Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities - Division on ...

his or her monitor<strong>in</strong>g (e.g., first collect data at
every other session, then every fourth, then
periodically).
Self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g has been used with a wide
variety of <strong>in</strong>dividuals; however, much of the
research on self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g has been conducted
with typically develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dividuals
<strong>and</strong> those with mild disabilities (Rank<strong>in</strong> &
Reid, 1995). Few published studies have <strong>in</strong>cluded
participants with severe cognitive impairments
or autism. Studies <strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g selfmonitor<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals with moderate to
severe mental retardation <strong>in</strong> school sett<strong>in</strong>gs
have demonstrated improvement <strong>in</strong> (a) social
<strong>in</strong>teractions with general education peers
(Hughes et al., 2002), (b) task completion <strong>in</strong>
both general education classrooms (Hughes
et al.) <strong>and</strong> self-conta<strong>in</strong>ed special education
sett<strong>in</strong>gs (Hughes & Boyle, 1991), (c) on-task
behavior (Hughes & Boyle), (d) general education
“classroom survival skills” (e.g., arriv<strong>in</strong>g
on time, look<strong>in</strong>g at the teacher when spoken
to) (Gilberts, Agran, Hughes, & Wehmeyer,
2001), <strong>and</strong> (e) reduction of echolalia (Dipipi,
Jitendra, & Miller, 2001).
The majority of research <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g use of
self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> self-management with
children with autism has focused on social
skills, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g improvements <strong>in</strong> (a) play behaviors
with typically develop<strong>in</strong>g preschool
peers (Shearer, Kohler, Buchan, & McCullough,
1996; Stra<strong>in</strong>, Kohler, Storey, & Danko,
1994), (b) conversation skills <strong>in</strong> adolescents
(Newman, Buff<strong>in</strong>gton, & Hemmes, 1996), (c)
<strong>in</strong>teractions with peers, <strong>and</strong> (d) shar<strong>in</strong>g (Re<strong>in</strong>ecke,
Newman, & Me<strong>in</strong>berg, 1999). Studies
have also found that self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g can lead
to reductions <strong>in</strong> (a) stereotypic behaviors
(Koegel & Koegel, 1990), (b) echolalia (Manc<strong>in</strong>a,
Tankersley, Kamps, Kravits, & Parrett,
2000), <strong>and</strong> (c) other <strong>in</strong>appropriate behaviors
(Koegel, Koegel, Hurley, & Frea, 1992). Additionally,
a few studies have demonstrated improvement
<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals with autism <strong>and</strong> similar
characteristics <strong>in</strong> academic <strong>and</strong> functional
skills, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g progress <strong>in</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g written
(Newman et al., 1995) <strong>and</strong> picture (Pierce &
Schreibman, 1994) schedules, <strong>and</strong> stay<strong>in</strong>g ontask
(O’Reilly et al., 2002; Tabor, Seltzer, Hefl<strong>in</strong>,
& Alberto, 1999) as a result of teach<strong>in</strong>g
self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g skills.
Given this literature, self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g would
appear to be promis<strong>in</strong>g for improv<strong>in</strong>g a vari-
ety of behaviors <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals with developmental
disabilities. There is a need for extend<strong>in</strong>g
this research to adults <strong>in</strong> vocational
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sett<strong>in</strong>gs. In some vocational sett<strong>in</strong>gs
<strong>in</strong>dividuals might be expected to work <strong>in</strong>dependently
<strong>and</strong> there may be limited staff resources
for supervision (Holloway & Sigafoos,
1999). As a result, self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g may be
needed to assist <strong>in</strong>dividuals with <strong>in</strong>dependent
completion of required vocational tasks. The
present study <strong>in</strong>vestigated effectiveness of a
self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g procedure for <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dependent
vocational work <strong>and</strong> verbal requests
for help <strong>in</strong> two adult men with autism
<strong>and</strong> severe mental retardation.
Method
Participants
The first participant, Alex, was a 20-year-old
Caucasian with a diagnosis of autism. Accord<strong>in</strong>g
to school records, Alex met special education
eligibility under the categories of autism,
mental retardation, <strong>and</strong> speech/language impairment.
In addition, Alex was legally bl<strong>in</strong>d
<strong>and</strong> relied on glasses, large pr<strong>in</strong>t/use of visuals,
<strong>and</strong> close proximity to materials. His physician
had noted “abnormal responses” at 2
months of age, attribut<strong>in</strong>g it to prenatal bra<strong>in</strong>
damage that may have been related to a viral
<strong>in</strong>fection dur<strong>in</strong>g pregnancy. No recent IQ
tests had been adm<strong>in</strong>istered; however, eight
years earlier he was assessed as hav<strong>in</strong>g an IQ of
20. At the time of the study, Alex received an
adaptive behavior age equivalent of 2 years, 6
months on the V<strong>in</strong>el<strong>and</strong> Adaptive Behavior
Scales (VABS; Sparrow, Balla, & Cicchetti,
1985). Relative strengths on the VABS <strong>in</strong>cluded
motor skills (age equivalent, 3-10) <strong>and</strong>
daily liv<strong>in</strong>g skills (age equivalent, 3-1) while
Alex displayed weaknesses <strong>in</strong> communication
(age equivalent, 1-4) <strong>and</strong> socialization (age
equivalent, 1-8). As noted <strong>in</strong> Alex’s school
records <strong>and</strong> observed by the first author, Alex
had no verbal language <strong>and</strong> had limited use of
gestures <strong>and</strong> a communication book with pictures
of wants, needs, <strong>and</strong> emotions. School
records also noted severe aberrant behaviors
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g, tantrums, “stop <strong>and</strong> drop” to the
floor, non-compliance, push<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> pull<strong>in</strong>g
others, <strong>and</strong> bit<strong>in</strong>g his own h<strong>and</strong> so that he
caused tissue damage. Alex was <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong>
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