanzas, suggested first and f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>emost<br />
by Jónss<strong>on</strong>, 31 has not been seriously challenged<br />
by later scholars, such as Fidjestøl. 32 The<br />
interpretati<strong>on</strong> of individual stanzas has, however,<br />
been subject to discussi<strong>on</strong>. Stanza no 7 of<br />
HÄfuðlausn is quoted by Sn<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ri in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Heimskringla in evidence f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> Óláfr Haralds<strong>on</strong>'s<br />
raids in England – <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sixth <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> leading to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tearing down of L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> bridge[s] related in ch.<br />
16 of Óláfr’s saga. In this stanza <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> destructi<strong>on</strong><br />
of Lundúna bryggiur – L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong>[s] – is<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>ed. 33 The first part of Ottarr’s HÄfuðlausn<br />
is in c<strong>on</strong>tent close to Sigvat skáld’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>Viking</str<strong>on</strong>g>a-vísur<br />
(<str<strong>on</strong>g>Viking</str<strong>on</strong>g> poems). In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Heimskringla Sn<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ri made<br />
use of stanzas from both <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se skálds as evidence<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> Óláfr’s battles in England, am<strong>on</strong>g o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
stanza by Sigvat that menti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong><br />
Suðrvirki. 34 The sec<strong>on</strong>d half of this stanza is<br />
quoted also in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> so-called First Grammatical<br />
Treatise – a linguistic analysis of Old Icelandic<br />
material from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> mid-12th century. 35<br />
The point of interest is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first half of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> stanza<br />
in which <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Lundúna bryggjur are menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
(<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> w<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ding of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d part of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> stanza is<br />
330 L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> Archaeologist Spring 2005
not discussed here). 36 The complex syntax of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
first half stanza may be rewritten in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> syntax of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>dinary prose in slightly different ways, without<br />
changing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tent significantly – at least when<br />
our purpose here is c<strong>on</strong>cerned:<br />
Enn brauzt bryggjur Lundúna, Yggs veðrþ<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>inn<br />
[<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>: gunnþ<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>inn] éla linns kennir, þér hefr snúnat<br />
at vinna lÄnd.<br />
Alternatively:<br />
Enn brauzt bryggjur Lundúna, Yggs veðrþ<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>inn<br />
[<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>: gunnþ<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>inn] éla kennir, þér hefr snúnat at<br />
vinna linns lÄnd.<br />
Comments <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> significant ‘kennings’ of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<br />
two reading:<br />
1. Yggs veðrþ<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>inn [<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>: gunnþ<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>inn] éla linns<br />
kennir<br />
Yggr = Odin, él = hailst<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>m, Yggs él = battle<br />
linnr = lit. ‘a snake’, Yggs éla linn = <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> battle’s<br />
snake = a sw<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<br />
kennir = he who knows, Yggs éla linns kennir =<br />
‘he who knows <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sw<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>d’ = <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> warri<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
veðrþ<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>inn [<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>: gunnþ<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>inn] = ‘daring’, ‘stou<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>arted’,<br />
even ‘gallant’.<br />
2. linns lÄnd. – linnr – ‘snake’ may in some<br />
c<strong>on</strong>texts also be associated with gold. The phrase<br />
Fig. 2: 11th century <str<strong>on</strong>g>Viking</str<strong>on</strong>g> battle axe with an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>namented socket recovered from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Thames<br />
near L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong>, length of blade 208 mm<br />
(source MoLpl; Wheeler 1927 fig 3, A23346).<br />
linns lÄnd has in c<strong>on</strong>sequence by some scholars<br />
been interpreted as ‘gold’. 37<br />
Suggested translati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first alternative:<br />
“Yet you broke [destroyed] <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bridge[s] of<br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, stout-hearted warri<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>, you succeeded in<br />
c<strong>on</strong>quering land”.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d alternative:<br />
“Yet you broke [destroyed] <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bridge[s] of<br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, stout-hearted warri<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>, you succeeded in<br />
c<strong>on</strong>quering gold.”<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
The opening lines of Ottarr’s stanza 7 reads :<br />
Yet you broke [destroyed] <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bridge[s] of<br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, 38<br />
Stout-hearted warri<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
You succeeded in c<strong>on</strong>quering <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> land.<br />
Ir<strong>on</strong> (earn) sw<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds made headway<br />
Str<strong>on</strong>gly urged to c<strong>on</strong>flict;<br />
Ancient shields were broken,<br />
Battle’s fury mounted.<br />
The w<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ding of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> third line and its possible<br />
variati<strong>on</strong>s are interesting. They offer a motive f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Óláfr’s acti<strong>on</strong>s as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y could have furnished him<br />
with both <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> gold and prestige required to make<br />
his own bid f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>wegian thr<strong>on</strong>e a few years<br />
later (discussed earlier). It is w<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>th c<strong>on</strong>sidering<br />
whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> English might have encouraged <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
even financed Óláfr’s bid to become king in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
same way <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y may have d<strong>on</strong>e f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> his namesake<br />
some 20 years earlier to create c<strong>on</strong>flict am<strong>on</strong>gst<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir enemies.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
As skaldic verse c<strong>on</strong>tains little Anglo-Sax<strong>on</strong><br />
material, it has been under-used as a source by<br />
some English hist<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ians. One student of Anglo-<br />
Sax<strong>on</strong> material in skaldic verse has observed that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> “inf<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>mati<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> skaldic verses though not<br />
fully c<strong>on</strong>firmed elsewhere, has a general<br />
plausibility that encourages acceptance and adds<br />
to our awareness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> deficiencies of our main<br />
source.” 39<br />
The questi<strong>on</strong> of whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> not <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
took place <strong>on</strong> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong> in 1014 cannot be<br />
proven in so far as it is not described in<br />
c<strong>on</strong>temp<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary English documents, but as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> Archaeologist Spring 2005 331
existence of many of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> events described in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Heimskringla compiled by Sn<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ri can be<br />
c<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated by o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r sources, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is no reas<strong>on</strong><br />
to disbelieve his account of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>Bridge</strong>. It has a very plausible c<strong>on</strong>text within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
turbulent hist<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>y of this period, if Howard’s<br />
revised chr<strong>on</strong>ology is accepted. 40 Certainly <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re<br />
was a bridge standing at this time f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred’s<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ces to <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Dredging and redevelopment<br />
near <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> site of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> medieval bridge has produced<br />
a number of spearheads, battles axes and a<br />
grappling ir<strong>on</strong> of 9th- to 11th-century date, some<br />
of which may be of Scandinavian <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>igin.<br />
However, it has been suggested that some of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
axes may have been lost by carpenters during<br />
bridge c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, not dropped in battle ( Fig.<br />
2). 41 The extent of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> damage inflicted <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
timber bridge may well have been exaggerated as<br />
Ottarr’s life apparently depended <strong>on</strong> Óláfr’s<br />
approval of his compositi<strong>on</strong> (discussed earlier).<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> by ship-b<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ne f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ces <strong>on</strong> a defended<br />
1. C. Brooke assisted by G. Keir L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> 800–1216: <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
shaping of a city (1975) 22.<br />
2. J. Clark ‘L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong> and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> archaeology of a nursery<br />
rhyme’ L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> Archaeol 9 (2002) 338–340.<br />
3. H. R. Loyn The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Viking</str<strong>on</strong>g>s in Britain (1977) 83; R.<br />
Lavelle Ae<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred II King of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> English 978-1016<br />
(2002) 68–70.<br />
4. Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred was King of England from 979 until <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
autumn of 1013, when he was deposed by Swein<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kbeard, who ruled until his death in 1014,<br />
when Æ<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred regained <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> thr<strong>on</strong>e and ruled until<br />
his own death in April 1016.<br />
5. Loyn op cit fn 3, 83.<br />
6. I. Howard Swein F<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kbeard’s Invasi<strong>on</strong>s and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Danish<br />
C<strong>on</strong>quest of England , 991-1017 (2003) 145.<br />
7. Lavelle op cit fn 3, 74–77.<br />
8. Lavelle op cit fn 3, 118–21; D. Whitelock (ed) The<br />
Anglo-Sax<strong>on</strong> Chr<strong>on</strong>icle (1961) 89–90.<br />
9. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> is often wr<strong>on</strong>gly ascribed to 994; Howard<br />
op cit fn 6, 42–43.<br />
10. B. Wats<strong>on</strong>, T. Brigham and T. Dys<strong>on</strong> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong>:<br />
2000 Years of a River Crossing MoLAS<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ograph 8 (2001), 57, 75.<br />
11. P. W<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>mald The Making of English Law: King Alfred<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Twelfth Century Vol 1, (1999) 322.<br />
12. W<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>mald op cit fn 11, 443. Previous research has<br />
dated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> issue of this law code to c. 1000 and<br />
accepted that elements of it date from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> last<br />
years of Cnut’s reign (1016–35), see Wats<strong>on</strong> et al<br />
op cit fn 10, 57.<br />
bridge during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 11th century was clearly a very<br />
bold undertaking, so Óláfr’s success in 1014<br />
could be favourably c<strong>on</strong>trasted with his enemy<br />
Cnut’s failure in 1016.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
Thanks to John Clark of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Early Department of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Museum of L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> his assistance with<br />
aspects of our research, and to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> late Peter<br />
Jacks<strong>on</strong> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> permissi<strong>on</strong> to reproduce Fig. 1. This<br />
image al<strong>on</strong>g with ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r ten of his paintings<br />
appear in B. Wats<strong>on</strong> Old L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong> lost and<br />
found (MoLAS 2004). Fig. 2 is reproduced by<br />
kind permissi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Museum of L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong><br />
picture library. Thanks to NIKU, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>wegian<br />
Institute f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cultural Heritage Research<br />
(www.niku.no) f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> providing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> cover image of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> St Óláfr altar fr<strong>on</strong>tage f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> details see<br />
www.niku.no/olvasfro/english/1_olvas.htm . The<br />
photograph was taken by Birger R. Lindstad.<br />
13. Whitelock fn 8, op cit 91.<br />
14. Howard op cit fn 6, 97-98.<br />
15. Swein was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> illegitimate s<strong>on</strong> of King Harold Blue<br />
Tooth, King of Denmark, ruler of sou<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn<br />
Sweden and overl<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>way. After Harold’s<br />
death in c. 987, he was accepted as king as all<br />
Harold’s legitimate s<strong>on</strong>s were already dead.<br />
16. Whitelock fn 8, (1961) 93.<br />
17. The Witan was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Anglo-Sax<strong>on</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al council;<br />
Whitelock op cit (1961) 93; Lavelle op cit fn 3, 131.<br />
18. J.R. Hagland, ch 14.12 ‘Saxo-N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>man L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong><br />
and Southwark – <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> saga evidence rec<strong>on</strong>sidered’,<br />
in Wats<strong>on</strong> et al, op cit fn 10, 232–3.<br />
19. Howard, op cit fn 6 appendix 1, 147–62, explains <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
serious chr<strong>on</strong>ological discrepancies within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
various hist<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical sources. He argues that Óláfr’s<br />
fifth battle, when he was serving with Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>kell took<br />
place at Friesland, Denmark in 1010 <str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1011. Óláfr<br />
fought his sixth battle at L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong> in 1014. His<br />
seventh battle is cited as Hringmaraheiðr (1015),<br />
identified as Ringmere pit, near Thetf<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>d, N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>folk, a<br />
strategic locati<strong>on</strong> where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was an earlier battle<br />
fought in 1010, see Howard op cit fn 6, 88.<br />
Previously Óláf’s seventh battle was dated to 1010.<br />
Óláfr’s eighth battle was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> capture of Canterbury;<br />
previously equated with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1011 siege of<br />
Canterbury; While <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ninth battle was fought at<br />
Nyjamóð[a], identified as Newemouth near Orf<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>d,<br />
Suffolk (1015-16), see R. Poole, ‘Skaldic verse and<br />
Anglo-Sax<strong>on</strong> hist<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>y: some aspects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> period<br />
1009–1016’, Speculum 62 No 2, (1987) 268–78.<br />
332 L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> Archaeologist Spring 2005
Books<br />
Aspects of Archaeology & Hist<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>y <strong>on</strong> Surrey:<br />
towards a research framew<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>k f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> county<br />
Edited by J<strong>on</strong>athan Cott<strong>on</strong>, Glenys Crocker and<br />
Audrey Graham<br />
Surrey Archaeological Society, 2004<br />
260 pages, 120 photographs and drawings in<br />
colour and in black and white, bibliographies and<br />
index.<br />
£24.70 paperback including p&p.<br />
This book c<strong>on</strong>sists mainly, but not entirely, of papers<br />
given at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>ference Archaeology in Surrey<br />
2001: Towards a Research Agenda f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
21st century. Eighteen chapters deal with aspects<br />
of Surrey’s past from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Palaeolithic to WWII,<br />
Óláfr’ was King of N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>way from c. 1018–30,<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>ally his reign is cited as 15 years (1016–30).<br />
20. Hagland op cit fn 18, 232–3.<br />
21. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>attack</str<strong>on</strong>g> is <strong>on</strong>ly described in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Olaf sagas, plus<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> w<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks of Ottarr <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Black and Sigat þ<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ðars<strong>on</strong>,<br />
see Wats<strong>on</strong> et al, op cit fn 10, 57, 80; Hagland op<br />
cit fn 18, and B. Wats<strong>on</strong> Old L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>Bridge</strong> lost<br />
and found (2004) 22–24.<br />
22. Whitelock op cit fn 8, 93.<br />
23. Howard op cit fn 6, 122, 160.<br />
24. Whitelock op cit fn 8, 95.<br />
25. Whitelock op cit fn 8, 95.<br />
26. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> most of this period Cnut was also King of<br />
Denmark, f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> some of it he was King of N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>way<br />
and in additi<strong>on</strong> ruler of part of Sweden.<br />
27. Howard op cit fn 6, 141.<br />
28. Howard op cit fn 6, 160.<br />
29. M. Carlin and V. Belcher ‘Gazetteer’ in The City of<br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, British Atlas of Hist Towns 3 (1989) 91.<br />
The churches are: St Olave’s Broad Street, Hart<br />
Street, Old Jewry, Silver Street, and St Nicholas<br />
Olave Bread Street in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> City of L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>; plus St<br />
Olave’s Tooley Street, Southwark.<br />
30. O.A. Johnsen and Jón Helgas<strong>on</strong>, Saga Óláfs k<strong>on</strong>ungs<br />
hins helga. Den st<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>e saga om Olav den hellige.<br />
Oslo (N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>sk hist<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>isk kjeldeskrift-institutt) (1941)<br />
689, 706.<br />
31. F. Jónss<strong>on</strong> Den n<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>sk-islandske Skjaldedigtning I. A.<br />
Tekst efter Håndskrifterne, B. Rettet Tekst.<br />
København og Kristiania (Gyldendalske<br />
Boghandlel. N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>disk F<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>lag) (1912).<br />
32. B. Fidjestøl Det n<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>røne fyrstediktet. Øvre Ervik<br />
(Alvheim and Eide) (1982) 123–24.<br />
33. See Hagland op cit (2001) 232–3 f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> details of<br />
primary sources.<br />
and bring <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> reader up to date <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> latest discoveries<br />
and ideas. Since <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> arrival of PPG 16,<br />
archaeological interventi<strong>on</strong>s in Surrey have multiplied<br />
and many new sites, particularly prehist<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ic<br />
<strong>on</strong>es, have come to light. At <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same time, this<br />
increasing knowledge focuses attenti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> what<br />
we still d<strong>on</strong>’t know, which is c<strong>on</strong>siderable, and <strong>on</strong><br />
where fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r w<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>k is needed. L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> readers<br />
may be particularly interested in John Schofield’s<br />
‘What did L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> do f<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> us?’, which examines <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
impact of L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> its hinterland from 1450 to<br />
1700, drawing <strong>on</strong> sources that may not be familiar<br />
to most archaeologists. Also welcome in such<br />
a volume<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>tinued <strong>on</strong> p. 334)<br />
34. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g> an unrest<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed versi<strong>on</strong> of Ottarr’s stanza no 7 in<br />
Heimskringla see Jónss<strong>on</strong> op cit fn 31, A, 291–2.<br />
35. The sec<strong>on</strong>d part of Ottarr’s stanza no 7 is included in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 14th century Codex W<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>mianus manuscript H.<br />
Benediktss<strong>on</strong> The First Grammatical Treatise,<br />
Univ. of Iceland Publicati<strong>on</strong>s in Linguistics No 1.<br />
Reykjavík (1972) 226.<br />
36. Benediktss<strong>on</strong> op cit fn 35, 227 and E. Haugen First<br />
Grammatical Treatise. The Earliest Germanic<br />
Ph<strong>on</strong>ology, sec<strong>on</strong>d, revised editi<strong>on</strong>. (1972) 21.<br />
37. The latter interpretati<strong>on</strong> is less c<strong>on</strong>vincing in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
opini<strong>on</strong> of Ashdown’s translati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> opening<br />
lines of Ottarr’s stanza reads – ‘And fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, O<br />
provers of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> serpent of Ygg’s st<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>ms, valiant in<br />
war, you broke down L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>’s bridge’. M.<br />
Ashdown English and N<str<strong>on</strong>g>or</str<strong>on</strong>g>se Documents Relating<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Reign of E<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>lred <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Unready (1930) 220.<br />
38. The use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> plural ‘bridges’ to refer to a single<br />
bridge is quite comm<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sagas and related<br />
literature.<br />
39. Poole op cit (1987) 298.<br />
40. Howard op cit fn 6, appendix 1, 147-62.<br />
41. R.E.M. Wheeler L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Viking</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> Mus<br />
catalogue 1 (1927) fig 1 18; Wats<strong>on</strong> et al, op cit fn<br />
10, 54. The finds-spot of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> material illustrated<br />
by Wheeler in Fig. 1 is believed to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1921–25<br />
redevelopment of Adelaide House, King William<br />
Street, John Clark (pers comm). MoL accessi<strong>on</strong><br />
numbers: battles axes A23339–A23343 and<br />
A23345–A23346; felling axe A23344; grappling<br />
hook A23347; spears A23348–A23353, t<strong>on</strong>gs<br />
A23506. There also a battle axe A25364 from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
adjoining site of New Fresh Wharf, it was<br />
apparently found during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1937 redevelopment<br />
of this site.<br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> Archaeologist Spring 2005 333