Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities - Division on ...
Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities - Division on ...
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with<br />
cognitive disabilities/mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, autism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> related disabilities<br />
Volume 40 Number 1 March 2005
March 2005 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 1–96
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The Journal of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children<br />
Editor: Stanley H. Zucker<br />
Ariz<strong>on</strong>a State University<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Editors<br />
Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agran<br />
Reuben Altman<br />
Richard Bartlett<br />
Phillip J. Belfiore<br />
Shar<strong>on</strong> Borthwick-Duffy<br />
Michael P. Brady<br />
Fredda Brown<br />
Mary Lynne Calhoun<br />
Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Dunn<br />
Lise Fox<br />
David L. Gast<br />
Herbert Goldste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Robert Henders<strong>on</strong><br />
Carolyn Hughes<br />
Larry K. Irv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
James V. Kahn<br />
H. Earle Knowlt<strong>on</strong><br />
Barry W. Lavay<br />
Rena Lewis<br />
Kathleen J. Marshall<br />
Editorial Assistant: Amy Barry<br />
Ariz<strong>on</strong>a State University<br />
John McD<strong>on</strong>nell<br />
Gale M. Morris<strong>on</strong><br />
Gabriel A. Nardi<br />
John Nietupski<br />
James R. Patt<strong>on</strong><br />
Edward A. Polloway<br />
Thomas G. Roberts<br />
Robert S. Rueda<br />
Diane L. Ryndak<br />
Edward J. Sabornie<br />
Laurence R. Sargent<br />
Gary M. Sasso<br />
Tom E. C. Smith<br />
Scott Sparks<br />
Fred Spo<strong>on</strong>er<br />
Robert Stodden<br />
Keith Storey<br />
David L. Westl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
John J. Wheeler<br />
Mark Wolery<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> is sent to all members of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> of The Council<br />
for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children. All <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> members must first be members of The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> membership dues<br />
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Manuscripts should be typed, double spaced, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sent (five copies) to the Editor: Stanley H. Zucker, Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Program, Box<br />
872011, Ariz<strong>on</strong>a State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2011. Each manuscript should have a cover sheet that gives the names, affiliati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
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Edit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g policies are based <strong>on</strong> the Publicati<strong>on</strong> Manual, the American Psychological Associati<strong>on</strong>, 2001 revisi<strong>on</strong>. Additi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
provided <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>side back cover. Any signed article is the pers<strong>on</strong>al expressi<strong>on</strong> of the author; likewise, any advertisement is the resp<strong>on</strong>sibility<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> is abstracted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dexed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Psychological Abstracts, PsycINFO, e-psyche, Abstracts<br />
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Social Sciences Citati<strong>on</strong> Index, Adolescent Mental Health Abstracts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>al Adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrati<strong>on</strong> Abstracts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>al Research Abstracts,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Language Behavior Abstracts. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, it is annotated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dexed by the ERIC Clear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ghouse <strong>on</strong> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>icapped <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Gifted Children for publicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the m<strong>on</strong>thly pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex Current Index to Journals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the quarterly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex, Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Child<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Resources.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> Vol. 40, No. 1, March 2005, Copyright 2005 by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children<br />
Board of Directors<br />
Officers<br />
Past President Andrea Babkie<br />
President Barbara Gart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
President-Elect Dagny Fidler<br />
Vice President Phil Parette<br />
Secretary C<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dy Perras<br />
Treasurer Dan Ezell<br />
Members<br />
Joyce Agness<br />
Leslie Broun<br />
Kent Gerlach<br />
Jim Forristal<br />
Jennifer Miller (Student Governor)<br />
Nikki Murdick<br />
Executive Director<br />
Tom E. C. Smith<br />
Publicati<strong>on</strong>s Chair<br />
Jack Hourcade<br />
The purposes of this organizati<strong>on</strong> shall be to advance the educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> welfare of pers<strong>on</strong>s with developmental disabilities, research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> of pers<strong>on</strong>s with developmental disabilities, competency of educators <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this field, public underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of developmental disabilities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legislati<strong>on</strong> needed to help accomplish these goals. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> shall encourage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promote professi<strong>on</strong>al growth, research, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
dissem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> utilizati<strong>on</strong> of research f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES (ISSN 1547-0350) (USPS 0168-5000) is published quarterly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
March, June, September, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> December, by The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1110 North<br />
Glebe Road, Arl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, Virg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ia 22201-5704. Members’ dues to The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
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EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES is available without membership; Individual—U.S. $30.00 per<br />
year; Canada, PUAS, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> all other countries $34.00; Instituti<strong>on</strong>s—U.S. $75.00 per year; Canada, PUAS, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> all other countries $79.50;<br />
s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle copy price is $20.00. U.S. Periodicals postage is paid at Arl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, Virg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ia 22204 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong>al mail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g offices.<br />
POSTMASTERS: Send address changes to EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES, 1110 North Glebe<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Editorial Policy<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> focuses <strong>on</strong> the educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
welfare of pers<strong>on</strong>s with developmental disabilities. ETDD <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vites research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
expository manuscripts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> critical review of the literature. Major emphasis is <strong>on</strong><br />
identificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assessment, educati<strong>on</strong>al programm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, characteristics, tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al pers<strong>on</strong>nel, habilitati<strong>on</strong>, preventi<strong>on</strong>, community underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
provisi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legislati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Each manuscript is evaluated an<strong>on</strong>ymously by three reviewers. Criteria for acceptance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: relevance, reader <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest, quality, applicability,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to the field, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> smoothness of expressi<strong>on</strong>. The review<br />
process requires two to four m<strong>on</strong>ths.<br />
Viewpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts expressed are those of the authors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> do not necessarily c<strong>on</strong>form to<br />
positi<strong>on</strong>s of the editors or of the officers of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Submissi<strong>on</strong> of Manuscripts<br />
1. Manuscript submissi<strong>on</strong> is a representati<strong>on</strong> that the manuscript is the author’s<br />
own work, has not been published, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is not currently under c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
publicati<strong>on</strong> elsewhere.<br />
2. Manuscripts must be prepared accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Publicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Manual of the American Psychological Associati<strong>on</strong> (Fifth Editi<strong>on</strong>, 2001).<br />
St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard typewriter type, laser, or high density dot pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g are acceptable.<br />
3. Each manuscript must have a cover sheet giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the names <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> affiliati<strong>on</strong>s of all<br />
authors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the address of the pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipal author.<br />
4. Graphs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> figures should be orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als or sharp, high quality photographic<br />
pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts suitable, if necessary, for a 50% reducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> size.<br />
5. Five copies of the manuscript al<strong>on</strong>g with a transmittal letter should be sent to the<br />
Editor: Stanley H. Zucker, Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Program, Box 872011, Ariz<strong>on</strong>a<br />
State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2011.<br />
6. Up<strong>on</strong> receipt, each manuscript will be screened by the editor. Appropriate<br />
manuscripts will then be sent to c<strong>on</strong>sult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g editors. Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipal authors will receive<br />
notificati<strong>on</strong> of receipt of manuscript.<br />
7. The Editor reserves the right to make m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>or editorial changes which do not<br />
materially affect the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the text.<br />
8. Manuscripts are the property of ETDD for a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum period of six m<strong>on</strong>ths. All<br />
articles accepted for publicati<strong>on</strong> are copyrighted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the name of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>.
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
VOLUME 40 NUMBER 1 MARCH 2005<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Self-M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Increase Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-Directi<strong>on</strong> Skills of Students with<br />
Moderate to Severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> General <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> 3<br />
MARTIN AGRAN<br />
THOMAS SINCLAIR<br />
SANDRA ALPER<br />
MICHAEL CAVIN<br />
MICHAEL WEHMEYER<br />
CAROLYN HUGHES<br />
Social Integrati<strong>on</strong> of Students with Autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Inclusive Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs 14<br />
E. AMANDA BOUTOT<br />
DIANE P. BRYANT<br />
Self-M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Are Young Adults with MR <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Autism Able to Utilize<br />
Cognitive Strategies Independently? 24<br />
JENNIFER B. GANZ<br />
JEFF SIGAFOOS<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Video Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Teach Cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills to Sec<strong>on</strong>dary Students with<br />
Moderate <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> 34<br />
TARA B. GRAVES<br />
BELVA C. COLLINS<br />
JOHN W. SCHUSTER<br />
HAROLD KLEINERT<br />
Computer-Based Video Instructi<strong>on</strong> to Teach Students with Intellectual<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> to Verbally Resp<strong>on</strong>d to Questi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Make Purchases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fast<br />
Food Restaurants 47<br />
LINDA C. MECHLING<br />
LESLIE S. PRIDGEN<br />
BETH A. CRONIN<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a Pers<strong>on</strong>al Digital Assistant to Enhance the Independence of an<br />
Adolescent with Asperger Syndrome 60<br />
HEATHER FERGUSON<br />
BRENDA SMITH MYLES<br />
TAKU HAGIWARA<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Simultaneous Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Various Discrete Tasks to<br />
Students with Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> 68<br />
BUNYAMIN BIRKAN<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> reta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s literary property rights <strong>on</strong> copyrighted articles. Up to 100<br />
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publisher. All other forms of reproducti<strong>on</strong> require permissi<strong>on</strong> from the publisher.
Improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mealtime Behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Youth with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> 80<br />
RITA L. BAILEY<br />
MAUREEN E. ANGELL<br />
Manuscripts Accepted for Future Publicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2<br />
Manuscripts Accepted for Future Publicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
June 2005<br />
C<strong>on</strong>cepts of work, leisure <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> retirement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> adults with an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disability. Trudy L. Cordes<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Robert W. Howard, School of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052,<br />
AUSTRALIA.<br />
Gaze-shift patterns of young children with developmental disabilities who are at risk for be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
n<strong>on</strong>speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Kelli Arens, Cynthia J. Cress, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Christ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e A. Marv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, University of Nebraska-<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>coln, 202G Barkley Center, L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>coln, NE 68583–0732.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> with video for students with autism: A review of literature. Kev<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Michael Ayres <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> John Lang<strong>on</strong>e, Department of Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, The University of Georgia,<br />
537 Aderhold Hall, Athens, GA 30602–7153.<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay procedure to teach aquatic play skills to children with autism. I˙lker<br />
Yılmaz, Bünyam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Birkan, Ferman K<strong>on</strong>ukman, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mert Erkan, Tez Buro Is Sitesi 17, 5. Blok K1<br />
D2, Ergazi Mh., Batikent-ANKARA 06370, TURKEY.<br />
Evaluati<strong>on</strong> of c<strong>on</strong>textual variability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the predicti<strong>on</strong> of re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcer effectiveness. Olimpia P<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>o <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Carla Dazzi, University of Parma, Department of Psychology, Borgo Carissimi 10, 43100 Parma,<br />
ITALY.<br />
Transiti<strong>on</strong> supports to students with mental retardati<strong>on</strong>: An exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of data from the Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
L<strong>on</strong>gitud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Transiti<strong>on</strong> Study 2. Ant<strong>on</strong>is Katsiyannis, Dalun Zhang, Nancy Woodruff, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> April<br />
Dix<strong>on</strong>, Clems<strong>on</strong> University, School of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, 404-A Tillman Hall, Box 340715, Clems<strong>on</strong>, SC<br />
29634–0715.<br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>ses to communicati<strong>on</strong> breakdowns by n<strong>on</strong>verbal children with developmental disabilities.<br />
Dilek Erbas, Anadolu Universitesi, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> Center for Speech <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Language Disorders, Eskisehir, 26470, TURKEY.<br />
Improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the system of least prompts: A comparis<strong>on</strong> of procedural variati<strong>on</strong>. Elizabeth A. West<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Felix Bill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gsley, Department of Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, Boise State University, 1910 University<br />
Drive, Boise, ID 83725.<br />
Address is supplied for author <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> boldface type.
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Self-M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Increase Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-Directi<strong>on</strong> Skills<br />
of Students with Moderate to Severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> General <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agran<br />
University of Northern Iowa<br />
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ra Alper <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Michael Cav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
University of Northern Iowa<br />
Carolyn Hughes<br />
V<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>erbilt University<br />
Thomas S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clair<br />
Eastern Ill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ois University<br />
Michael Wehmeyer<br />
University of Kansas<br />
Abstract: We used two multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e designs to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigate effects of a self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategy <strong>on</strong> follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gdirecti<strong>on</strong><br />
skills of six middle school students with moderate to severe disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong>. Students<br />
were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed to acknowledge a given directi<strong>on</strong>, complete the task, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>itor their performance. Results<br />
suggest that all students learned the strategy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed their performance at mastery levels for the<br />
durati<strong>on</strong> of the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Social validati<strong>on</strong> data obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed from participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g general <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> special<br />
educators supported these f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Implicati<strong>on</strong>s for promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g student-directed learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive educati<strong>on</strong><br />
are discussed.<br />
The value of promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g student-directed<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general curriculum is receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased attenti<strong>on</strong> (Agran, K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-Sears, Wehmeyer,<br />
& Copel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2003; Hughes et al., 2002;<br />
Wehmeyer, S<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, Knowlt<strong>on</strong>, & Kozleski,<br />
2002). Student-directed learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students to use <strong>on</strong>e or more selfdirected<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al strategies to plan, perform,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>itor a learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g task (Agran,<br />
1997). These strategies occasi<strong>on</strong> a shift from<br />
teacher-directed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> to <strong>on</strong>e that is<br />
more student-directed, thus provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students<br />
opportunities to direct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regulate<br />
their own learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Specifically, the strategies<br />
The study was completed by the sec<strong>on</strong>d author<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his Ed.D. Graduate degree program at the<br />
University of Northern Iowa. The study was supported<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part by U.S. Department of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
grant #H023D9790502-98 awarded to Drs. Agran,<br />
Hughes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Wehmeyer, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> does not necessarily<br />
reflect the op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s of the Office of Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Programs. Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article<br />
should be addressed to Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agran, Department<br />
of Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, 158 SEC, University of<br />
Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, IA 50614-0601. E-mail:<br />
mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>.agran@uni.edu<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005, 40(1), 3–13<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
allow students to regulate their expectati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
about what they can learn <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how much;<br />
make choices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong>s about how they<br />
will learn <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> what sequence; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> execute,<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itor, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluate acti<strong>on</strong>s taken (Mithaug,<br />
Mithaug, Agran, Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, & Wehmeyer, 2002).<br />
By us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these strategies, dependence <strong>on</strong> external<br />
support is m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imized, engagement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
motivati<strong>on</strong> are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is maximized.<br />
Although student-directed learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategies<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to be underutilized (Agran,<br />
Snow, & Swaner, 1999; Wehmeyer, Agran, &<br />
Hughes, 2000), the positive effects of studentdirected<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategies for students with<br />
moderate to severe disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
have begun to be reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
research literature. For example, Gilberts, Agran,<br />
Hughes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Wehmeyer (2001) taught<br />
five middle school students with severe disabilities<br />
to m<strong>on</strong>itor 11 classroom survival skills. All<br />
students were enrolled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a variety of general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tent classes (e.g., Spanish, U.S.<br />
history). Am<strong>on</strong>g the target skills were ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> answer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g questi<strong>on</strong>s, greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teachers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students, br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g appropriate materials<br />
to class, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acknowledg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teacher com-<br />
Self-M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 3
ments. Students were taught to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate <strong>on</strong> a<br />
self-record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sheet if they performed each of<br />
the target skills. Positive changes were reported<br />
for all students. Also Copel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
Hughes, Agran, Wehmeyer, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fowler<br />
(2002) taught four high school students, all of<br />
who were enrolled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cosmetology classes, to<br />
self-regulate their classroom performance.<br />
Specifically, students were taught to set learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
goals for themselves, m<strong>on</strong>itor if they performed<br />
targeted skills (i.e., correctly resp<strong>on</strong>ded<br />
to worksheet assignments), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
evaluate how well they did. Positive f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
were reported for all students, with three of<br />
the four students receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn, higher<br />
report card grades. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, Agran, Blanchard,<br />
Hughes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Wehmeyer (2002) taught<br />
four middle school students with autism spectrum<br />
disorders, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual, or multiple disabilities<br />
to use a self-regulated problem-solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
strategy, which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g goals for<br />
themselves, select<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a procedure to achieve<br />
the goal, implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the strategy, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, last,<br />
evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their progress. Target behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more to class discussi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
not touch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g other students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriately,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s. Dramatic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases<br />
were reported for all participants.<br />
Wats<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tharp (1989) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that<br />
critical to a student’s success <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
task performance is the ability to self-regulate<br />
his or her own performance. Put simply, selfregulati<strong>on</strong><br />
refers to the means <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals use<br />
to adapt to circumstances (Mithaug, 1996).<br />
For a variety or reas<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals self-regulate<br />
to vary<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g degrees of success, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is this<br />
ability that will determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the extent to which<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual will achieve power <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
of their lives (Mithaug, 1993). Because of devalued<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alized percepti<strong>on</strong>s of disability<br />
by society, highlighted by a belief that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with moderate to severe disabilities<br />
are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>capable of regulat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their own behavior<br />
(Wehmeyer et al., 2000), it is not surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
that students with disabilities rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dependent<br />
<strong>on</strong> others to direct their behavior. They<br />
have little experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their own<br />
behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about the<br />
quality of their behavioral performance from<br />
others. Optimal ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> is powered by an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual’s<br />
discernment that a discrepancy exists between<br />
a current state (what he or she has) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a desired <strong>on</strong>e (what he or she wants to have),<br />
4 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is this realizati<strong>on</strong> that fuels behavior<br />
change (Mithaug et al., 2002).<br />
A self-regulati<strong>on</strong> strategy of great utility for<br />
students with severe disabilities is self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves a student’s selfobservati<strong>on</strong><br />
of a target behavior, followed by<br />
record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the occurrence. It can be used to<br />
record the frequency of occurrence of virtually<br />
any discrete behavior (Agran & Wehmeyer,<br />
2002). As l<strong>on</strong>g as the target behavior<br />
can be discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its occurrence can<br />
be recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some manner (e.g., paper <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
pencil tally, wrist counter), self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
represents a strategy easily employed by students<br />
with severe disabilities (Agran, 1997).<br />
A particular value of the strategy is its selfregulatory<br />
role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behavior<br />
change. Baer (1984) suggested that self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
produces behavior change because it<br />
serves as a discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ative stimulus <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cues<br />
desired behavior. Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g allows the<br />
student to discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate the target behavior<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d him or her of the present <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
future c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the envir<strong>on</strong>ment (“if I<br />
perform this resp<strong>on</strong>se, this will happen”) (Agran<br />
& Wehmeyer, 2002). With this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
it is more likely that the behavior will<br />
occur. Most importantly, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease will occur<br />
<strong>on</strong> the basis of what the student, rather<br />
than the teacher, does.<br />
Although self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has been advocated<br />
as a particularly useful <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> potentially<br />
effective self-directed learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategy (Agran,<br />
1997; Hughes et al., 2002), reports of the<br />
effects of this strategy <strong>on</strong> the classroom performance<br />
of students with severe disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
general educati<strong>on</strong> rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> limited. Further, although<br />
educators have acknowledged the<br />
value of self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <strong>on</strong>ly a limited number<br />
of teachers systematically teach their students<br />
how to use the strategy (Agran et al.,<br />
1999; Wehmeyer et al., 2000). Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g other student-directed learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
strategies, provides a potentially effective way<br />
to maximize the participati<strong>on</strong> of students with<br />
severe disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to<br />
enhance their learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> further study of<br />
its effects is warranted. The purpose of this<br />
study was to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigate the effects of self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the participati<strong>on</strong> of six<br />
middle school students with moderate to severe<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs;<br />
specifically, the six students were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed to
m<strong>on</strong>itor their frequency of follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Method<br />
Participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Six students were selected to participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> based <strong>on</strong> the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g criteria:<br />
(1) identificati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sistent with state<br />
guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es (Iowa) as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mental retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the moderate to severe range (Level<br />
III), (2) middle school grade placements of<br />
7 th or 8 th , (3) current <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> classes as a part of their IEP’s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(4) teacher evaluati<strong>on</strong> of need for improvement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
All participants attended a medium-sized<br />
midwestern junior high school serv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g approximately<br />
350 7 th <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 8 th graders. The<br />
school day was divided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to seven 45 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> periods<br />
with a 15 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> homeroom at the end of<br />
the day. Five participants were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
exploratory classes (e.g., <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustrial technology,<br />
art, family c<strong>on</strong>sumer science) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which<br />
many specific directi<strong>on</strong>s were given to complete<br />
an activity; for example, “everybody take<br />
out your plans”, “now measure the width between<br />
your fr<strong>on</strong>t wheels,” or “does it comply<br />
with our st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards?” The sixth was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a social studies class <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the teacher gave<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>s as he moved from <strong>on</strong>e aspect of the<br />
class to the next; for example, “everybody<br />
please take out your notebooks,” or “now<br />
work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pairs, I want you to answer the first<br />
five questi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the worksheet over Chapter<br />
10.”<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g the tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustrial technology<br />
were mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scale draw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, manufactur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
CO2 powered rac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g car, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In art, the students<br />
made pictures with different shapes,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g colors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vary<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g hues. In family<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumer science students prepared different<br />
types of foods (e.g., salads <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> desserts) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sewed at least <strong>on</strong>e item of cloth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or a stuffed<br />
animal or ball. Last, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social studies the students<br />
worked <strong>on</strong> maps of different regi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
worksheets form the textbook, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iprojects<br />
over different cultures.<br />
All participants were male. One student was<br />
African American (WH), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
five students were Caucasian. Ages ranged<br />
from 13 to 15 years. Full-scale WISC-III IQ<br />
scores (Wechsler, 1991) ranged from 30 to 72,<br />
with a mean of 57. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to teacher reports,<br />
all participants were identified as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
restrictive adaptive functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>s. Two were diagnosed with autism,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e was assessed as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Aspergers Syndrome.<br />
Participant characteristics are summarized<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table 1. JB was a 13-year-old adolescent<br />
who was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 7 th grade. He dem<strong>on</strong>strated obsessive/compulsive<br />
behavior (e.g., repeatedly<br />
clean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g off tables) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g assessed for<br />
Asperger’s Syndrome. JB would fixate <strong>on</strong> a<br />
number of tasks, especially when clean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved. For example, when asked to wipe off<br />
a table, he would clean the entire table over<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> over until he was stopped. JB was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a home ec<strong>on</strong>omics class. JB had a peer<br />
assistant walk with him to <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> from class <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
order to make sure he did not w<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er off to<br />
another part of the build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
JT was a 13-year-old male who was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 8 th<br />
grade. He was mechanically <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enjoyed<br />
work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with his h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
together or tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs apart. JT was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustrial technology class. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>s was difficult for JT because<br />
he would not focus <strong>on</strong> the teacher. He was a<br />
popular young man who attended to his<br />
peers. His teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that he had great<br />
difficulty follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
WH was 15-years-old <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 8 th grade. He<br />
had many athletic skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
TABLE 1<br />
Participant Characteristics<br />
Student<br />
Age/<br />
Grade IQ 1 Classificati<strong>on</strong> 2<br />
Level of<br />
Support 3<br />
Group 1:<br />
JB 13/7 th 60 2 Limited<br />
JT 13/8 th 55 2 Limited<br />
WH 15/8 th 72 2 Intermittent<br />
Group 2:<br />
CS 14/8 th 50 3 Extensive<br />
GS 15/8 th 60 3 Extensive<br />
AH 14/8 th 30 3 Pervasive<br />
1 Based <strong>on</strong> WISC–III.<br />
2 Based <strong>on</strong> local district requirements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
their support term<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ology (1 least support, 3 <br />
most support).<br />
3 Based <strong>on</strong> AAMR Classificati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Self-M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 5
several sports. WH was resistant to ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for<br />
or accept<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g help <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> got angry <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> frustrated<br />
when tasks seemed too difficult for him.<br />
WH was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social studies.<br />
CS was 14-years-old <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 8 th grade. He was<br />
a large young man <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> active <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sports. CS did<br />
not follow directi<strong>on</strong>s well s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce he did not<br />
always underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> what directi<strong>on</strong>s were given.<br />
He would not usually ask for clarificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
either do the activity the way he thought it<br />
should be d<strong>on</strong>e or not do it at all. CS was<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustrial technology class.<br />
GS was a 15-year-old 8 th grader. He was<br />
pleasant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> well liked by his teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
peers. GS was diagnosed with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> delayed<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> with<br />
others. GS rushed through th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to get f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ished,<br />
whether or not he followed the directi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed all the steps. As a result,<br />
his work was often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>accurate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>complete.<br />
GS was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustrial technology<br />
class.<br />
AH was a 14-year-old 8 th grader diagnosed<br />
with autism. He was often off task <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> answered<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriately. AH had difficultly<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g any directi<strong>on</strong>s that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
more than a couple of steps. AH was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an art class <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had a full-time associate<br />
who accompanied him to class.<br />
Dependent Variables<br />
The primary dependent measure was amount<br />
of change <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each student’s performance of<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s. Observers recorded daily<br />
the behaviors participants dem<strong>on</strong>strated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s. These behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
acknowledg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the pers<strong>on</strong> giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>, beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the activity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the activity. Performance data were calculated<br />
as the percentage of successfully completed<br />
steps of the task sequence. A m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum<br />
of five opportunities to follow directi<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
recorded with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a given class period.<br />
Prior to selecti<strong>on</strong> of the target behavior,<br />
typical peers were observed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> classes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which participants were<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded. Approximately 10 hours were spent<br />
observ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these students. Students were observed<br />
mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CO2 powered cars, sew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
projects, complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g worksheets <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> small group, develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g complimentary<br />
color charts with pa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t based <strong>on</strong> teacher ad-<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istered directi<strong>on</strong>s, participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> group<br />
activities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g assignments.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> these activities, both general <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
special educators were asked what particular<br />
skills students had difficulty with. All teachers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s was a skill<br />
difficult for several students. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, the<br />
participants were shown a list of skills observed<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g performance of the above activities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> asked to provide their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>put. All students<br />
agreed that they needed more practice<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Data Collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
6 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
Both the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the observer recorded<br />
performance data; these data were based <strong>on</strong><br />
students’ performance of steps <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the task<br />
analyses. Students self-m<strong>on</strong>itored their performance<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the observer recorded<br />
their behaviors as they occurred dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g all<br />
three experimental c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Also, the researcher<br />
computed the agreement between<br />
the observer’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s records of target<br />
behavior performance.<br />
Interobserver agreement. Interobserver agreement<br />
scores were obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed for approximately<br />
50% of the sessi<strong>on</strong>s throughout all experimental<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. An <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent observer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the researcher were resp<strong>on</strong>sible for data collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the assessment across all sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The observer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the researcher scored<br />
each step of the task analysis, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then compared<br />
scores to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e degree of agreement.<br />
A po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t-by-po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t agreement ratio was used<br />
to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e percentage of agreement between<br />
observers. Po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t-by-po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t agreement<br />
was established by divid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g number of agreements<br />
by number of agreements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disagreements<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by 100 (Kazd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1982).<br />
Observer tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. A university research assistant<br />
was hired as the observer across all<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. The researcher served as an observer<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g times of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terobserver agreement.<br />
Observer tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>sisted of two<br />
stages. First, each observer was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
use of Lovitt’s (2000) self-management package.<br />
Instructi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sisted of operati<strong>on</strong>ally def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the target behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the cod<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g system. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, observers roleplayed,<br />
identified, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recorded target behaviors<br />
of follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to key
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al tasks. When the observers<br />
reached an 80% agreement <strong>on</strong> observed behaviors<br />
for three c<strong>on</strong>secutive sessi<strong>on</strong>s, tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
ended <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> observati<strong>on</strong> of participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
general educati<strong>on</strong> classroom began.<br />
Treatment fidelity. To ensure the appropriate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sistent delivery of the self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
strategy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er followed<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al checklist each sessi<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
checklist c<strong>on</strong>sisted of steps the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er used to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>struct the student to follow directi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
m<strong>on</strong>itor their own performance. The checklist<br />
items were used to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e if the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
protocol was c<strong>on</strong>sistently delivered<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each sessi<strong>on</strong>. The observer used the checklist<br />
to m<strong>on</strong>itor approximately 25% of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s to ensure that the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> was c<strong>on</strong>sistent.<br />
Experimental Design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
A multiple-basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e design across subjects was<br />
used to assess effects of an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al program<br />
designed to tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> students to follow directi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the general educati<strong>on</strong> classroom<br />
(Kazd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1982; Tawney & Gast, 1984). Because<br />
of logistical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> schedul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gencies,<br />
two parallel multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e designs were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted, each with three participants. The<br />
experimental c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded: basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance. Each is described<br />
below.<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, the observer<br />
observed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recorded frequency of<br />
occurrence of each target behavior. A m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum<br />
of five directi<strong>on</strong>s was delivered dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
each observati<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>. If the teacher gave<br />
less than three directi<strong>on</strong>s (e.g., <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
when a video was played), the data were not<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded. No re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement or corrective<br />
feedback was provided dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiated after a stable pattern<br />
of resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was observed.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong>. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students<br />
to complete assigned tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<br />
their performance. Students were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed<br />
to make a “” mark <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a box <strong>on</strong> the<br />
self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sheet each time they performed<br />
a step <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the task analysis, or a “” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the box if a step <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the task analysis was not<br />
completed. Students were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed <strong>on</strong> what<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stituted an appropriate resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s. These statements were<br />
pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted <strong>on</strong> the self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sheet to corre-<br />
sp<strong>on</strong>d with steps of the task analysis. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the period preced<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
class, self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> was provided<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g manner.<br />
First, the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er clearly def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the target<br />
behavior of follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s given by their<br />
general educati<strong>on</strong> teacher. Students were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> what c<strong>on</strong>stitutes a directi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
how to discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate between a directi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
other statements. Examples were provided to<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strate a directi<strong>on</strong> (e.g., “Please open<br />
your book to page 20 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> answer the questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
over the chapter”) versus a statement<br />
(e.g., “My note book is miss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g”). The participant<br />
was then asked to generate two examples<br />
of directi<strong>on</strong>s that may occur <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which that<br />
participant participated. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er<br />
expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the purpose of self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced the self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g form<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discussed how the participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g student<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ded to this form. The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er then<br />
showed the participant the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>strument <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
discussed the comp<strong>on</strong>ent resp<strong>on</strong>ses of follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>s. Steps <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded nodd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
head or mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a verbal affirmati<strong>on</strong>, verbally<br />
restat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the directi<strong>on</strong>, perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the directi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the behaviors performed.<br />
Next, the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er dem<strong>on</strong>strated each<br />
step <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-m<strong>on</strong>itored as he followed a directi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er presented both exemplars<br />
(e.g., “beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> to work after the teacher is<br />
d<strong>on</strong>e giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s”) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-exemplars<br />
(e.g., “sitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at your desk <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g around<br />
after the directi<strong>on</strong> is given”) of follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er acted out each step of<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<strong>on</strong>strated the<br />
use of the self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g device after each<br />
step was completed.<br />
Last, role-play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which<br />
the student practic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
while the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er delivered the directi<strong>on</strong>s. The<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er gave a directi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the participant<br />
acted out all resp<strong>on</strong>ses of the target behavior<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-m<strong>on</strong>itored while perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the directi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the task. For example,<br />
the student might be asked to open his book<br />
to a particular page, choose two oppos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g colors,<br />
or write down what a favorite meal. One<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-exemplar was used to assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
between directi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> statements.<br />
For example, “I th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k that is a nice draw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,”<br />
“I like the color red,” or “I’m not very f<strong>on</strong>d of<br />
tacos.” Verbal re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement was delivered to<br />
Self-M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 7
the participants when they dem<strong>on</strong>strated accurate<br />
use of the strategy. Corrective feedback<br />
was provided when a particular step was not<br />
completed correctly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
a correct resp<strong>on</strong>se.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, the observer collected data<br />
<strong>on</strong> the students’ use of self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
frequency of follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> class. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued until<br />
the student dem<strong>on</strong>strated mastery of the target<br />
by ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at least 80% correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
of the target behavior.<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance. After each participant dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
an 80% mastery criteri<strong>on</strong> of selfm<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
directi<strong>on</strong> follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for three c<strong>on</strong>secutive<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s, direct <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was<br />
withdrawn. No further praise or feedback was<br />
delivered but the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued to give<br />
students a self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g card at the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of each class period if they had not<br />
brought the forms to class. Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance data<br />
were collected two times per week by the observer<br />
for <strong>on</strong>e to three m<strong>on</strong>ths follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g withdrawal<br />
of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance depended<br />
up<strong>on</strong> the order <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which students<br />
went through the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Results<br />
Interobserver Agreement<br />
Two agreement measures were calculated.<br />
First, a procedural reliability of 100% was calculated<br />
for the teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure. The<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er followed all steps of the teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all 25 sessi<strong>on</strong>s observed. Sec<strong>on</strong>d,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terobserver agreement scores were obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
for approximately 25% of the sessi<strong>on</strong>s across<br />
all of the experimental c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. A po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t-bypo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<br />
agreement ratio rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 90 to 100%,<br />
with a mean of 95% was reported.<br />
Student Performance<br />
Figure 1 displays performance data across all<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Group 1. Performance<br />
data for students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Group 2 are displayed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Figure 2.<br />
Group 1<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. JB resp<strong>on</strong>ded c<strong>on</strong>sistently at a<br />
low level of performance. JB performed between<br />
7% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 11% of the steps, with a mean<br />
of 9%. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e sessi<strong>on</strong>s, JT correctly<br />
completed between 10% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20% of<br />
the steps for follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s, with a mean<br />
of 13% correctly completed steps. Last, WH<br />
correctly completed between 13% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 25%<br />
for 12 basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e sessi<strong>on</strong>s, with a mean of 23%<br />
correctly completed steps.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong>. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, JB correctly<br />
completed between 33% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 100% of<br />
the steps of the task analysis for follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>s, with a mean of 71% correctly completed<br />
steps. JB reached the criteri<strong>on</strong> level of<br />
80% after the fourth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed that level for three c<strong>on</strong>secutive<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. JT correctly completed between 28%<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 84% of the sessi<strong>on</strong>s. JT performed at a<br />
mean level of 63%. JT reached the criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
level after the fifth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed that level for three c<strong>on</strong>secutive<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Last, WH correctly completed between<br />
60% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 92%, with mean of 77% correctly<br />
completed steps. WH reached the criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
level of 80% after the fourth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed that level for three<br />
c<strong>on</strong>secutive sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance, JB correctly<br />
completed between 96% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 100% of<br />
the steps, with a mean of 99%. Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
data were collected for two <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e-half<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths. JT correctly completed between 72%<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 96% of the steps of the task analysis, with<br />
a mean of 84%. JT was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance for<br />
n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance sessi<strong>on</strong>s over <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ehalf<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths. Last, WH correctly completed<br />
between 88% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 100% of the steps directi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for the five ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance sessi<strong>on</strong>s, over <strong>on</strong>e<br />
m<strong>on</strong>th. WH had a mean of 93% correctly<br />
completed steps.<br />
Group 2<br />
8 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. CS c<strong>on</strong>sistently performed the<br />
target behavior at a low level of frequency. CS<br />
correctly completed between 7% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 14% of<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s resp<strong>on</strong>ses, with a mean of<br />
11% correctly completed steps. GS correctly<br />
completed between 11% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20% of the<br />
steps, with a mean of 14%. Last, AH correctly<br />
completed between 4% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 40% of the steps<br />
with a mean of 15%.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong>. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, CS correctly<br />
completed between 20% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 86% of<br />
the steps, with a mean of 55%. CS reached the
Figure 1. Percentage of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses of JB, JT, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> WH (Group 1).<br />
criteri<strong>on</strong> level of 80% after the fourth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed that level for<br />
three c<strong>on</strong>secutive sessi<strong>on</strong>s. GS correctly completed<br />
between 66% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 100% of the steps for<br />
the five <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s, with a mean of<br />
86% correctly completed steps. GS reached<br />
the criteri<strong>on</strong> level of 80% after the third <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed that level<br />
for three c<strong>on</strong>secutive days. Last, AH correctly<br />
completed between 40% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 86% of the<br />
steps, with a mean of 60% correctly completed<br />
steps. AH reached the criteri<strong>on</strong> level of 80%<br />
Self-M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 9
Figure 2. Percentage of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses for CS, GS, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> AH (Group 2).<br />
after the tenth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
that level for three c<strong>on</strong>secutive sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance, CS<br />
correctly completed between 80% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 96% of<br />
the steps, with a mean of 86% correctly completed<br />
steps. CS ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed that level for two<br />
10 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths. GS correctly completed between 92%<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 100%, of the steps for the n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s over <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e half m<strong>on</strong>ths,<br />
with a mean of 97%. Last, AH correctly completed<br />
between 63% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 77% of the steps,<br />
with a mean of 69% correctly completed. AH<br />
was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance for 1 m<strong>on</strong>th.
Social Validity<br />
Informal feedback from two special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> four general educati<strong>on</strong> teachers<br />
regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their satisfacti<strong>on</strong> of the procedure<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> results was obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. Both special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teachers noted that participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both<br />
groups were more c<strong>on</strong>scientious about their<br />
behavior. One teacher made the comment<br />
that their behavior had improved because students<br />
did not know when they would be observed.<br />
They wanted to do a good job <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all<br />
their classes because of their participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the study. These teachers felt that this was<br />
positive experience for participants. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
they <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that overall ability to follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>s improved both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> special classrooms.<br />
Four general educati<strong>on</strong> teachers commented<br />
that participants seemed to participate<br />
more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed their work<br />
at a more c<strong>on</strong>sistent level than before the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. The teachers were satisfied with<br />
the changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> student behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> completi<strong>on</strong><br />
of work tasks after directi<strong>on</strong>s were followed.<br />
They also noted that as participants<br />
began to m<strong>on</strong>itor their own behavior, they<br />
needed less teacher-directed supervisi<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
art teacher commented that, although AH is<br />
better at follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s, he was still unable<br />
to leave other classmates al<strong>on</strong>e while<br />
work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
These f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs suggest that students with<br />
moderate to severe disabilities successfully employed<br />
self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to promote their participati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong>. With appropriate<br />
supports, there is no questi<strong>on</strong> that<br />
students with moderate to severe disabilities<br />
will benefit <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive educati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> selfm<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
represents a potentially effective<br />
self-directed support (Hughes et al., 2002).<br />
Dramatic changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> performance levels were<br />
observed for all students, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> these changes<br />
were ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed for all participants up to two<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths after the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was withdrawn.<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, the social validati<strong>on</strong> data obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that both special <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> general<br />
educators <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> observed<br />
positive changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the students’ performance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> believed that the strategy enhanced<br />
students’ participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class.<br />
Despite ample illustrati<strong>on</strong>s of the positive<br />
effects of self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (see Agran, 1997;<br />
Wehmeyer, Agran, & Hughes, 1998), there<br />
are relatively few <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s of self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs with students<br />
with moderate to severe disabilities (Gilberts<br />
et al., 2001; Hughes et al., 2002). This<br />
study provides further evidence that students<br />
with moderate to severe disabilities can m<strong>on</strong>itor<br />
their own behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to a lack of empirical studies,<br />
available data also suggest that a limited number<br />
of teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>struct their students <strong>on</strong> how<br />
to use their strategy. Agran et al. (1999) reported<br />
that 35% of the teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their sample<br />
taught their students to self-m<strong>on</strong>itor, with<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly 3% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that they have observed<br />
their students us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this strategy. Wehmeyer<br />
et al. (2000) reported that 50% of the teachers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their sample taught their students to selfm<strong>on</strong>itor,<br />
despite the fact that the majority of<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>dents rated this strategy as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g very<br />
important. The paucity of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong><br />
effects of self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> failure by teachers<br />
to teach these strategies, are surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for<br />
at least two reas<strong>on</strong>s. First, self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is<br />
relatively easy to teach <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
classroom activity (Agran, 1997). It requires<br />
the student to discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate a resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
record its occurrence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some manner. There<br />
are numerous reports that students with severe<br />
disabilities can acquire these comp<strong>on</strong>ent<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses (see Agran, 1998; Wehmeyer et al.,<br />
1998). Sec<strong>on</strong>d, the strategy has great potential<br />
effectiveness across a variety of adaptive skills.<br />
As Baer (1984) noted, self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g may<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> as a discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ative stimulus to cue<br />
desired resp<strong>on</strong>ses. As such, it may also enhance<br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance by<br />
provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the student with a self-directed comm<strong>on</strong><br />
stimulus across sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Last, as a student-directed<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategy, self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
enhances student motivati<strong>on</strong> by<br />
transferr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ownership of data collecti<strong>on</strong> from<br />
teacher to student <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, by do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g so, permits<br />
the student to assess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluate his or her<br />
own performance. As Wehmeyer et al. (2000)<br />
noted, many teachers may not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>struct students<br />
with moderate to severe disabilities to<br />
self-m<strong>on</strong>itor, al<strong>on</strong>g with other student-directed<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategies, because they believe<br />
that such students are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>capable of learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to use such strategies; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> effect,<br />
Self-M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 11
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al time can be better spent learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
more practical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relevant skills. In the<br />
present study, all students across both groups<br />
learned the strategy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> achieved the mastery<br />
criteri<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> from 5 to 11 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(mean 8.3 sessi<strong>on</strong>s). Clearly, the participants<br />
had little difficulty acquir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the strategy to achieve positive outcomes.<br />
This study c<strong>on</strong>tributes to the emerg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g literature<br />
support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>struct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students to<br />
use student-directed learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
general educati<strong>on</strong> classrooms.<br />
A student’s successful access to general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves the performance of a repertoire<br />
of skills. In an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> of the curricular<br />
skills valued most by general <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
special educators for students with severe disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive educati<strong>on</strong>, resp<strong>on</strong>dents<br />
ranked the acquisiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> executi<strong>on</strong><br />
of self-determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> studentdirected<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategies as most important<br />
for successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> (Agran & Alper,<br />
2000). These strategies allow students to, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
effect, support themselves, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> they represent<br />
a critical educati<strong>on</strong>al outcome. There is no<br />
questi<strong>on</strong> that successful performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> requires competency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many<br />
skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g core c<strong>on</strong>tent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tent facilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
or classroom survival skills; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>s represents <strong>on</strong>e of the most<br />
critical skills. Jacks<strong>on</strong>, McCaleb, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Helwick<br />
(2002) discussed the importance of “people<br />
supports” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cauti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
that the over reliance of such supports<br />
may produce undesired dependencies.<br />
Clearly, self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g represents a support<br />
that potentially can serve to promote <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence,<br />
self-reliance, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, ultimately, self-determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Further, Jacks<strong>on</strong> et al. recommend<br />
the value of pers<strong>on</strong>aliz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> supports<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual students. Needless to say,<br />
what better a way to pers<strong>on</strong>alize <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
than to teach students to m<strong>on</strong>itor their own<br />
behavior.<br />
Overall, the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs suggest that all students<br />
acquired <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> successfully employed the<br />
self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a relatively short<br />
period of time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> successfully employed it at<br />
levels dramatically higher than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e.<br />
Nevertheless, there are several limitati<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
this study that warrant serious attenti<strong>on</strong>. First,<br />
although we knew the students self-m<strong>on</strong>itored<br />
their performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teachers<br />
reported that the students self-m<strong>on</strong>itored<br />
12 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
their behavior for the durati<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
we did not calculate accuracy of their<br />
self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In <strong>on</strong>e sense, this is may not<br />
be an important issue s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce there is c<strong>on</strong>siderable<br />
research that suggests self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
produces desired <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reactive effects whether<br />
students accurately or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>accurately m<strong>on</strong>itored<br />
their performance (see Agran, 1997; Wehmeyer<br />
et al., 1998). Nevertheless, it would<br />
have been of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the accuracy<br />
of the students’ records. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, although<br />
participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teachers positively evaluated<br />
the value of teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students to selfm<strong>on</strong>itor<br />
their own behavior, logistical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
temporal c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts prevented collecti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
student social validati<strong>on</strong> data. The fact that<br />
their use of the strategy produced positive<br />
changes for all students represents a desired<br />
outcome, but we do not know what the students’<br />
percepti<strong>on</strong>s were regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their use of<br />
the strategy. Clearly, future research <strong>on</strong> effects<br />
of self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g warrants the collecti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
such data. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, future research<br />
should obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social validati<strong>on</strong> data from typical<br />
peers <strong>on</strong> their op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s about the students’<br />
use of this strategy. Third, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong><br />
failed to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigate the generalized<br />
effects of the students’ use of the strategy. The<br />
fact that students employed the strategy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
different sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs suggest, at least <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part, some<br />
generality, but no systematic efforts were<br />
made to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigate generalized effects across<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-targeted behaviors or sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Such an<br />
exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> is warranted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> future research.<br />
Despite these limitati<strong>on</strong>s, we believe that<br />
the study c<strong>on</strong>tributes to the emerg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g literature<br />
<strong>on</strong> student-directed tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. There are relatively few applicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of self-determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> or student-directed<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategies with students with moderate<br />
to severe disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms,<br />
especially students at the junior high<br />
or middle school level. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of this study<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strate that students with moderate to<br />
severe disabilities can m<strong>on</strong>itor their own behavior<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong> (Agran, 1997; Agran<br />
et al., 2003). It is safe to say that failure to<br />
follow directi<strong>on</strong>s will produce unsatisfactory<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al outcomes for all students. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
of the present study suggested that students<br />
with moderate to severe disabilities<br />
learned to appropriately resp<strong>on</strong>d to their<br />
teachers’ directi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed the tasks<br />
as directed by employ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a self-directed m<strong>on</strong>-
itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure. Use of such strategy will<br />
assuredly enhance learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
for students.<br />
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Cole.<br />
Agran, M. (1998). Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, selfevaluati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
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Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.<br />
Received: 7 August 2003<br />
Initial Acceptance: 3 October 2003<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Acceptance: 15 February 2004<br />
Self-M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 13
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005, 40(1), 14–23<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Social Integrati<strong>on</strong> of Students with Autism<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Inclusive Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
E. Am<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Boutot<br />
University of Nevada, Las Vegas<br />
Diane P. Bryant<br />
University of Texas at Aust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Abstract: Students with autism are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g placed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong> “<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong>” sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs for the<br />
purpose of improved social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong>. This article presents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of ten students<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> elementary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. The purposes were to describe three social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structs<br />
of students with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their acceptance (social preference), visibility (social<br />
impact), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> membership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a peer group (social network affiliati<strong>on</strong>) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to identify the extent to which severity<br />
of autism characteristics c<strong>on</strong>tributed to these social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structs. Results suggest students with autism<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are as accepted, visible, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> members of peer groups, as well as both their peers without<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those with other disabilities. Post hoc observati<strong>on</strong>s revealed further factors that may impact these<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structs as well.<br />
Historically, literature <strong>on</strong> social status of children<br />
suggests that students prefer peers with<br />
whom they have someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comm<strong>on</strong>, who<br />
are more like themselves, have good social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> skills, who are leaders<br />
academically or athletically, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> who do not<br />
exhibit extreme behaviors (Adler, Kless, &<br />
Adler, 1992). Children with low <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidence disabilities<br />
such as autism, which by its very def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves limited social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
skills as well as unusual stereotypical<br />
behaviors, therefore, would be assumed to<br />
have lower status <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fewer friendships. Hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
important, reciprocal relati<strong>on</strong>ships with<br />
peers is key to a child’s social, emoti<strong>on</strong>al, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
even cognitive development (Scheuermann &<br />
Webber, 2002). Children with autism spectrum<br />
disorders, by the very nature of their<br />
disorder, often lack these basic skills (American<br />
Psychiatric Associati<strong>on</strong>, 1994). Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly,<br />
parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>als are look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to provide social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> opportunities for children with autism<br />
that might otherwise be lack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a self-c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Successful social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the general<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should<br />
be addressed to E. Am<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Boutot, University of<br />
Nevada, Las Vegas, Department of Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
4505 Maryl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Parkway, Box 453014, Las Vegas,<br />
NV 89154-3014.<br />
14 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> classroom means be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g visible to<br />
other students (social impact), be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some<strong>on</strong>e<br />
with whom the other students wish to<br />
spend time (social preference), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
member of a group of friends that spend time<br />
together (social network affiliati<strong>on</strong>). Placement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g decisi<strong>on</strong>s for students<br />
with autism can be a difficult task. Often the<br />
academic abilities of these students fall beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<br />
that of their general educati<strong>on</strong> peers,<br />
caus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive placements to focus more <strong>on</strong><br />
social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> benefits than <strong>on</strong> academic<br />
<strong>on</strong>es. A student’s social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> abilities<br />
are often c<strong>on</strong>sidered significant to placement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g decisi<strong>on</strong>s. Compared to<br />
typical students, students with autism often<br />
have significant social skills deficits that may<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfere with their acceptance by others. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, students with autism vary greatly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
terms of severity of autism characteristics that<br />
may prohibit successful social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(Mesibov & Shae, 1996). When decid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
place a student with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms<br />
for the purpose of social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>on</strong>e must c<strong>on</strong>sider the characteristics of the<br />
disability as possible obstacles to success. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to the Diagnostic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Statistical Manual<br />
(4 th Editi<strong>on</strong>) of the American Psychiatric<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> (DSM-IV; 1994), primary characteristics<br />
of autism fall <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to three categories:<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> deficits or delays, stereotypic<br />
behaviors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> limited social relatedness. Sam-
ple characteristics of communicati<strong>on</strong> deficits<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude echolalic speech <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a delay or failure<br />
to develop speech. Stereotypic behavior is<br />
characterized by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sistence <strong>on</strong> sameness, preoccupati<strong>on</strong><br />
with certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> objects or parts of<br />
objects, resistance to change, perseverative<br />
movements such as rock<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> flick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>jurious behaviors such as headbang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Lack of eye c<strong>on</strong>tact <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack of social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emoti<strong>on</strong>al reciprocity are examples of social<br />
relatedness deficits. Each characteristic<br />
symptom of autism <strong>on</strong> its own may not directly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence the social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of a student<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; however,<br />
severity of the characteristics could c<strong>on</strong>tribute<br />
to social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> success. Due to<br />
significant variati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g severity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> types<br />
of autism characteristics, the current study exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
the degree to which severity of each of<br />
the three major diagnostic categories for autism<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced social preference, social impact<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social network affiliati<strong>on</strong> of students<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms. Specifically,<br />
severity of each of the three major diagnostic<br />
areas described <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the DSM-IV: communicati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
social relatedness, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stereotyped<br />
behaviors (American Psychiatric Associati<strong>on</strong>)<br />
were exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed.<br />
Social Preference<br />
Social preference refers to the level of social<br />
acceptance a student has relative to other<br />
members of the classroom (Farmer & Farmer,<br />
1996). In studies of students without disabilities,<br />
Adler et al. (1992) found that students<br />
tend to prefer others who are (a) more like<br />
themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of academic or athletic<br />
ability; (b) more popular; (c) attractive; (d)<br />
c<strong>on</strong>genial; (e) compliant with rules; (f) leaders;<br />
(g) from families with higher socioec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
status; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (h) good athletes or have<br />
good grades. Less popular students are typically<br />
shy, exhibit behavior problems, are n<strong>on</strong>compliant,<br />
are less attractive or are perceived<br />
as “teachers’ pets” (Adler et al.). Differences<br />
exist between males <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> females, as well, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
that males with high academic ability<br />
or low athletic ability are less popular, while<br />
females with high academic ability are more<br />
popular (Adler et al.).<br />
Studies <strong>on</strong> social preference of students<br />
with mild disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms<br />
have found overwhelm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly that students with<br />
disabilities have lower preference than their<br />
typical peers (Coben & Zigm<strong>on</strong>d, 1986; Gottlieb,<br />
Gottlieb, Berkell, & Levy, 1986; Sabornie,<br />
Kauffman, Ellis, Marshall, & Elksn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1987-<br />
1988; Stiliadis & Wiener, 1989). For example,<br />
Sabornie, Marshall, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ellis (1990) found<br />
that students with learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disabilities differed<br />
significantly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social preference from their<br />
peers without disabilities. Thus, students with<br />
mild disabilities were not selected as preferred<br />
classmates. Similarly, Sabornie <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kauffman<br />
(1985) found that high school students with<br />
behavior disorders had significantly lower social<br />
preference than their peers without disabilities<br />
did. One excepti<strong>on</strong> to this f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was<br />
a study by Farmer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Farmer (1996) that<br />
found students with LD <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> BD to be well<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms. Relatively<br />
fewer studies have been d<strong>on</strong>e that look<br />
at more severe or lower <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidence disabilities,<br />
although most noted lower preference for students<br />
with disabilities than those without<br />
(Bender, Wyne, Struck, & Bailey, 1984; Sabornie<br />
& Kauffman, 1987). One excepti<strong>on</strong> was<br />
a study by Piercy, Wilt<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Townsend<br />
(2002), which c<strong>on</strong>cluded that cooperative<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g techniques improved social acceptance<br />
of children with low <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidence, severe<br />
disabilities.<br />
Social Impact<br />
Social impact refers to amount of visibility a<br />
student has <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a classroom, that is, how well a<br />
student is known by his or her peers (Farmer<br />
& Farmer, 1996). Students who score low <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the area of preference are often perceived as<br />
“outcasts,” are “<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>visible,” or that no <strong>on</strong>e<br />
knows their names. However, Farmer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Farmer found that students who may not be<br />
well accepted by their peers (low social preference),<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact, may be well known (high<br />
social impact). Most often the student who<br />
exhibits extreme behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>compliance<br />
will have low preference comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with<br />
high social impact. However, typically students<br />
with low preference scores also receive low<br />
impact scores (Farmer & Farmer).<br />
Social Networks<br />
Hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g very low social preference or impact<br />
scores, however, does not mean that a given<br />
student is without a peer group. Families iden-<br />
Social Integrati<strong>on</strong> / 15
tify hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g friendships as a priority for their<br />
children with low <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidence disabilities<br />
(Hamre-Nietupski, Nietupski, & Strathe,<br />
1992). In additi<strong>on</strong>, students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> classrooms<br />
report that they are will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to form<br />
friendships with students with disabilities who<br />
are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their class (Hendricks<strong>on</strong>, Shokoohi-<br />
Yekta, Hamre-Nietupski, & Gable, 1996).<br />
Thus, development of friendships is of valid<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cern for IEP committees when the committee<br />
is determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g placement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
for a child with a low <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidence disability such<br />
as autism. The term, social network, refers to<br />
the peer group to which a particular student<br />
bel<strong>on</strong>gs (Farmer & Farmer, 1996). Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
social networks describe who associates<br />
with whom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> who is perceived to bel<strong>on</strong>g to<br />
a particular peer group (Farmer & Farmer).<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs from studies of social networks of<br />
students have found that even students with<br />
low social preference or impact had a group<br />
of friends with whom they associated (Farmer,<br />
1994; Pearl et al., 1998). Social network affiliati<strong>on</strong><br />
am<strong>on</strong>g students does not seem to be<br />
related to disability, but rather to characteristics<br />
of each student as well as the classroom as<br />
a whole. For example, Farmer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Farmer<br />
found that students with learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disabilities<br />
tended to form groups together, as did students<br />
with behavior disorders. Moreover, students<br />
with giftedness tended to form peer<br />
groups with others who were gifted, but <strong>on</strong>ly if<br />
they were the same gender (Farmer &<br />
Farmer). Few studies have looked at social<br />
networks of students with disabilities, yet those<br />
that have f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d these students do have significant<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships with peers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
classrooms (Farmer & Farmer; Hall &<br />
McGregor, 2000; Pearl et al.). These studies<br />
suggest that students who may not be well<br />
accepted by many peers may still be members<br />
of social networks. Successful social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong><br />
of students with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
classrooms implies acceptance (i.e., social<br />
preference), visibility (social impact), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
membership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a peer group with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the larger<br />
classroom (social network affiliati<strong>on</strong>).<br />
To help students with autism become more<br />
socially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs,<br />
families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers must have an underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of the social preference, social<br />
impact, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social network affiliati<strong>on</strong> of these<br />
students. Families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g placement<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>s must have a better under-<br />
st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the characteristics that c<strong>on</strong>tribute<br />
to social preference, social impact, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> affiliati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a peer network, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to identify<br />
the best placement for a given student with<br />
autism. Teachers also need to be able to teach<br />
skills or remediate behaviors that may negatively<br />
impact <strong>on</strong> a student’s social preference,<br />
impact or affiliati<strong>on</strong> with a social network. To<br />
that end, the purpose of this study was twofold.<br />
First, to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e if students with autism<br />
differ from their peers without disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of social preference, social impact, or<br />
social network affiliati<strong>on</strong>. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
if there were differences between severity<br />
of autistic characteristics (communicati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
stereotypic behaviors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social relatedness)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social preference, social impact, or social<br />
network affiliati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Method<br />
Participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
Participants were 177 students from n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e classrooms<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> grades two through five. Of this sample,<br />
141 were students without any identified<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 26 were labeled with a disability<br />
other than autism, such as LD, BD, or<br />
ADHD. Ten were students with autism or Pervasive<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> Disorders-Not Otherwise<br />
Specified who had been identified as<br />
such by their pediatrician, neurologist, or a<br />
licensed psychologist <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> services under the autism category.<br />
One student was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> grade two, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> three<br />
each were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> grades three, four, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> five. Two<br />
students were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same third grade classroom,<br />
classroom C. Students with autism<br />
ranged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> age from seven years, seven m<strong>on</strong>ths<br />
to eleven years, two m<strong>on</strong>ths. All were white<br />
males, who spoke English as their native language.<br />
The students with autism were all receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al services <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
classroom for 50% or more of the<br />
school day for at least <strong>on</strong>e academic subject<br />
area <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> attended a public elementary school<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> central Texas. Student demographic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
can be found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table 1.<br />
Procedure<br />
16 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
Prior to data collecti<strong>on</strong>, teachers were asked<br />
to provide demographic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
each student’s full name, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g any
TABLE 1<br />
Demographic Informati<strong>on</strong>, Students with Autism<br />
Student Grade<br />
Age<br />
Diagnosed I.Q. Score/Test<br />
nicknames, gender, race, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> any identified<br />
disability. Each class was given a letter code<br />
(A-I), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> each student with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each classroom<br />
was given a corresp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g number code (example:<br />
A1, A2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so <strong>on</strong>). Photocopied worksheets<br />
were used to collect data for social preference/social<br />
impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social network<br />
affiliati<strong>on</strong>. Worksheets used for social preference<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact c<strong>on</strong>sisted of six questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
about whom the students would most <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
least like to eat lunch, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vite to a birthday<br />
party, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> work <strong>on</strong> a class project. Students<br />
were given “shields” (blue pocket folders) to<br />
use to c<strong>on</strong>ceal their worksheets from others.<br />
The researcher read each questi<strong>on</strong> to the students;<br />
students with autism were provided assistance<br />
to write their answers by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
assistant (if <strong>on</strong>e was assigned to the<br />
student) or by the teacher, if necessary. Because<br />
students were asked to write <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> names of<br />
their classmates <strong>on</strong> the worksheets, a transparency<br />
with the names of each class member was<br />
made available from which students could<br />
copy. This transparency was read aloud before<br />
students were to write anyth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> their worksheets.<br />
Every effort was made to secure the<br />
identity of those whom each student listed <strong>on</strong><br />
their worksheet, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the students<br />
to keep their resp<strong>on</strong>ses to themselves even<br />
after the researcher left <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the students<br />
to ask <strong>on</strong>ly the researcher for help dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
data collecti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Amount of Time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> General<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Support <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> General <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
A 4 3,5 95/TONI a<br />
5 hours One-to-<strong>on</strong>e Paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
B 2 2 Unable to Test 7 hours One-to-<strong>on</strong>e Paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
C 5 4 86/KABC b<br />
7 hours N<strong>on</strong>e<br />
D 5 3 93/KABC 6.5 hours, pull out as needed N<strong>on</strong>e<br />
E 4 2 61/KABC 6 hours Paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class as needed<br />
F 4 3 79/KABC 6.5 hours N<strong>on</strong>e<br />
G 3 Unknown Unknown 7 hours, pull out as needed One-to-<strong>on</strong>e Paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
H 3 5 79/WISC-III c<br />
7 hours Paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class as needed<br />
I 3 4 91/KABC 7 hours Paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class as needed<br />
J 5 7 108/KABC 7 hours N<strong>on</strong>e<br />
a TONI, Test of N<strong>on</strong>verbal Intelligence (Brown, Sherbenou, & Johns<strong>on</strong>, 1990).<br />
b KABC, Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (Kaufman & Kaufman, 1983).<br />
c WISC-III, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III (Wechsler, 1991).<br />
Measures<br />
The peer nom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> procedure described <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the Behavior Rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Profile (BRP) (Brown &<br />
Hammill, 1990) was used to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e social<br />
preference <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social impact for all students,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those with autism. The BRP sociogram<br />
is a rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which students<br />
nom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate three classmates with whom they<br />
would most like to do someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> three<br />
classmates with whom they would least like to<br />
do someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Although examples of questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
are given <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the test manual, the researcher<br />
is encouraged to develop his or her<br />
own questi<strong>on</strong>s relative to the research questi<strong>on</strong><br />
under <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> (Brown & Hammill).<br />
To determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e social network affiliati<strong>on</strong>, students<br />
were each given a piece of typ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g paper<br />
with five circles labeled Groups A through E<br />
<strong>on</strong> it. The researcher asked this questi<strong>on</strong> of all<br />
students: “Are there some kids <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this room<br />
who hang around together a lot?” The researcher<br />
clarified this questi<strong>on</strong> by ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: “For<br />
example, are there some students who seem<br />
to always eat together, play together at recess,<br />
or work together when given a choice of work<br />
partners?” Students were told to list as many<br />
groups of students, up to five, as they could<br />
th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to list the name of each pers<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a given group with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the provided circles.<br />
Students were asked to assign each pers<strong>on</strong> to<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e group; if a pers<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the room<br />
seemed to hang out with more than <strong>on</strong>e<br />
Social Integrati<strong>on</strong> / 17
group, he or she was to be placed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the group<br />
with which he or she spent the most time.<br />
Students were told that they should <strong>on</strong>ly name<br />
as many groups as they could th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
that it was okay to <strong>on</strong>ly have <strong>on</strong>e or two. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, students were told that they should<br />
name all members of each group, but that<br />
they did not have to use the names of all<br />
people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their class. Students were told that if<br />
there were some people that did not seem to<br />
bel<strong>on</strong>g to any particular group, they should<br />
place those names outside the circles. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally,<br />
students were asked to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the group with which they associated most of<br />
the time. Students were asked to list their<br />
group first <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to denote themselves with the<br />
word “me.”<br />
The Gilliam Autism Rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Scale (GARS;<br />
Gilliam, 1995) was used to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e a severity<br />
of autism characteristics quotient of each<br />
student with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each of the three ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
characteristic categories: communicati<strong>on</strong>, social<br />
relatedness, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stereotypic behavior.<br />
Quotients were dichotomized as either mild to<br />
moderate or moderate to severe.<br />
Data Analyses<br />
To determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e social preference, the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
steps were taken: (1) students nom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated<br />
peers with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom whom they would<br />
most <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> least like to play with at recess, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vite<br />
to a birthday party, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> work with <strong>on</strong> a class<br />
assignment; (2) total positive nom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> total negative nom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s for each student<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the class were determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed; (3) negative<br />
scores were subtracted from positives to<br />
determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e each student’s overall social preference<br />
score; (4) scores were rank-ordered from<br />
highest to lowest; (5) data were dichotomized,<br />
based <strong>on</strong> a median score derived from the<br />
rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (6) students listed above the median<br />
score were c<strong>on</strong>sidered to have high social<br />
preference, while those below the median<br />
score were c<strong>on</strong>sidered to have low preference.<br />
To determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e social impact, the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
steps were taken: (1) students nom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated<br />
peers with whom they would most <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> least<br />
like to do three activities; (2) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead of subtract<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the negative nom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s from the<br />
positive nom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s, the two were added to<br />
determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e total number of times a student was<br />
nom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated, regardless of whether the nom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were positive or negative; (3) students<br />
were then placed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to rank order from most<br />
to least number of times nom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated; (4) data<br />
were dichotomized, based <strong>on</strong> a median score<br />
derived from the rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (5) aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
those whose score fell above the median were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered to have high social preference,<br />
while those with a score below the median<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>sidered to have low preference.<br />
Social network affiliati<strong>on</strong> was determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a procedure described by Farmer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Farmer (1996), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
steps: (1) students were asked to list students<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the class who “hang around together a<br />
lot”; (2) from these lists, the number of times<br />
students were named to any group was determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a social network recall matrix;<br />
(3) the number of times students were named<br />
together to a group was determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
social network co-occurrence matrix; (4) us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a social network correlati<strong>on</strong> matrix , students<br />
who were named together as a group<br />
50% or more of the number of times they<br />
were named to any group were determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed to<br />
bel<strong>on</strong>g to a group together; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (5) students<br />
were then dichotomized as affiliated or not<br />
affiliated. Tables 2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3 present the preference,<br />
impact, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> affiliati<strong>on</strong> data by GARS<br />
scores <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> by participant disability, respectively.<br />
A2 2 c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gency design was used. Independent<br />
variables were type of disability (autism<br />
or no disability) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> severity of autism<br />
characteristics. Dependent variables <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
social preference, social impact, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social<br />
network affiliati<strong>on</strong>. Fisher’s Exact Test was<br />
used as an alternative to the Pears<strong>on</strong> Chi<br />
Square procedure, because all of the assumpti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of Chi Square could not be made. Significance<br />
was set at the .05 level.<br />
Results<br />
18 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
Results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated no differences between students<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students without disabilities<br />
<strong>on</strong> the social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>structs:<br />
social preference, social impact, or social network<br />
affiliati<strong>on</strong>, (Fisher’s Exact Test .7512,<br />
p .05; .5281, p .05; .3856, p .05, respectively).<br />
Similarly, results were no significant<br />
difference between autism characteristics for<br />
students with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>structs: social preference (Fisher’s Exact<br />
Test 1.0, p .05; 1.0, p .05; 1.0, p <br />
.05), social impact (Fisher’s Exact Test 1.0,
TABLE 2<br />
Levels of Social Preference, Impact, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Network Affiliati<strong>on</strong> for Students with Autism by GARS Scores<br />
Average-High<br />
Preference<br />
Low-Average<br />
Preference<br />
p .05; 1.0, p .05; .20, p .05), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social<br />
network affiliati<strong>on</strong> (Fisher’s Exact .30, p <br />
.05; 1.0, p .05; .183, p .05).<br />
Studies have suggested that student social<br />
preference, impact, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> network affiliati<strong>on</strong><br />
differ accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to disability type (Bender et<br />
al., 1984). Therefore, a Fisher’s Exact Test was<br />
run post hoc to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e if there was a difference<br />
between students with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students<br />
with other disabilities (i.e., LD, BD, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ADHD) <strong>on</strong> each the social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structs.<br />
No differences were found, suggest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
that the type of disability did not impact <strong>on</strong><br />
the social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structs: social preference<br />
(Fisher’s Exact Test .0598, p .05),<br />
social impact (Fisher’s Exact Test .4593, p <br />
Average-High<br />
Impact<br />
.05), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social network affiliati<strong>on</strong> (Fisher’s<br />
Exact Test .5142, p .05).<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Low-Average<br />
Impact<br />
Affiliated<br />
with a<br />
Network<br />
Not<br />
Affiliated<br />
with a<br />
Network N<br />
Mild-Moderate GARS<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Scores 3 3 4 2 4 2 6<br />
Moderate-Severe GARS<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Scores 2 2 2 2 3 1 4<br />
Mild-Moderate GARS<br />
Behavior Scores 5 4 5 4 7 2 9<br />
Moderate-Severe GARS<br />
Behavior Scores 0 1 1 0 0 1 2<br />
Mild-Moderate GARS<br />
Social Scores 3 4 3 4 6 1 7<br />
Moderate-Severe GARS<br />
Social Scores 2 1 3 0 1 2 3<br />
TABLE 3<br />
Levels of Social Preference, Impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Network Affiliati<strong>on</strong> for Participants<br />
Average-High<br />
Preference<br />
Low-Average<br />
Preference<br />
The purpose of this study was two-fold. First,<br />
to identify whether students with autism differed<br />
from their peers without disabilities <strong>on</strong><br />
three social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structs. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, to<br />
determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e if there were differences between<br />
severity of autistic characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social<br />
preference, social impact, or social network<br />
affiliati<strong>on</strong> of the students with autism. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
an analysis was c<strong>on</strong>ducted to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
whether there was a difference between<br />
students with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their peers with<br />
Average-High<br />
Impact<br />
Low-Average<br />
Impact<br />
Affiliated<br />
with a<br />
Network<br />
Not<br />
Affiliated<br />
with a<br />
Network N<br />
Students with Autism 50% 50% 60% 40% 70% 30% 10<br />
Students with Other<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> 69% 31% 38% 62% 81% 19% 26<br />
Students without<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> 44% 56% 48% 52% 83% 17% 141<br />
Social Integrati<strong>on</strong> / 19
other disabilities <strong>on</strong> each of the three social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structs.<br />
The social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>structs exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study were: social preference (acceptance<br />
or popularity), social impact (visibility),<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social network affiliati<strong>on</strong> (membership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a peer group). Scores of students with autism<br />
<strong>on</strong> each of these three c<strong>on</strong>structs were analyzed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of differences from students<br />
without disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classes.<br />
Social Preference<br />
It appears that students with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
classrooms are as likely as their peers to be<br />
chosen for an activity such as play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at recess,<br />
attend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a birthday party, or work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> a<br />
class project. Although this is c<strong>on</strong>trary to a<br />
large body of research suggest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that students<br />
with disabilities are more likely to have<br />
low social preference scores than their peers<br />
without disabilities (Sabornie et al., 1990; Sabornie<br />
& Kauffman, 1985, 1987; Sabornie et al.,<br />
1987-1988; St<strong>on</strong>e & La Greca, 1990), <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
must be made with cauti<strong>on</strong>. The small<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relatively uniform sample size makes generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
of f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to students of differ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
age, gender, regi<strong>on</strong>, or race limited. However,<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs do suggest that future research is<br />
needed to further determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the nature of<br />
social preference for children with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
Social Impact<br />
In terms of social impact, students with autism<br />
were neither more nor less visible than their<br />
peers without disabilities. This may suggest<br />
that students with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms<br />
have the same amount of visibility as<br />
their peers without disabilities. These f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
are similar to those of previous researchers<br />
(Farmer, 1994; Farmer & Farmer, 1996).<br />
Social Network Affiliati<strong>on</strong><br />
No differences were found between students<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students without disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of social network affiliati<strong>on</strong>. That is,<br />
students with autism were c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be<br />
members of a very def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ite group, as often as<br />
students without disabilities. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
supports the prevail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g belief am<strong>on</strong>g some<br />
advocates of full <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> will<br />
assist students with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a circle<br />
of friends (Sta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>back & Sta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>back, 1992).<br />
It should aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> be noted that the limited sample<br />
size <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study requires <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalizati<strong>on</strong> with cauti<strong>on</strong>. However, results<br />
were not as expected, as previous studies<br />
<strong>on</strong> social network affiliati<strong>on</strong> seemed to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate<br />
that the likelihood of social networks for<br />
these students was limited. Thus, further studies<br />
are needed to gather more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
the accuracy of this phenomen<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The sec<strong>on</strong>d purpose of the study was to<br />
identify whether severity of autism characteristics<br />
(communicati<strong>on</strong>, stereotypic behavior,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social relatedness) impacted social preference,<br />
social impact, or social network affiliati<strong>on</strong><br />
of these students. N<strong>on</strong>e of the autism<br />
symptoms had an effect <strong>on</strong> the social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>structs. Based <strong>on</strong> these f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, it<br />
appears that no particular symptom of autism<br />
outweighs the other with regard to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence<br />
<strong>on</strong> social preference, social impact, or social<br />
network affiliati<strong>on</strong>. This is surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> light<br />
of previous work suggest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate<br />
or odd behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> limited social skills<br />
negatively impact social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> (Asher &<br />
Coie, 1990).<br />
Post Hoc Statistics<br />
Previous studies have found differences between<br />
disability type <strong>on</strong> social preference <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
social impact (Bender et al., 1984; Sabornie &<br />
Kauffman, 1985, 1986, 1987; Sabornie et al.,<br />
1987-88), an area at first not exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
current study. However, no significant differences<br />
between groups were found, suggest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
that all students, regardless of disability or<br />
disability type, were as well accepted (social<br />
preference), as visible (social impact), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as<br />
likely to be a member of a peer group (social<br />
network affiliati<strong>on</strong>). This is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trast to the<br />
previous studies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> warrants further study.<br />
Observati<strong>on</strong>al F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
20 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to runn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g statistics post hoc for<br />
enrich<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, the researcher made some<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g observati<strong>on</strong>s from the raw data.<br />
First, from a descriptive st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
social preference <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact, students with<br />
autism received positive votes by their peers<br />
when it came to play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at recess or be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vited to a birthday party. Exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of the
esp<strong>on</strong>ses given by students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e classrooms<br />
showed, however, few of the positive<br />
votes given to the student with autism were for<br />
work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> a class project. Students appeared<br />
to prefer their peer with autism as a playmate<br />
rather than as a partner <strong>on</strong> work related tasks.<br />
Future researchers may wish to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e this<br />
variable specifically to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e if this is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fact a typical resp<strong>on</strong>se of the general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
peers to their classmate with autism.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e of the classrooms, the student<br />
with autism was elected as fourth grade<br />
“class president.” Not surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly, this student<br />
also had high social preference <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social impact<br />
scores. What is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, however, is<br />
that this student with autism was not a part of<br />
a particular social network. In previous studies,<br />
students who had high social preference<br />
(particularly students who were c<strong>on</strong>sidered to<br />
be am<strong>on</strong>g the most popular am<strong>on</strong>g their<br />
peers) tended to be affiliated with a very dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct<br />
social group, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g other “popular”<br />
students (Farmer & Farmer, 1996). An <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> possibly c<strong>on</strong>tribut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g factor to this<br />
student’s high preference <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> visibility, was<br />
that other students from his classroom had<br />
participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong> early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
school year regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g autism, its characteristics,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ways to accommodate the student<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their class. This tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was<br />
d<strong>on</strong>e prior to the student with autism jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the class, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> without him present. It was led<br />
by an outside c<strong>on</strong>sultant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism. Other researchers<br />
have noted that peer tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g can<br />
help support social acceptance of a student<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g supports this (Garris<strong>on</strong>-Harrell, Kamps,<br />
& Kravits, 1997).<br />
Another group of students had participated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a similar tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong> early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the school<br />
year, led by the mother of the student with<br />
autism. In this classroom, the student with<br />
autism was pr<strong>on</strong>e to more aggressive acts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
to tantrums that required his frequent removal<br />
from class. These are behaviors that<br />
might typically lead to low social preference<br />
(popularity), but high social impact (visibility).<br />
Despite this, the student had high social<br />
preference as well as high social impact scores.<br />
This leads to the possibility that the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
that students underwent early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the year may<br />
have impacted their percepti<strong>on</strong>s of their peer<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class, perhaps mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them<br />
more accept<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his<br />
problem behaviors. It is unclear whether hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
his mother lead the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g had an impact.<br />
Another <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g observati<strong>on</strong> is that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>on</strong>e classroom, the student with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
his <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al assistant were named <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
group together by <strong>on</strong>e of the members of the<br />
class. This leads to an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g questi<strong>on</strong>:<br />
how do the other students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom<br />
where a full time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al assistant is<br />
present view the student with disabilities? The<br />
student <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this classroom apparently viewed<br />
the student with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
assistant as a “group,” by the st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards set by<br />
the researcher (people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this class who “hang<br />
around together a lot”). It should be noted<br />
that this child with autism was not found to be<br />
part of a social network, nor did he have high<br />
social preference scores. How much hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
<strong>on</strong>e-<strong>on</strong>-<strong>on</strong>e assistant affected these results cannot<br />
be answered, but future research may provide<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which two students<br />
with autism were both placed, these two<br />
students were named to a group together by<br />
all other members of the class; no <strong>on</strong>e else was<br />
ever named to their group. In another classroom<br />
the student with autism was named to a<br />
group c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>ly those students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
classroom with other disabilities who were not<br />
isolates. This is c<strong>on</strong>sistent with f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs by<br />
Farmer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Farmer (1996) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Shrum,<br />
Cheek, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hunter (1988), where students<br />
with similar traits tended to spend most of<br />
their time together, as well as with f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of<br />
Diserio <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Serafica (1986) that students with<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms tended to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with each other more often than with<br />
peers without disabilities. It is aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> unclear<br />
whether or not these students were perceived<br />
as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a group solely <strong>on</strong> the basis of their<br />
disabilities or because they actually did spend<br />
a great deal of time together. Further studies<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude classroom observati<strong>on</strong>s may yield<br />
more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Limitati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for Future<br />
Research<br />
Researchers who are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terested <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of students with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are at <strong>on</strong>ce cauti<strong>on</strong>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
generaliz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these results <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> encouraged to<br />
pursue further study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the possible social<br />
Social Integrati<strong>on</strong> / 21
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> benefits of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> for students<br />
with autism. Several issues are raised <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this<br />
study, which may guide future researchers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
this area. One limitati<strong>on</strong> of this study is the<br />
small sample size <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> limited variati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
the students with autism who participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the study. Future studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a larger<br />
number of students with autism might yield<br />
more statistically significant results. Also, students<br />
with autism from an ethnic group other<br />
than Anglo as well as who are female need to<br />
be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> future studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order for<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to be more generalizeable.<br />
Future researchers would be wise also to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sider several other potential factors that<br />
may c<strong>on</strong>tribute to social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong>. This<br />
study exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the severity of autism characteristics.<br />
However, particularly because these<br />
did not produce a significant difference, other<br />
factors may c<strong>on</strong>tribute to social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> need to be exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. For example, a<br />
variety of studies have found that specific<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a class can aid<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of a student with autism<br />
(Brady, Shores, McEvoy, Ellis, & Fox,<br />
1987; Mundschenk & Sasso, 1995), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> often<br />
leads to greater acceptance of this student by<br />
the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed peers (Garris<strong>on</strong>-Harrell et al.,<br />
1997). Future research should <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigate the<br />
role peer tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g plays <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the acceptance of<br />
students with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms.<br />
Also, the role that paraeducators play<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms has been subject of<br />
recent research. One study found that proximity<br />
of the paraeducator to the student with<br />
the disability can c<strong>on</strong>tribute to separati<strong>on</strong><br />
from classmates, dependence <strong>on</strong> adults, loss<br />
of gender identity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can create a social<br />
barrier aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st peer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s (Giangreco,<br />
Luiselli, & MacFarl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1997). In a similar<br />
study, researchers found that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al assistants<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered themselves primarily resp<strong>on</strong>sible<br />
for so much of the educati<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
student with a disability that it necessitated<br />
their be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stant close proximity to the<br />
student (Marks, Schrader, & Lev<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, 1999).<br />
These studies highlight the need for future<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the role of paraeducators,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the possible factor of proximity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
acceptance of students with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
classrooms. Also, such factors as<br />
amount of time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong>, philosophy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of teachers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> demographic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
such as gender, race <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> age may<br />
22 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribute to social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of students<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> should be<br />
targeted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> future studies. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, future researchers<br />
should <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigate students with<br />
more varied <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> severe autism characteristics.<br />
Further research is needed to both dispel<br />
the myth that students with low <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidence disabilities<br />
cannot be successfully <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated socially<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to identify<br />
those factors that will make their<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> more successful.<br />
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Received: 7 August 2003<br />
Initial Acceptance: 2 October 2003<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Acceptance: 18 February 2004<br />
Social Integrati<strong>on</strong> / 23
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005, 40(1), 24–33<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Are Young Adults with MR <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Autism able<br />
to Utilize Cognitive Strategies Independently?<br />
Jennifer B. Ganz<br />
University of Texas at San Ant<strong>on</strong>io<br />
Jeff Sigafoos<br />
University of Texas at Aust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Abstract: Effectiveness of a self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure was evaluated for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g work task completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
verbal request<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> two young adult men with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> severe mental retardati<strong>on</strong>. The study was c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a vocati<strong>on</strong>al tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program at times when the men were expected to complete vocati<strong>on</strong>al tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently.<br />
A chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g criteri<strong>on</strong> design was used to evaluate the procedure <strong>on</strong> number of required tasks completed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of verbal requests. When the self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure was applied to task completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> verbal<br />
requests for help, performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased systematically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e with the chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g criteria design for each<br />
participant. Results suggest that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> severe mental retardati<strong>on</strong> can be taught to use<br />
a self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent task completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> verbal request<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a vocati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program.<br />
Self-management, or management of <strong>on</strong>e’s<br />
own behavior, is c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be a “pivotal<br />
behavior,” a technique that potentially will<br />
have a widespread impact <strong>on</strong> areas of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with autism spectrum<br />
disorders (ASD) (Koegel, Koegel, & McNerney,<br />
2001). Koegel, Koegel, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Carter (1999)<br />
suggest that when <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with autism are<br />
taught to self-manage, they may generalize<br />
that skill to a variety of sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors,<br />
requir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fewer resources, such as educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
practiti<strong>on</strong>ers, to m<strong>on</strong>itor them. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is a positive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> that<br />
is “teacher-friendly.” That is, the process of<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals to self-m<strong>on</strong>itor is reward<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals, requires little tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
for practiti<strong>on</strong>ers, requires few materials that<br />
are not already available <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <strong>on</strong>ly a small amount of the teacher’s<br />
time <strong>on</strong>ce the student ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence.<br />
Thus, self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g may be useful for promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
greater <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with ASD.<br />
Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is a cognitive-behavioral<br />
strategy that falls under the umbrella of selfmanagement.<br />
It is a method of chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should<br />
be addressed to Jennifer Ganz, DISCI, COEHD,<br />
University of Texas at San Ant<strong>on</strong>io, 6900 N Loop<br />
1604 W, San Ant<strong>on</strong>io, TX 78249.<br />
24 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
some<strong>on</strong>e’s th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or private verbal behavior<br />
to impact his or her overt behavior (Rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> &<br />
Reid, 1995). This strategy is designed to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
or decrease an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual’s behavior by<br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that pers<strong>on</strong> become cognizant of his or<br />
her own behavior, then observe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> record<br />
that behavior (Maag, 2004). Students who selfm<strong>on</strong>itor<br />
may then learn to assess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> change<br />
their performances <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reward themselves<br />
when they meet preset criteria. Rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Reid del<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>eated the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g steps for implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
self m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> school<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
First, choose the behavior you wish to impact.<br />
This must be a specific <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> measurable<br />
behavior (e.g., ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for a food item at lunch<br />
by first say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, “please”). Sec<strong>on</strong>d, basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data<br />
must be collected to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual’s<br />
current rate of performance. Third, motivate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach the student to use the selfm<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
system. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
the student the value of us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the system (e.g.,<br />
gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to class <strong>on</strong> time leads to more free<br />
time at the end of class). Fourth, teach the<br />
student to use the system (e.g., mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tally<br />
marks, receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tokens) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice. If the system is effective, the<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al step is to fade teacher m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Initially,<br />
the student <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher will take data at<br />
the same time, then compare <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reflect <strong>on</strong><br />
each sessi<strong>on</strong>’s data. The teacher will then fade
his or her m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (e.g., first collect data at<br />
every other sessi<strong>on</strong>, then every fourth, then<br />
periodically).<br />
Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has been used with a wide<br />
variety of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals; however, much of the<br />
research <strong>on</strong> self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has been c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
with typically develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those with mild disabilities (Rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> &<br />
Reid, 1995). Few published studies have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
participants with severe cognitive impairments<br />
or autism. Studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g selfm<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with moderate to<br />
severe mental retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
have dem<strong>on</strong>strated improvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (a) social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s with general educati<strong>on</strong> peers<br />
(Hughes et al., 2002), (b) task completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
both general educati<strong>on</strong> classrooms (Hughes<br />
et al.) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (Hughes & Boyle, 1991), (c) <strong>on</strong>-task<br />
behavior (Hughes & Boyle), (d) general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
“classroom survival skills” (e.g., arriv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>on</strong> time, look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the teacher when spoken<br />
to) (Gilberts, Agran, Hughes, & Wehmeyer,<br />
2001), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (e) reducti<strong>on</strong> of echolalia (Dipipi,<br />
Jitendra, & Miller, 2001).<br />
The majority of research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g use of<br />
self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-management with<br />
children with autism has focused <strong>on</strong> social<br />
skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g improvements <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (a) play behaviors<br />
with typically develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g preschool<br />
peers (Shearer, Kohler, Buchan, & McCullough,<br />
1996; Stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Kohler, Storey, & Danko,<br />
1994), (b) c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> adolescents<br />
(Newman, Buff<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, & Hemmes, 1996), (c)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s with peers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (d) shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ecke,<br />
Newman, & Me<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>berg, 1999). Studies<br />
have also found that self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g can lead<br />
to reducti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (a) stereotypic behaviors<br />
(Koegel & Koegel, 1990), (b) echolalia (Manc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a,<br />
Tankersley, Kamps, Kravits, & Parrett,<br />
2000), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate behaviors<br />
(Koegel, Koegel, Hurley, & Frea, 1992). Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
a few studies have dem<strong>on</strong>strated improvement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> similar<br />
characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> academic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g written<br />
(Newman et al., 1995) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture (Pierce &<br />
Schreibman, 1994) schedules, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>task<br />
(O’Reilly et al., 2002; Tabor, Seltzer, Hefl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
& Alberto, 1999) as a result of teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills.<br />
Given this literature, self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g would<br />
appear to be promis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a vari-<br />
ety of behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with developmental<br />
disabilities. There is a need for extend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
this research to adults <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. In some vocati<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals might be expected to work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> there may be limited staff resources<br />
for supervisi<strong>on</strong> (Holloway & Sigafoos,<br />
1999). As a result, self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g may be<br />
needed to assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
completi<strong>on</strong> of required vocati<strong>on</strong>al tasks. The<br />
present study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigated effectiveness of a<br />
self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
vocati<strong>on</strong>al work <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> verbal requests<br />
for help <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> two adult men with autism<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> severe mental retardati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Method<br />
Participants<br />
The first participant, Alex, was a 20-year-old<br />
Caucasian with a diagnosis of autism. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to school records, Alex met special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
eligibility under the categories of autism,<br />
mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> speech/language impairment.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, Alex was legally bl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relied <strong>on</strong> glasses, large pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t/use of visuals,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> close proximity to materials. His physician<br />
had noted “abnormal resp<strong>on</strong>ses” at 2<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths of age, attribut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it to prenatal bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
damage that may have been related to a viral<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fecti<strong>on</strong> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pregnancy. No recent IQ<br />
tests had been adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istered; however, eight<br />
years earlier he was assessed as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an IQ of<br />
20. At the time of the study, Alex received an<br />
adaptive behavior age equivalent of 2 years, 6<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths <strong>on</strong> the V<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>el<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Adaptive Behavior<br />
Scales (VABS; Sparrow, Balla, & Cicchetti,<br />
1985). Relative strengths <strong>on</strong> the VABS <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
motor skills (age equivalent, 3-10) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
daily liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills (age equivalent, 3-1) while<br />
Alex displayed weaknesses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
(age equivalent, 1-4) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socializati<strong>on</strong> (age<br />
equivalent, 1-8). As noted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Alex’s school<br />
records <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> observed by the first author, Alex<br />
had no verbal language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had limited use of<br />
gestures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a communicati<strong>on</strong> book with pictures<br />
of wants, needs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emoti<strong>on</strong>s. School<br />
records also noted severe aberrant behaviors<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, tantrums, “stop <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drop” to the<br />
floor, n<strong>on</strong>-compliance, push<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pull<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
others, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his own h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so that he<br />
caused tissue damage. Alex was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 25
this study to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent work completi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Prior to the study, it was reported by<br />
staff that Alex would not complete any work<br />
without a staff member’s c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ual prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
The sec<strong>on</strong>d participant, Troy, was a 19-yearold<br />
Mexican-American who received special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> eligibility under the categories of<br />
mental retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other health impairment,<br />
due to seizures. At 2 years, 10 m<strong>on</strong>ths, a<br />
school district comprehensive evaluati<strong>on</strong> attributed<br />
Troy’s disabilities to men<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gitis <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
stroke at 7 m<strong>on</strong>ths of age, result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> significantly<br />
decreased use of his right side, lack of<br />
speech, aberrant behaviors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> short attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
span. At the time of the study, Troy was<br />
tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g medicati<strong>on</strong>s for attenti<strong>on</strong>, mood disorder,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> seizures; however, he was reportedly<br />
seizure-free at the time. No recent IQ tests had<br />
been adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istered; however, six years earlier<br />
he was assessed as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an IQ of 34. At the<br />
time of the study, Troy received an adaptive<br />
behavior age equivalent of 4 years, 1 m<strong>on</strong>th<br />
<strong>on</strong> the VABS (Sparrow et al., 1985). Relative<br />
strengths <strong>on</strong> the VABS <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded motor skills<br />
(age equivalent, above 5-11) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> daily liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skills (age equivalent, 5-10) while relative<br />
weaknesses were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> (age<br />
equivalent, 2-5) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socializati<strong>on</strong> (age equivalent,<br />
3-2). As reported by Troy’s classroom<br />
teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> observed by the first author, he<br />
could speak, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>frequently did so sp<strong>on</strong>taneously.<br />
He also reportedly displayed aberrant<br />
behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disrob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, throw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his<br />
shoes, bit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g others, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g under his<br />
desk. Troy was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
sp<strong>on</strong>taneous speech, specifically, ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
for help dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g work sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Though he<br />
was capable of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligible, sp<strong>on</strong>taneous<br />
speech, he rarely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiated requests for items<br />
or acti<strong>on</strong>s or made comments.<br />
Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Materials<br />
Data collecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
took place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the participants’ classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
self-c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed vocati<strong>on</strong>al public school for students<br />
with disabilities. Both Alex <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Troy<br />
were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a class for young adults that focused<br />
<strong>on</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong>al skills (e.g., functi<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
self-help, work skills). Data collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g were adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istered dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
vocati<strong>on</strong>al tasks. For example, Alex completed<br />
tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g plac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g small objects (e.g.,<br />
co<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sort<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g two objects<br />
by color. Troy completed tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sort<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
up to six items by color <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shape, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sort<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g brochures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g envelopes.<br />
Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g materials were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualized.<br />
Alex’s materials <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded 3 cm square<br />
tokens, a small plastic c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the number of tokens he was to earn before<br />
he received his reward, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a lam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated sheet<br />
of paper (approximately 20 13 cm) that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e draw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (approximately 3 cm<br />
square) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “do work” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the reward<br />
he was to earn (see Figure 1 for an example).<br />
Rewards that Alex earned for completi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded time <strong>on</strong> the computer, a sp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
toy that lit up, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g toy that<br />
played music. When he completed the set<br />
amount of work, he was allowed to choose<br />
which of these activity rewards he wanted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
was allowed to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that activity for five<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes. Troy also had a small c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er that<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed 3 cm blocks that snapped together.<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e draw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs attached to the c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated<br />
that he should ask for “help” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
reward he was to earn (see Figure 2 for an<br />
example of Troy’s self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g system).<br />
Troy’s rewards <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a cassette<br />
tape with headph<strong>on</strong>es, a tube that sounded<br />
like thunder when shook, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a pencil with a<br />
fake spider <strong>on</strong> the end. When he completed<br />
the set amount of work, he was allowed to<br />
choose which of these activity rewards he<br />
wanted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was allowed to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that<br />
activity for five m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes.<br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>se Def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
26 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
Target behaviors were def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually for<br />
each participant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong> with the classroom<br />
teacher. Alex’s target behavior was to<br />
complete a task with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> five m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes. He was<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially required to complete <strong>on</strong>e task with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the time limit, but this was gradually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
to four by the completi<strong>on</strong> of the study. Each<br />
task c<strong>on</strong>sisted of sort<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 10 to 20 items or<br />
plac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 10 to 20 items <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er. Troy’s<br />
target behavior was to verbally request help<br />
(e.g., “help,” stat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the name of a specific<br />
item needed) when tasks were sabotaged by<br />
necessary items be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g removed (e.g., sets of<br />
items to be sorted). Troy was orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally required<br />
to make two requests for help with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>
the five m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute period <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se to two<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances of sabotage, but this was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
gradually to six requests for help <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
to six <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances of sabotage<br />
Data Collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Data were collected <strong>on</strong> occurrence of target<br />
behaviors dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each sessi<strong>on</strong>. For Alex, an<br />
occurrence was counted each time he completed<br />
a task with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the five m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
For Troy, an occurrence was counted if he<br />
asked for help when it was needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
to the task be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sabotaged. All verbal requests<br />
for help were recorded with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the five<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute work sessi<strong>on</strong>, regardless of number of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances of sabotage (e.g., periodically, Troy<br />
asked for help two times after <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance of<br />
sabotage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances were recorded).<br />
Data were collected us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g event record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
the presence of each participant’s target behavior<br />
(e.g., number of tasks completed, number<br />
of requests for help) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances of<br />
Figure 1. Example of Alex’s self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g materials.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent use of the token systems dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
each work sessi<strong>on</strong>. Sessi<strong>on</strong>s were a maximum<br />
of five m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes l<strong>on</strong>g, but ended when a participant<br />
reached the current criteri<strong>on</strong> for his<br />
target behavior.<br />
As the project progressed, it was noted anecdotally<br />
that participants often failed to use<br />
their token systems. Thus, data were collected<br />
regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the necessity of prompts (yes/no)<br />
for each participant to take the token <strong>on</strong>ce it<br />
had been earned.<br />
Procedure<br />
Data were collected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> five m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Sessi<strong>on</strong>s occurred 1-2 times per day <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3-5<br />
days per week. A chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g criteri<strong>on</strong> design<br />
was used to dem<strong>on</strong>strate collateral changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
target behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong> to changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> task<br />
requirements (Hartmann & Hall, 1976).<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e sessi<strong>on</strong>s were c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
under typical classroom c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Students<br />
Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 27
sat at study carrels with work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of them<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed the student to do<br />
his work. They were not offered rewards for<br />
work completi<strong>on</strong> (Alex’s target behavior) or<br />
verbal requests for help (Troy’s target behavior),<br />
but the teacher did use verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gestural<br />
prompts (e.g., po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to pencils to be<br />
sorted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er they should be<br />
placed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>) to rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d them to complete their<br />
work.<br />
Assessment of preferred items. Prior to selfm<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, we assessed each participant’s<br />
preferences regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rewards. Based<br />
<strong>on</strong> teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>put, a variety of items were collected<br />
(e.g., cassette tape player with headph<strong>on</strong>es,<br />
sp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g toys with lights <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> music,<br />
squishy balls). Sets of five or six items were<br />
placed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of each participant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> data<br />
collected <strong>on</strong> which items were selected most<br />
frequently. Items selected most frequently<br />
Figure 2. Example of Troy’s self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g materials.<br />
28 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
were identified as preferred <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> delivered<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gent up<strong>on</strong> target behaviors dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g subsequent<br />
phases of the study. Alex’s re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded time <strong>on</strong> the computer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> two h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>held<br />
sp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g toys with lights <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> music.<br />
Troy’s preferred items were a cassette tape<br />
player with headph<strong>on</strong>es, a tube that made<br />
sounds like thunder when shaken, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a pencil<br />
with a fake spider <strong>on</strong> the end.<br />
Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The first step <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with each participant<br />
was to offer <strong>on</strong>e of the preferred items. Each<br />
participant was shown a few pictures (approximately<br />
3 cm square) of preferred items to<br />
choose from <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> asked what he wished to<br />
work for. He would then <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate which item<br />
he preferred. Alex po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted or picked up the<br />
picture of the item he wanted, while Troy<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or verbally named the item. The<br />
participant would then place the picture <strong>on</strong>
the token system (see Figures 1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2). Specifically,<br />
Alex would place it <strong>on</strong> a lam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated<br />
sheet of paper (approximately 20 13 cm)<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded a l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e draw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g stat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “do work”<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pieces of Velcro to receive the tokens he<br />
would earn. Troy placed his reward picture <strong>on</strong><br />
a small plastic box c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the snap blocks<br />
he was to earn <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> which had a l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e draw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
attached <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, “help.” The experimenter<br />
would then give a verbal rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>der of<br />
the behavior required to earn the reward<br />
(e.g., “first, f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ish work [po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the picture<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “do work”], then get computer<br />
[po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the photo of the computer],” or<br />
“ask for help [po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the picture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
“help”], then get headph<strong>on</strong>es [po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
the picture of the headph<strong>on</strong>es]”).<br />
At the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, both participants<br />
were shown how to use the token systems.<br />
Specifically, Alex was shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> told<br />
how to take a token from the c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er as he<br />
completed each task <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> place it <strong>on</strong> the lam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated<br />
sheet. When he had taken all tokens<br />
out of the c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er, he was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed to take<br />
the picture of the reward <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> go to his reward,<br />
most often the computer. The token c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly held the number of tokens corresp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with the number of tasks he was<br />
required to complete dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that work sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Troy was shown how to take a snap block<br />
out of the c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er each time he verbally<br />
requested help. His c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er also held <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
the number of blocks corresp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the<br />
number of times he was to request help dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
that work sessi<strong>on</strong>. Once he had earned<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> snapped together all the blocks, he would<br />
show blocks to the teacher or experimenter to<br />
receive his reward, most frequently the headph<strong>on</strong>es.<br />
Any prompts necessary for the successful<br />
use of the token system were given,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-over-h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> verbal<br />
rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders. As dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
lasted for a maximum of five m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ended <strong>on</strong>ce the participant had earned his<br />
reward. Criteria to earn rewards <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
<strong>on</strong>ce the participant dem<strong>on</strong>strated stability at<br />
the current level by meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or exceed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
set criteria for two to three c<strong>on</strong>secutive sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Thus, Alex was required to complete<br />
<strong>on</strong>e task for the first four tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s, two<br />
tasks for eight sessi<strong>on</strong>s, three tasks for five<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> four tasks for the last three sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Troy was required to make two requests<br />
for help for two sessi<strong>on</strong>s to earn his reward,<br />
four requests for the next fourteen sessi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
five requests for three sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> six requests<br />
for the last three sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g booster sessi<strong>on</strong>s. We noted anecdotally<br />
that dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the first two phases of<br />
self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, participants were not<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the token systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently; thus,<br />
at that time, we collected data establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent use of the token<br />
systems. We then implemented booster sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to provide repeated practice us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
systems. This occurred at the criteria of two<br />
tasks completed for Alex <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> four requests<br />
required for Troy, thus prol<strong>on</strong>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those<br />
phases for each participant, allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
of basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> treatment data regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent use of the token systems.<br />
Alex’s eight booster sessi<strong>on</strong>s took place over<br />
two days, while Troy’s 10 booster sessi<strong>on</strong>s all<br />
occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e day. Alex received fewer per<br />
day due to the appearance of self-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>jurious<br />
behavior, bit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his own arm, after four sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
back-to-back. Booster sessi<strong>on</strong>s for Alex<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sisted of present<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g him with shortened<br />
tasks. For example, a task <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sort<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
different colored straws <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded approximately<br />
1/3 of the previous number. Tasks<br />
were presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed rapidly, followed<br />
by delayed prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to teach him to<br />
use his tokens. If he did not take a token after<br />
five sec<strong>on</strong>ds, he was prompted to take it <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
place it <strong>on</strong> the token sheet. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the first<br />
day of booster sessi<strong>on</strong>s, he completed two<br />
tasks at each sessi<strong>on</strong> before receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcer;<br />
this was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to three the sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
day, after which he received two m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes access<br />
to his re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcer. Troy’s booster sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved sitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at his study carrel without the<br />
presence of a task <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g him he needed<br />
to, “ask for help to earn a block.” Each time he<br />
verbally asked for help, he received a block.<br />
Delayed prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was utilized for Troy as<br />
well. Once he had earned four blocks, he<br />
received two m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes access to his re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcer.<br />
Once participants were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
their token systems the majority of the time,<br />
booster sessi<strong>on</strong>s were disc<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued. Subsequent<br />
to booster sessi<strong>on</strong>s, the delayed prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
technique rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> place for their use<br />
of the token systems.<br />
Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 29
Inter-Observer Agreement<br />
Inter-observer agreement was assessed <strong>on</strong><br />
Alex’s target behavior, task completi<strong>on</strong>, for<br />
61% of the sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was assessed <strong>on</strong> his<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent use of the token system for 40%<br />
of possible sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Troy’s target behavior,<br />
verbal request<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, was measured by two observers<br />
for 64% of his sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
use of his token system, for 52% of<br />
possible sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Inter-observer agreement<br />
was calculated by divid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the smaller number<br />
of resp<strong>on</strong>ses recorded by an observer by the<br />
larger number of resp<strong>on</strong>ses recorded by the<br />
other observer (Richards, Taylor, Ramasamy,<br />
& Richards, 1999). Mean <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-observer agreement<br />
for Alex was calculated at 100% for task<br />
completi<strong>on</strong> data <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 92% (range 50 to 100%)<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent use of the token system data,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for Troy was calculated at 98% (range 57<br />
to 100%) for request<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g data <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 94% (range<br />
60 to 100%) for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent use of the token<br />
system data.<br />
Results<br />
Figure 3 shows number of tasks completed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of tokens taken <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each sessi<strong>on</strong> by Alex. Figure 4 shows<br />
number of requests for help <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of<br />
tokens taken <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
by Troy.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, Alex did not complete any<br />
tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Troy did not make any verbal requests<br />
for help. After self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
both students showed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their target<br />
behaviors. Alex <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased number of tasks<br />
completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se to changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> required<br />
number of tasks. That is to say, each time the<br />
required number of tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased from <strong>on</strong>e<br />
to two, then three, then four, Alex met that<br />
requirement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> earned his reward. Similarly,<br />
Troy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased his verbal requests for help <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se to number of times the task was sabotaged.<br />
That is to say that he met or exceeded<br />
his requirement (i.e., two requests, then four,<br />
then five, then six) dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g all but two sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phases. On <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances<br />
where he exceeded the requirement, he chose<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>ce he had earned his<br />
re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcer, usually headph<strong>on</strong>es, or he made<br />
multiple, repeated requests for help when the<br />
teacher did not resp<strong>on</strong>d quickly.<br />
Data <strong>on</strong> whether students took their earned<br />
token <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently were collected beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with Sessi<strong>on</strong> 9 for Alex <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sessi<strong>on</strong> 14 for<br />
Troy. Prior to booster tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g neither Alex<br />
(Sessi<strong>on</strong>s 9-11) nor Troy (Sessi<strong>on</strong>s 14-16) took<br />
any tokens <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently. After booster tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-<br />
Figure 3. Alex: Task completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent use of token system.<br />
30 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, number of token taken <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased for both students.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Figure 4. Troy: Request<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g help <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent use of token system.<br />
This study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigated effects of self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with two young adult males with mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism. Specifically, this research<br />
sought to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e if self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
would <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease target behaviors, if such students<br />
could learn to use the self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g/<br />
token system <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> what modificati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
if any, would be needed to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence. Initially, participants<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated no occurrences of their target<br />
behaviors. Use of prompts (e.g., verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
gestural cues) was not sufficient to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
task completi<strong>on</strong> or verbal requests for help.<br />
However, results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that that the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
was effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> systematically <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for both participants’ target<br />
behaviors. Collateral effects were noted anecdotally<br />
for each participant, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to complete work <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-<br />
creased verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s outside of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Initial tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, which was associated with<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behaviors, was not sufficient<br />
to ensure students would take tokens<br />
they earned. C<strong>on</strong>sequently, additi<strong>on</strong>al tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
was implemented to establish <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
selecti<strong>on</strong> of earned tokens. With this<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, each participant<br />
learned to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently use his token system<br />
the majority of the time, with the supplementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tensive booster sessi<strong>on</strong> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a delayed prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure. Independent<br />
use of the token systems was not<br />
always high, however. While booster sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompt delay strategy were effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g number of times participants took<br />
their earned tokens <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently, even after<br />
the booster sessi<strong>on</strong>s, they c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued to require<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g several sessi<strong>on</strong>s (see<br />
Figure 3, Sessi<strong>on</strong> 21 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Figure 4, Sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
27-30, 33 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 35). Further research replicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this study could determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
if, given more time, the prompt delay strategy<br />
Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 31
would result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> complete <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence with<br />
the token system or if there is another strategy<br />
that would be more effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> efficient.<br />
Results c<strong>on</strong>tribute to research <strong>on</strong> self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> several ways. First, it adds to <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
agreement with previous, though limited, research<br />
<strong>on</strong> use of self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-management<br />
to improve social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> academic performance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> students with severe disabilities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g moderate to severe mental retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism. Current results are c<strong>on</strong>sistent<br />
with previous research that self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <strong>on</strong>-task behavior (O’Reilly et al.,<br />
2002; Pierce & Schreibman, 1994; Tabor et al.,<br />
1999) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with autism. Current f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
also extend previous research <strong>on</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-management<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with moderate to severe<br />
mental retardati<strong>on</strong> by c<strong>on</strong>sider<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g its impact<br />
<strong>on</strong> social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s. Specifically, this study<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated that Troy’s sp<strong>on</strong>taneous verbal<br />
requests for help were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it was noted anecdotally by<br />
the classroom staff that Troy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased other<br />
types of sp<strong>on</strong>taneous verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s outside<br />
of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bids for attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
(e.g., “Teacher, come here!”) up<strong>on</strong> completi<strong>on</strong><br />
of work.<br />
There are a few limitati<strong>on</strong>s that necessitate<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong>. One limitati<strong>on</strong> was absence of<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance data. The study was completed<br />
approximately <strong>on</strong>e week prior to the end of<br />
the school year, thus, no time rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed to<br />
determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e if the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> would be ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed.<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, generalizati<strong>on</strong> data regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
use of self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
behaviors for each participant might have<br />
been valuable, given more time. Generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
was also not assessed under additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs or<br />
with practiti<strong>on</strong>ers other than the classroom<br />
teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> first author. Despite these limitati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
several strengths must be noted. First,<br />
this research took place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a real classroom<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, as opposed to a cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ic. Participant<br />
ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s were observed quickly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were of cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical<br />
significance. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, as a result of selfm<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, students required less <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
(e.g., fewer prompts, fewer<br />
redirects) from classroom staff.<br />
There are also several implicati<strong>on</strong>s for future<br />
research. Replicati<strong>on</strong> of this research<br />
with additi<strong>on</strong>al young adults with severe dis-<br />
abilities is necessary. Such replicati<strong>on</strong>s would<br />
lend more support for use of self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with the targeted populati<strong>on</strong>. Further research<br />
may also c<strong>on</strong>sider the necessity of additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with severe disabilities to use self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
strategies.<br />
Outcomes of the self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
with these participants have positive implicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for practiti<strong>on</strong>ers work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with<br />
young adults with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mental retardati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
First, self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is a teacher-friendly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. This technique requires little<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for the practiti<strong>on</strong>er. Most teachers<br />
are already familiar with token systems, thus,<br />
will need <strong>on</strong>ly to transfer c<strong>on</strong>trol of the system<br />
to the student. Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g requires little<br />
to no time to implement <strong>on</strong>ce the student has<br />
been tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed to use a token system. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
it requires few materials outside of those<br />
already available <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom (e.g., access<br />
to favorite activities, such as computer; snap<br />
blocks or tokens). F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has<br />
the potential to lead to more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Koegel et al., 1999). This is especially<br />
important for young adult <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with disabilities who will so<strong>on</strong> leave school <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> to the adult world. As suggested by<br />
Pierce <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Schreibman (1994), self-management<br />
may easily be generalized to novel skills<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> situati<strong>on</strong>s, requir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g little effort from<br />
practiti<strong>on</strong>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> decreased reliance<br />
<strong>on</strong> caregivers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers.<br />
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Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
34, 312–317.<br />
Richards, S. B., Taylor, R. L., Ramasamy, R., & Richards,<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Belm<strong>on</strong>t,<br />
CA: Wadsworth Group/Thoms<strong>on</strong> Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Shearer, D. D., Kohler, F. W., Buchan, K. A., &<br />
McCullough, K. M. (1996). Promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s between preschoolers with autism<br />
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self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Early <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Development,<br />
7, 205–220.<br />
Sparrow, S. S., Balla, D., & Cicchetti, D. V. (1985).<br />
V<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>el<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Adaptive Behavior Scales (Classroom Editi<strong>on</strong>).<br />
Circle P<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es, MN: American Guidance Service.<br />
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C. D. (1994). Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g preschoolers with autism<br />
to self-m<strong>on</strong>itor their social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s: An analysis<br />
of results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Journal<br />
of Emoti<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Behavioral Disorders, 2, 78–88.<br />
Tabor, T. A., Seltzer, A., Hefl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, L. J., & Alberto,<br />
P. A. (1999). Use of self-operated auditory<br />
prompts to decrease off-task behavior for a student<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> moderate mental retardati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Focus <strong>on</strong> Autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Other <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
14, 159–167.<br />
Received: 25 September 2003<br />
Initial Acceptance: 25 November 2003<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Acceptance: 1 March 2004<br />
Self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 33
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005, 40(1), 34–46<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Video Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Teach Cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills to Sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
Students with Moderate <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Tara B. Graves<br />
Frankl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> County Schools<br />
Belva C. Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, John W. Schuster,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Harold Kle<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ert<br />
University of Kentucky<br />
Abstract: Three sec<strong>on</strong>dary students with moderate disabilities acquired cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills through a c<strong>on</strong>stant time<br />
delay procedure used with video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. A multiple probe design was used to evaluate effectiveness of the<br />
procedure to teach preparati<strong>on</strong> of a food item (a) <strong>on</strong> a stove, (b) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a microwave, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) <strong>on</strong> a counter top. The<br />
procedure was effective for each student. Guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es for us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g videotapes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> of functi<strong>on</strong>al skills<br />
are discussed.<br />
The purpose of special educati<strong>on</strong> is to teach<br />
students to live as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently as possible.<br />
This means students with moderate to severe<br />
disabilities must learn to perform daily liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skills, such as food preparati<strong>on</strong>. Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
prepare food enhances <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also may lead to employment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
community. Numerous <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s have focused<br />
<strong>on</strong> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g food preparati<strong>on</strong> skills to<br />
students with disabilities (e.g., Johns<strong>on</strong> &<br />
Cuvo, 1981; Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Rusch, James, Decker, &<br />
Trtol, 1982; Rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<strong>on</strong>-Wils<strong>on</strong>, 1977; Schleien,<br />
Ash, Kiernan, & Wehman, 1981). For example,<br />
Schuster, Gast, Wolery, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Guilt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>an<br />
(1988) used a c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay (CTD) procedure<br />
to teach food preparati<strong>on</strong> skills (i.e.,<br />
mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich, boil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a bag item, bak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
canned biscuits) to four students with moderate<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a <strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e format.<br />
In later <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s, Hall, Schuster, Wolery,<br />
Gast, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Doyle (1992) used a CTD procedure<br />
to teach food preparati<strong>on</strong> (i.e., mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a Spanish omelet, microwav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a cake,<br />
bak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a tuna casserole) to two dyads of students<br />
with moderate mental disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> was completed to partially satisfy<br />
the thesis requirement for a Master’s degree at<br />
the University of Kentucky. Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
this article should be addressed to Dr. Belva<br />
C. Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, University of Kentucky, Department of<br />
Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> Counsel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
229 Taylor <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Lex<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, KY<br />
40506-0001. E-mail: bcoll01@uky.edu<br />
34 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
Griffen, Wolery, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Schuster (1992) used a<br />
CTD procedure to teach food preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
skills (i.e., prepar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a milkshake, scrambled<br />
eggs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pudd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) to a triad of students with<br />
moderate mental disabilities. In both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
students learned their target skills<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> many steps of the skills taught to others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the group. Schuster <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Griffen (1993) extended<br />
this approach when they used a simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure to teach four<br />
students with moderate mental disabilities to<br />
make juice. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, Fiscus, Schuster, Morse,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s (2002) used a CTD procedure to<br />
teach food preparati<strong>on</strong> skills (i.e., mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
cheese <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crackers, waffles with syrup, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
chocolate milk) to four elementary students<br />
with moderate mental disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> found<br />
that the students acquired 80 to 100% of the<br />
n<strong>on</strong>target <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, presented as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structive<br />
feedback dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each trial. Types of n<strong>on</strong>target<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> were related to the task<br />
(i.e., identificati<strong>on</strong> of words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the picture recipe book) as well as unrelated<br />
to the task (i.e., identificati<strong>on</strong> of kitchen utensils).<br />
Each of these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed a<br />
systematic resp<strong>on</strong>se prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure<br />
(i.e., CTD or simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) with a<br />
picture recipe book to teach food preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
skills.<br />
J<strong>on</strong>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s (1997) used another systematic<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure, the<br />
system of least prompts (SLP), to teach three<br />
women with moderate disabilities to prepare<br />
food (i.e., hot chocolate, popcorn, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> baked
potatoes) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a microwave. Use of a hierarchy<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>direct verbal, direct verbal, gestural, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
model prompts gave the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor the opportunity<br />
to embed n<strong>on</strong>target <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
each step of each trial. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded safety<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nutriti<strong>on</strong> facts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> delivery of prompts as<br />
well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> delivery of feedback at the end of<br />
steps. Participants acquired the n<strong>on</strong>targeted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> as well as the target skills.<br />
Research has shown that use of video can be<br />
both an effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an efficient way to teach<br />
daily liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills to students with disabilities.<br />
For example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigators have used video <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g community skills to students with<br />
moderate mental disabilities (Branham, Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s,<br />
Schuster, & Kle<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ert, 1999), self-protecti<strong>on</strong><br />
skills to k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dergarten <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> first grade students<br />
(Poche, Yoder, & Miltenberger, 1988),<br />
oral hygiene skills to children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Headstart<br />
program (Murray & Epste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1981), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> selfcare<br />
skills to students with moderate mental<br />
disabilities (Norman, Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, & Schuster,<br />
2001).<br />
In particular, Har<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Kennedy, Adams, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pitts-C<strong>on</strong>way (1987) showed a videotape of<br />
peers without disabilities model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g purchas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skills to facilitate generalizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> three<br />
adults with autism before tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the<br />
community. Poche et al. (1988) found that<br />
use of video with behavior rehearsals was more<br />
efficient than other strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g abducti<strong>on</strong><br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> skills to 74 children. Charlop<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Milste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (1989) found video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to be effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g generalized<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al skills to three students with autism.<br />
Cuvo <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Klatt (1992) found that a comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
of flashcard <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> video<br />
resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalizati<strong>on</strong> of read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g survival<br />
words <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the community by six students with<br />
mild to moderate disabilities. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, Alcantara<br />
(1994) used videotapes to teach purchas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the community to three students<br />
with autism.<br />
Several <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s have comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed video<br />
with systematic resp<strong>on</strong>se prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedures<br />
to teach daily liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills. For example,<br />
LeGrice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Blampied (1994) comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed a<br />
CTD procedure with video to teach four participants<br />
with moderate disabilities to use a<br />
computer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a video recorder. Branham et<br />
al. (1999) used a CTD procedure to teach<br />
community skills (i.e., mail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a letter, cash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a check, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cross<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a street) to three stu-<br />
dents with moderate mental disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g formats: (a) community-based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
(CBI) al<strong>on</strong>e, (b) classroom simulati<strong>on</strong><br />
plus CBI, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) videotape <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
plus CBI. While all three formats were effective,<br />
the use of videotape <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> plus CBI<br />
was the most time efficient. Norman et al.<br />
(2001) also used a CTD procedure with video<br />
when they taught self-care skills (i.e., clean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sunglasses, putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> a wristwatch, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> zipp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a jacket) to three students with moderate<br />
disabilities. While Branham et al. used videotape<br />
show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g still frames of peers without disabilities<br />
perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the target skills, Norman<br />
et al. used a subjective viewpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of the task<br />
(student’s viewpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of the task as he or she<br />
would perform it) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> added visual words to<br />
the auditory prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the videotape.<br />
Like Branham et al., Norman et al. showed a<br />
preview of the entire task before show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
students a video of each step separated by<br />
dark frames. Aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the procedure was effective.<br />
Video also has been streamed <strong>on</strong> computers<br />
to teach functi<strong>on</strong>al skills. For example, Mechl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
Gast, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Lang<strong>on</strong>e (2002) used computer-based<br />
video to teach grocery skills to four<br />
students with moderate mental disabilities. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a SLP procedure <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong> with multiple<br />
exemplars of video of grocery stores<br />
streamed <strong>on</strong> the computer screen, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structors<br />
prompted the students through locat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
items <strong>on</strong> a grocery list, touch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the correct<br />
aisle sign, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> touch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the item <strong>on</strong> the shelf.<br />
The students were able to generalize the skills<br />
they acquired to a novel grocery store.<br />
Cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g programs often dem<strong>on</strong>strate food<br />
preparati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> televisi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> these programs<br />
can be used repeatedly for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> if videotaped.<br />
Although the literature c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s numerous<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the systematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
of food preparati<strong>on</strong> skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
numerous <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> systematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g video, no <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> has used<br />
videotape to teach food preparati<strong>on</strong> skills to<br />
students with disabilities. Because most<br />
schools <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> homes have access to a videotape<br />
player <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> because the use of video has been<br />
effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g other skills, this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong><br />
focused <strong>on</strong> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g food preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
skills through systematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
video. Unlike the previous <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s (Branham<br />
et al., 1999; Norman et al., 2001), the<br />
Video Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 35
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the present <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> did not<br />
deliver verbal prompts or correct errors with<br />
physical guidance. Specifically, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong><br />
attempted to answer two questi<strong>on</strong>s: (a) Is<br />
video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g food<br />
preparati<strong>on</strong> skills to sec<strong>on</strong>dary students with<br />
moderate disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (b) will the skills<br />
generalize to novel tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ers, sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> materials?<br />
Method<br />
Participants<br />
One male <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> two females <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a self-c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
public high school classroom for students with<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al mental disabilities (FMD) (i.e.,<br />
moderate to severe disabilities) were participants<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>. Joe was a 16 year<br />
old male with a moderate mental disability<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Down syndrome. He participated with<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> keyboard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drama<br />
classes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> received speech/language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> occupati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
therapy. Based <strong>on</strong> the Wechsler<br />
Intelligence Scale for Children - Revised<br />
(WISC-R, Wechsler, 1974), Joe had an IQ of<br />
51. His Individual <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Plan (IEP) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
objectives for speech producti<strong>on</strong>, communicati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
social skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills<br />
(i.e., shopp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> food preparati<strong>on</strong>). Joe was<br />
socially outgo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had a str<strong>on</strong>g work ethic.<br />
He could stay <strong>on</strong> task <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow directi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Joe’s weakness was his <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ability to read all<br />
written directi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Alley was an 18 year old female with a moderate<br />
mental disability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
disorder. She received special educati<strong>on</strong> services<br />
<strong>on</strong> a resource basis, participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> community-based<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> (CBI), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> used<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> physical educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> basic<br />
guitar classes with peers without disabilities.<br />
Alley received speech/language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> occupati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
therapy services. Based <strong>on</strong> the WISC-R<br />
(Wechsler, 1974), she had an IQ of 45. Her<br />
IEP <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded objectives for domestic skills<br />
(i.e., survival word recogniti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g),<br />
math skills (i.e., m<strong>on</strong>ey <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shopp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills),<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong>. Alley had the ability to<br />
identify people, follow directi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>on</strong> task. Her weakness was the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ability to<br />
speak <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligibly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> complete sentences.<br />
Kelly was a 20 year old female with a moderate<br />
mental disability. Based <strong>on</strong> the WISC-R<br />
(Wechsler, 1974), Kelly had an IQ of 49. She<br />
received special educati<strong>on</strong> services <strong>on</strong> a resource<br />
basis, participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> CBI, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> used<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> drama <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> human development<br />
classes with peers without disabilities.<br />
Kelly’s IEP objectives were for social skills,<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al academics (i.e., written expressi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> math skills (i.e., shopp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> food preparati<strong>on</strong>). While her read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
comprehensi<strong>on</strong> skills were strengths, she had<br />
weaknesses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ability to stay <strong>on</strong> task. Kelly<br />
often gazed around the room while twist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
her hair <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was easily distracted by her surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
The teacher assessed the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prerequisite<br />
skills through observati<strong>on</strong>s: (a) ability to<br />
wait 5 s, (b) ability to attend to task for 20 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
(c) ability to follow a verbal directi<strong>on</strong>, (d)<br />
ability to imitate a visual model, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (e) visual<br />
acuity to watch a videotape. Parent permissi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed for all participants.<br />
Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
The teacher c<strong>on</strong>ducted screen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a <strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e format<br />
with each participant. Instructi<strong>on</strong> took place<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the kitchen area of the FMD resource classroom.<br />
The students stood <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of the televisi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> counter, stove, or microwave while<br />
perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the task presented <strong>on</strong> the video.<br />
Other students were engaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> seatwork or<br />
small group <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> at their desks or classroom<br />
tables. The teacher or classroom assistant<br />
verbally redirected any students who distracted<br />
the participants dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Materials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Equipment<br />
36 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
Materials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> equipment for the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded a 25 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. color televisi<strong>on</strong> with a VCR<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tape for each targeted<br />
cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill (i.e., stove item, microwave item,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> counter item). Additi<strong>on</strong>al materials <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
data sheets, cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g supplies (e.g.,<br />
pots, pans, spo<strong>on</strong>s), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> food items.<br />
The video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tapes used a subjective<br />
viewpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t (Norman et al., 2001) to dem<strong>on</strong>strate<br />
the cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks so that the student<br />
saw the task performed <strong>on</strong> the video from the<br />
same viewpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t that would be seen if the student<br />
performed the task. Each video started<br />
by verbally stat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Sd (e.g., “Cook the
.”), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the teacher alternated between<br />
videotapes that used male <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> female voices.<br />
Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Sd for the task, the videotape<br />
showed a model of the task from start to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ish<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> delivered the verbal Sd. A<br />
delay <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval of 0sor5sthen occurred. On<br />
the 0 s delay videotape, a verbal prompt<br />
paired with a model prompt of the first step of<br />
the cha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed task immediately occurred, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
<strong>on</strong> the 5 s delay videotape, a verbal prompt<br />
paired with a model prompt of the first step<br />
occurred follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a5sdelay <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval. After<br />
each step was prompted, a 20 s colored frame<br />
appeared, giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the student 20 s to perform<br />
the prior step <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or the next step of the<br />
cha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> before the videotape prompted a subsequent<br />
step of the task analysis.<br />
Skill Selecti<strong>on</strong><br />
The teacher selected the target food preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
skills through preference test<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the<br />
participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews with their parents,<br />
tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to account the availability of the<br />
foods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> equipment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the home sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
The target skills were similar <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> difficulty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
number of steps per task analysis. The IEPs of<br />
each participant c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or food<br />
preparati<strong>on</strong> objectives, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the parents had<br />
addressed these skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for future<br />
assisted liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Based <strong>on</strong> this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigators targeted the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills: (a) a<br />
stovetop skill of prepar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g noodles (i.e., Ramen<br />
Noodles), (b) a microwave skill of prepar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
macar<strong>on</strong>i (i.e., Mac n M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(c) a countertop skill of mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich<br />
(i.e., peanut butter <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> jelly). Task analyses<br />
for each of these skills can be found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table<br />
1.<br />
Data Collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
The teacher collected data <strong>on</strong> each participant’s<br />
ability to perform each step of the task<br />
analysis dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g screen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. She recorded a () for each<br />
correct resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a () for each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se. She def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed a correct resp<strong>on</strong>se as<br />
complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the step <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
allotted resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval (20 s) follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
Sd or the previously completed step. She def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct resp<strong>on</strong>se as (a) not perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the step correctly (topographical er-<br />
ror), (b) not perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the step <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
correct order (sequence error), (c) not complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the step with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the allotted resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval (20 s) follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Sd or previously<br />
completed step (durati<strong>on</strong> error), or (d) fail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate a resp<strong>on</strong>se with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5softhe<br />
verbal Sd or previously completed step.<br />
Until a participant performed 100% correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses for two sessi<strong>on</strong>s, the teacher used<br />
videotapes c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a 0-s resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g all subsequent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
she used videotapes with a 5-s delay <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these CTD sessi<strong>on</strong>s, the teacher recorded<br />
a () <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the “before” column when<br />
the students completed a step correctly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the allotted resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval<br />
(20 s) follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Sd or the previously<br />
completed step <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a () <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the “after” column<br />
when the student completed the step<br />
correctly with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20 s follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the video<br />
prompt. The teacher recorded a () <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>the<br />
“before” column for each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20 s follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Sd or the previously<br />
completed step <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a () <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the “after” column<br />
for each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct resp<strong>on</strong>se with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the prompt. The teacher also recorded<br />
a “T” for each topographical error, an<br />
“S” for each sequential error, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a “D” for<br />
each durati<strong>on</strong> error. If a participant failed to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate a resp<strong>on</strong>se with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5softheprompt,<br />
the teacher recorded “NR” for no resp<strong>on</strong>se.<br />
Procedure<br />
General procedures. The teacher taught the<br />
target food preparati<strong>on</strong> skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a <strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e<br />
format us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a CTD procedure with video<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. As previously described, the<br />
teacher used videotapes that gave the student<br />
either 0sor5sto<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate a step <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20 s to<br />
complete a step. If the student did not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate<br />
the step dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval (e.g.,<br />
5 s), the video provided a verbal prompt<br />
paired with a model prompt. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
each student stood <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of the microwave,<br />
the stove, or the counter with the televisi<strong>on</strong><br />
positi<strong>on</strong>ed so the student could view the<br />
videotape while perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the target skill.<br />
Sessi<strong>on</strong>s took place M<strong>on</strong>day through Friday.<br />
Each sessi<strong>on</strong> began with the teacher deliver<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the attenti<strong>on</strong>al cue (i.e., “Are you ready to<br />
cook?”). Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a multiple opportunity format,<br />
the teacher allowed the students to complete<br />
Video Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 37
TABLE 1<br />
Task Analyses of Target Food Preparati<strong>on</strong> Skills<br />
all of the steps of the task analysis, even if<br />
errors occurred.<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e/probe procedures. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
occurred prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
teacher collected basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data <strong>on</strong> each skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a <strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e format for a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum of two<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s or until data were stable. A trial began<br />
with the teacher stat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Sd (i.e., “Cook the<br />
.”). She then waited 5 s for the student to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate the first step of the task <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20 s for<br />
the student to complete the first step of the<br />
task. If the student completed the step correctly,<br />
the teacher marked a () <strong>on</strong> the data<br />
sheet, delivered verbal praise, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> waited 5 s<br />
for the student to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate the next step <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
20 s for the student to complete the step. If<br />
the student made an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct resp<strong>on</strong>se or no<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se, the teacher recorded the type of<br />
error <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> told the student to turn away while<br />
Microwav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Macar<strong>on</strong>i <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cheese<br />
1. Wash h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. 1. Wash h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. 1. Wash h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.<br />
2. Get saucepan. 2. Get Mac-cheese packet. 2. Get out plate.<br />
3. Get spo<strong>on</strong>. 3. Get medium size bowl. 3. Get two slices of bread.<br />
4. Get Ramen Noodles. 4. Get spo<strong>on</strong>. 4. Get peanut butter.<br />
5. Get 1 C. measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cup. 5. Get 1/3 C. measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cup. 5. Get jelly.<br />
6. Place saucepan <strong>on</strong> fr<strong>on</strong>t<br />
left burner.<br />
6. Open macar<strong>on</strong>i packet. 6. Get knife.<br />
7. Go to s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k with<br />
measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cup.<br />
7. Put macar<strong>on</strong>i <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bowl. 7. Open peanut butter.<br />
8. Fill measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cup to top 8. Fill 1/3 C. measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cup 8. Open jelly.<br />
with water.<br />
with water.<br />
9. Pour <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> saucepan. 9. Pour <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to bowl. 9. Put knife <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> jar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> get<br />
peanut butter.<br />
10. Fill measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cup to top 10. Fill 1/3 C. measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cup 10. Spread peanut butter <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e<br />
with water.<br />
with water.<br />
bread slice.<br />
11. Pour <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to saucepan. 11. Pour <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to bowl. 11. Put knife <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> jar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> get jelly.<br />
12. Turn temperature dial to 12. Put bowl <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to microwave. 12. Spread jelly <strong>on</strong> other bread<br />
10.<br />
slice.<br />
13. Wait for water to boil. 13. Set microwave for 4 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes. 13. Put two slices together.<br />
14. Open Ramen Noodles. 14. Wait for beep. 14. Clean up.<br />
15. Put noodles <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
water.<br />
15. Take bowl out of microwave.<br />
16. Set timer for 3 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes. 16. Open cheese packet.<br />
17. Wait 3 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes. 17. Pour cheese <strong>on</strong>to noodles.<br />
18. Turn dial to off. 18. Stir with spo<strong>on</strong>.<br />
19. Open seas<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g packet.<br />
20. Pour c<strong>on</strong>tents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to water.<br />
21. Stir.<br />
22. Clean up.<br />
19. Clean up.<br />
38 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
she completed the step for the student. She<br />
then stated a verbal Sd to perform the next<br />
step <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> waited 5 s for the student to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate<br />
the step <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20 s for the student to complete<br />
the step. The process c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued until the student<br />
completed the task analysis. Throughout<br />
the sessi<strong>on</strong>, the teacher praised attenti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> a<br />
variable ratio schedule of every two steps<br />
(VR2).<br />
Independent variable. The teacher began <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
after basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data were stable. Instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a <strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e<br />
format with the student st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of<br />
the televisi<strong>on</strong>. The teacher counterbalanced<br />
which student went first each day <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> used a<br />
CTD procedure with video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
teach each targeted cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill. Each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong> began with the teacher deliver<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
an attenti<strong>on</strong>al cue (i.e., “Let’s cook.”).
While hear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the verbal directi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the<br />
videotape, the student watched the video<br />
model of the entire task. The video then delivered<br />
the verbal Sd for the task. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 0 s<br />
delay sessi<strong>on</strong>s, the videotape showed a model<br />
of the first step of the task analysis accompanied<br />
by a verbal prompt. The videotape then<br />
froze with a colored frame, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the student<br />
had 20 s to perform the step before delivery of<br />
the prompt for the next step. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
used videotapes with a 0-s delay <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval<br />
until the student reached 100% for two days.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 5 s delay sessi<strong>on</strong>s, the student had 5 s<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate a step before the delivery of the<br />
video prompt. This was followed by a still colored<br />
frame of 20 s to complete the step <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate the next step of the task analysis. If the<br />
student performed an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct resp<strong>on</strong>se before<br />
the prompt, the teacher said, “No, wait if<br />
you are not sure.” If the student performed an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct resp<strong>on</strong>se after the prompt, the<br />
teacher rewound the videotape to show the<br />
prompt until the student performed the resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
correctly. If the student required more<br />
than 20 s to complete a step, the teacher<br />
paused the videotape until the student completed<br />
the step <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recorded a durati<strong>on</strong> error.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong>s, the teacher<br />
praised correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses <strong>on</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement<br />
schedule (CRF) until the student<br />
reached 100% criteri<strong>on</strong> for two days. She then<br />
th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ned praise to a variable ratio schedule of<br />
every four steps (i.e., VR4) until the students<br />
performed at 100% criteri<strong>on</strong> for <strong>on</strong>e additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
day.<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance. The teacher c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance sessi<strong>on</strong>s dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the sec<strong>on</strong>d week<br />
after each student reached criteri<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> a skill.<br />
There were no video prompts dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. The teacher praised correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses <strong>on</strong> a VR4 schedule. She <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrupted<br />
all <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> modeled the correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se for the students. She also encouraged<br />
students to use the skills at home<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then c<strong>on</strong>ducted teleph<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews to<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itor home performance.<br />
Experimental Design<br />
The authors used a multiple probe across behaviors<br />
design replicated across students to<br />
evaluate the effectiveness of the CTD procedure<br />
with video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
(first author) taught the sec<strong>on</strong>d skill after the<br />
first skill reached criteri<strong>on</strong> but could not<br />
teach the third skill due to the school year<br />
end<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Reliability<br />
A classroom team teacher who held a degree<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> moderate/severe disabilities or a classroom<br />
assistant collected dependent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
variable reliability data <strong>on</strong> a weekly basis<br />
for a total of 26% of all sessi<strong>on</strong>s across participants.<br />
The measured teacher behaviors (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
variable) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded (a) giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
general attenti<strong>on</strong> cue, (b) complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
data sheet, (c) hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g materials ready, (d)<br />
start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the videotape, (e) manipulat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the videotape with a remote<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol (i.e., forward<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or rew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(f) prais<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses. The teacher<br />
calculated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent variable reliability<br />
agreement by divid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the number of observed<br />
behaviors by the number of planned<br />
behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by 100 for each<br />
variable (Brown & Snell, 2000). Independent<br />
variable reliability agreement was 93% or<br />
higher throughout the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>, with a<br />
mean of 100% for Joe, 94% for Alley, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 97%<br />
for Kelly. Procedural errors c<strong>on</strong>sisted of the<br />
teacher fail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to deliver verbal praise after<br />
correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses.<br />
The teacher calculated dependent variable<br />
reliability agreement by us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t-bypo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<br />
method <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> divid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the total number<br />
of agreements by the total number of agreement<br />
plus disagreements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by<br />
100 (Brown & Snell, 2000). Dependent variable<br />
reliability agreement was 86% or higher<br />
throughout the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> with a mean of<br />
90% for Joe, 92% for Alley, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 94% for Kelly.<br />
Results<br />
Figures 1, 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3 present performance data<br />
for this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate the effectiveness<br />
of a CTD procedure with video<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g food preparati<strong>on</strong> skills<br />
(i.e., Ramen noodles <strong>on</strong> the stove, Mac n M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the microwave, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> peanut butter <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
jelly <strong>on</strong> the countertop) to 3 students with<br />
moderate disabilities. Participants reached criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> two target skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an average of 10.3<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s each.<br />
Video Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 39
Figure 1. Graphic data for Joe. Open circles represent correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses before the prompt, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> open<br />
triangles represent correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses after the prompt.<br />
40 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005
Figure 2. Graphic data for Alley. Open circles represent correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses before the prompt, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> open<br />
triangles represent correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses after the prompt.<br />
Video Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 41
Figure 3. Graphic data for Kelly. Open circles represent correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses before the prompt, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> open<br />
triangles represent correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses after the prompt.<br />
42 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005
Joe met criteri<strong>on</strong> of 100% correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
for three sessi<strong>on</strong>s when cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g noodles (total<br />
of 10 sessi<strong>on</strong>s) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich (total<br />
of seven sessi<strong>on</strong>s). He made <strong>on</strong>ly sequential<br />
errors dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the<br />
skills over time. Total tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time for cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
noodles was 1 hr 59 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> for noodles with<br />
a mean of 13 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> per sessi<strong>on</strong> (range 11 to<br />
18 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>). Total tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time for mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich was 19 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> with a mean of 4 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> per<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Alley met criteri<strong>on</strong> of 100% correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
for three sessi<strong>on</strong>s when mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich (total of 12 sessi<strong>on</strong>s) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> microwav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
macar<strong>on</strong>i (total of eight sessi<strong>on</strong>s). She<br />
made sequential <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> topographical errors<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the skills<br />
over time. Total tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time for mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich was 60 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> with a mean of 6 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> per<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong> (range 3 to 11 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>). Total tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
time for microwav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g macar<strong>on</strong>i was 1 hr 31<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> with a mean of 13 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> per sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
(range 10 to 18 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>).<br />
Kelly met criteri<strong>on</strong> of 100% correct resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
for three sessi<strong>on</strong>s when microwav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
macar<strong>on</strong>i (total of n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e sessi<strong>on</strong>s) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
noodles (total of n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e sessi<strong>on</strong>s). She made<br />
sequential <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> topographical errors dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the skills over<br />
time. Total tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time for microwav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
macar<strong>on</strong>i was 1 hr <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 30 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> with a mean of<br />
9 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> per sessi<strong>on</strong> (range 7 to 16 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>). Total<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time for cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g noodles was 1 hr 22<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> with a mean of 14 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> per sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to the number of sessi<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
criteri<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al time (which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
down time while items were cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g),<br />
the teacher also calculated the cost of materials.<br />
The total food cost for the entire <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong><br />
was $34.64. The mean cost per skill per<br />
student was $8.67 for macar<strong>on</strong>i, $2.88 for noodles,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> $5.77 for peanut butter <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> jelly<br />
s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wiches. There was no cost for mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
videotape s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce this was d<strong>on</strong>e by school pers<strong>on</strong>nel<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a video class; the<br />
teacher <strong>on</strong>ly had the expense of purchas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
blank videotapes.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Data <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that the CTD procedure with<br />
video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was an effective way to teach<br />
food preparati<strong>on</strong> skills (i.e., Ramen noodles<br />
<strong>on</strong> a stove, Mac n M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the microwave,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> peanut butter <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> jelly s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich <strong>on</strong> the<br />
countertop). The participants required the<br />
same or fewer sessi<strong>on</strong>s to criteri<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d skill taught, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that they<br />
were “learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to learn” with the procedure.<br />
Factors that may have c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the<br />
success of the procedure could <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude the<br />
students’ familiarity with the CTD procedure,<br />
motivati<strong>on</strong> due to the novelty of learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
from videotape, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the natural re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement<br />
of c<strong>on</strong>sum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the cooked food<br />
items.<br />
Although the teacher did not collect formal<br />
data dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g summer vacati<strong>on</strong>, parents reported<br />
to the teacher that each participant<br />
generalized each skill to the home sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Joe<br />
was mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Ramen Noodles <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> peanut butter<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> jelly s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wiches <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently at<br />
home for his family members <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had generalized<br />
the skills to mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g soup <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other<br />
types of s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wiches (e.g., ham <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cheese).<br />
He had made lunch for his father several<br />
times dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the summer. Alley made peanut<br />
butter <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> jelly s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wiches <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mac n M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes<br />
at her gr<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>mother’s vacati<strong>on</strong> home.<br />
Kelly made Mac n M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ramen Noodles<br />
at home; however, the microwave <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> her<br />
home differed from the <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was adapted by plac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sticker by 4 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>on</strong> the dial. Her home measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cup also was<br />
adapted by plac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sticker at the correct<br />
marker. In summary, all three participants<br />
generalized <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the skills they acquired<br />
through video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the<br />
data show the CTD procedure with video<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to be effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skills to students with moderate disabilities,<br />
teachers may c<strong>on</strong>sider produc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g similar videotapes<br />
for both cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as well as for other<br />
skills (e.g., community skills).<br />
One factor to c<strong>on</strong>sider <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> replicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> is the mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the videotape.<br />
Instead of produc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the videotape herself,<br />
the teacher relied <strong>on</strong> the experience of others<br />
(i.e., video class <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students) to<br />
help produce the videotape. It took a good<br />
deal of time to produce videotapes us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g both<br />
male <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> female voices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sert blank<br />
frames for 0 s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5 s delay <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tervals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20 s<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tervals. The process required multiple<br />
edits before the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al videotapes were<br />
Video Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 43
eady. An additi<strong>on</strong>al challenge <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g videotapes<br />
was the difficulty the teacher had dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fast forward<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the next<br />
prompt when a tape was set up for a special<br />
delay <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval. She found that she often fast<br />
forwarded through the step <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had to<br />
rew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d. These problems, however, were<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>or.<br />
A problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>herent to the task itself was<br />
that students experienced down time while<br />
wait<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for water to boil or items to cook.<br />
Others who teach cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g video<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g may want to use this downtime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
productive manner by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sert<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g n<strong>on</strong>target <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
For example, J<strong>on</strong>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
(1997) stated safety <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nutriti<strong>on</strong> facts while<br />
potatoes were cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the microwave, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Fiscus et al. (2002) followed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al trials<br />
by present<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g utensils.<br />
If words or sentences are presented <strong>on</strong> the<br />
videotape, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor could use downtime<br />
to call attenti<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> review these based <strong>on</strong><br />
the results of the Fiscus et al. study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which<br />
the students learned to read words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentences<br />
that accompanied pictures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their recipe<br />
books.<br />
A limitati<strong>on</strong> to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> is that the<br />
students <strong>on</strong>ly learned two skills each due to<br />
the end of the school year. There were, however,<br />
six replicati<strong>on</strong>s of the effectiveness of the<br />
procedure by the time the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong><br />
ended, which is sufficient to build believability<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the procedure.<br />
In spite of this limitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other problems<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>ed above, video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g appears<br />
to be an efficient way to teach cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skills. Once the teacher purchased the blank<br />
videotapes, there were no other costs of produc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the videotape s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce a bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess teacher<br />
from the high school <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a few students from<br />
his Video Producti<strong>on</strong> class recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> produced<br />
the videotape at no cost us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g iMovie<br />
software <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an iMac computer. They downloaded<br />
the task from a video recorder to a<br />
VHS tape us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a TV/VCR available <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
school’s library. While produc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g videotape<br />
was a good class project (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> would make a<br />
good service learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g project), the procedure<br />
was easy enough that the teacher, if needed,<br />
could have d<strong>on</strong>e this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. In the Branham et al.<br />
(1999) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>, the teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently<br />
made the videotape us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g school equip-<br />
44 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
ment, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Norman et al. (2001) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
the teacher made the videotape at no<br />
cost with the assistance of a university staff<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The authors of this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> have several<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for other teachers who<br />
might want to use video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s,<br />
2003). First, select functi<strong>on</strong>al skills for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>;<br />
community cha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed tasks can be taught<br />
with videotapes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> simulati<strong>on</strong>s (Branham et<br />
al., 1999; Mechl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g et al., 2002) while domestic<br />
or self-care tasks (Norman et al., 2001) can<br />
be taught directly from videotapes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, c<strong>on</strong>struct task analyses<br />
prior to shoot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the videotape; the task analyses<br />
can be a guide for edit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the videotape<br />
(e.g., <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sert<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g delay <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tervals). Third, determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
the viewpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t prior to shoot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the videotape;<br />
a subjective viewpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t may be more<br />
appropriate for tasks that use f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e motor skills<br />
(e.g., cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) while a view of the target student<br />
or another pers<strong>on</strong> (e.g., peer) at a distance<br />
may be more appropriate for community<br />
tasks with gross motor skills (e.g., cross<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a street). Fourth, c<strong>on</strong>sider <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students,<br />
peers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other pers<strong>on</strong>nel <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the shoot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
the videotape; also, c<strong>on</strong>sider us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a tripod for<br />
videotap<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g stati<strong>on</strong>ary tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>held<br />
camera with a zoom lens for shoot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks<br />
that require difficult angles. Fifth, after shoot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the videotape, determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e if it should be<br />
edited; students can either watch a videotape<br />
(with or without audio <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> graphics) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its<br />
entirety before perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a task or can watch<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual steps with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>serted resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tervals<br />
for perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e step at a time. Sixth,<br />
use video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of a<br />
systematic resp<strong>on</strong>se prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure;<br />
while this study used CTD, other procedures<br />
(e.g., simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, system of least<br />
prompts) also may be effective. Seventh, decide<br />
who will operate the videotape; while the<br />
teacher used the remote c<strong>on</strong>trol as the students<br />
attended to cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students to use the remote c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently may free up teacher time.<br />
Eighth, determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e a schedule for collect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
data <strong>on</strong> student performance; the teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> collected data <strong>on</strong> a daily basis,<br />
but the use of a simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
procedure would require the teacher to collect<br />
data <strong>on</strong>ly dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g probe trials (which could<br />
be less frequent) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al
trials. N<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>th, determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the teacher’s role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
deliver<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>sequences; the teacher can either<br />
allow the student to self-correct after rew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the tape or the teacher can <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercede<br />
to help the student correct the error. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sider add<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g n<strong>on</strong>targeted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
the task (Fiscus et al., 2002; J<strong>on</strong>es & Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s,<br />
1997) to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease the efficiency of learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g;<br />
for example, students may learn to read words<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentences from repeated exposure while<br />
watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the videotape.<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> adds to the research literature<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> with video (e.g., Branham<br />
et al., 1999; Norman et al., 2001; Poche et al.,<br />
1988) because it focused <strong>on</strong> cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, the teacher was less <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s, s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce<br />
she rewound the videotape to show students<br />
how to correct their own errors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead of<br />
physically <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terven<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Future research should<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude replicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the study across other sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
(e.g., community, home, employment)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other across skills (e.g., domestic, vocati<strong>on</strong>al,<br />
self-help, leisure). In additi<strong>on</strong>, comparis<strong>on</strong><br />
studies should compare video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with CTD to video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with other resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure (e.g., SLP, simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g), as well as c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>u<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigate the stream<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of video <strong>on</strong> computers<br />
to teach functi<strong>on</strong>al skills (Mechl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g et<br />
al., 2002).<br />
Video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g can be a motivat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure<br />
for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students new tasks. The<br />
participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> appeared to<br />
enjoy watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the videotapes as they cooked.<br />
They often repeated the steps out loud with<br />
the videotape <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> giggled when they completed<br />
the step correctly with the model <strong>on</strong><br />
the videotape. It is possible that video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
could be successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills to<br />
students with less teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement (e.g.,<br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students operate the remote c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
themselves), free<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up more time for teachers<br />
to deliver <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> to other students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the class. Also, video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g can provide a<br />
permanent model for the students that can be<br />
used across sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. For example, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
present <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>, video prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g could<br />
be used to provide a video cookbook for each<br />
student to enhance both generalizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance.<br />
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Received: 7 August 2003<br />
Initial Acceptance: 25 September 2003<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Acceptance: 15 January 2004
Computer-Based Video Instructi<strong>on</strong> to Teach Students with<br />
Intellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> to Verbally Resp<strong>on</strong>d to Questi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Make Purchases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fast Food Restaurants<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>da C. Mechl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Leslie S. Pridgen, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beth A. Cr<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The University of North Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a at Wilm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong><br />
Abstract: Computer-based video <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> (CBVI) was used to teach verbal resp<strong>on</strong>ses to questi<strong>on</strong>s presented by<br />
cashiers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> purchas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fast food restaurants. A multiple probe design across participants was used<br />
to evaluate the effectiveness of CBVI. Instructi<strong>on</strong> occurred through simulati<strong>on</strong>s of three fast food restaurants <strong>on</strong><br />
the computer us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g video capti<strong>on</strong>s, still photographs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> voice record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Generalizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance of<br />
skills were measured with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the three community fast food restaurants. Results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that verbal resp<strong>on</strong>ses to<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fast food restaurant purchas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills can be taught to students with moderate to severe<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities through CBVI.<br />
The importance of acquir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g functi<strong>on</strong>al community<br />
skills to promote <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence is supported<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of special educati<strong>on</strong>. These<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude such skills as: shopp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, purchas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
travel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mobility, bank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recreati<strong>on</strong>al activities. The ability to<br />
access restaurants, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fast food, “sit<br />
down,” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family restaurants, is also reported<br />
as functi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful for pers<strong>on</strong> with<br />
disabilities (Snell & Brown, 2000; Storey,<br />
Bates, & Hans<strong>on</strong>, 1984; Westl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g & Fox, 2000)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a skill that can be used repeatedly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
across multiple envir<strong>on</strong>ments. A number of<br />
important sub-skills are necessary when us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a restaurant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: order<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
travel, safety, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social etiquette. A limited<br />
number of studies have evaluated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
of these skills with the majority focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>on</strong> fast food establishments (Berg et al., 1989-<br />
90; Cooper & Browder, 1998; Marhol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
O’Toole, Torchette, Berger, & Doyle, 1979;<br />
McD<strong>on</strong>nell, 1987; McD<strong>on</strong>nell & Fergus<strong>on</strong>,<br />
1988; Rotholz, Berkowitz, & Burberry, 1989;<br />
Sowers & Powers, 1995; Van Den Pol et al.,<br />
1981). In additi<strong>on</strong> to fast food establishments,<br />
skills for us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g family restaurants (Bates, Cuvo,<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should<br />
be addressed to L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>da C. Mechl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Department of<br />
Curricular Studies, The University of North Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
at Wilm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, 601 South College Road, Wilm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>,<br />
NC 28403-5940.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005, 40(1), 47–59<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er, & Korabek, 2001), c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong> areas<br />
(Schleien, Certo, & Mucc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>o, 1984; Test, Howell,<br />
Burkhart, & Beroth, 1993) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
mach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es (Browder, Snell, & Wild<strong>on</strong>ger,<br />
1988; Nietupski, Clancy, & Christiansen, 1984;<br />
Sprague & Horner, 1984) have also been evaluated.<br />
Order<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedures implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
each of these sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded use of<br />
verbally order<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Sowers & Powers; Van Den<br />
Pol et al.), written <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>s (Berg et al.),<br />
augmentative communicati<strong>on</strong> devices (Doss<br />
et al., 1991; Rothloz et al.), sign language<br />
(Rothloz et al.), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture cues (Cooper &<br />
Browder; McD<strong>on</strong>nell). Methods to teach these<br />
skills have focused <strong>on</strong> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through community-based<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> (Cooper & Browder;<br />
Marhol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> et al.; McD<strong>on</strong>nell; Rotholz et al.;<br />
Schle<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> et al.; Storey et al.; Test et al.), simulati<strong>on</strong><br />
(Van Den Pol et al.) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
of simulati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community-based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
(Bates et al.; Berg et al.; McD<strong>on</strong>nell et al.;<br />
McD<strong>on</strong>nell & Fergus<strong>on</strong>).<br />
When us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g simulati<strong>on</strong> (teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g outside of<br />
the natural envir<strong>on</strong>ment where skills will be<br />
used), the importance of closely replicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
actual stimuli <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>ses found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (Brown<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, White, Nave, & Bark<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
1986) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of multiple teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g examples<br />
(Neef, Lensbower, Hockersmith, DePalma, &<br />
Gray, 1990) are reported as important for promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> of skills. One means for<br />
creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g simulati<strong>on</strong>s with realistic, life-like scenarios,<br />
is through video technology. Use of<br />
Computer-Based Video Instructi<strong>on</strong> / 47
video record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs can provide multiple teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
examples, replicate stimuli <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the envir<strong>on</strong>ment,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> allow repetitive practice of skills. A<br />
number of skills have been taught us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this<br />
technology with students with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: assembly tasks ((Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
Mithaug, & Frazier, 1992); read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g community<br />
words (Cuvo & Klatt, 1992); shopp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
(Har<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Breen, We<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er, Kennedy, & Bednersh,<br />
1995; Kyhl, Alper, & S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clair, 1999);<br />
appropriate behaviors (Brown & Middlet<strong>on</strong>,<br />
1998); self-help skills (Lasater & Brady, 1995;<br />
Norman, Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, & Schuster, 2001); requests<br />
for assistance (Morgan & Salzberg, 1992); fire<br />
safety (Ti<strong>on</strong>g, Blampied, & Le Grice, 1992);<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other community skills such as mail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
letters, cash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g checks, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cross<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g streets<br />
(Branham, Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, Schuster, & Kle<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ert,<br />
1999). Further, by comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g video technology<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> computer-based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teractive<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g envir<strong>on</strong>ments can be generated<br />
through software programs such as Hyperstudio<br />
4.0 (Roger Wagner Publish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Inc.) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
PowerPo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t (Microsoft) which access video record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
saved <strong>on</strong> the computer, an external<br />
drive, or compressed <strong>on</strong>to CD-ROM. Computerbased,<br />
video <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> (CBVI) has recently<br />
been evaluated as a medium for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills<br />
to students with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities. Skills<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude: purchas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the “next dollar”<br />
strategy (Ayres & Lang<strong>on</strong>e, 2002) or a debit<br />
card (Mechl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Gast, & Barthold, 2003); grocery<br />
shopp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Mechl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, 2004; Mechl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g &<br />
Gast, 2003; Mechl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Gast, & Lang<strong>on</strong>e,<br />
2002); choice mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Ellerd, Morgan, & Salzberg,<br />
2002); photograph recogniti<strong>on</strong> (Mechl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
& Lang<strong>on</strong>e, 2000); <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shopp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venience store (Wissick, Lloyd, & K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>zie,<br />
1992). Although a body of research exists that<br />
supports video technology to teach verbal<br />
skills to students with disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
autism, emoti<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior disorders,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disabilities (Buggey, Toombs,<br />
Gardener, & Cervetti, 1999; Charlop-Christy,<br />
Le, & Freeman, 2000; Sherer et al., 2001; Taylor,<br />
Lev<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, & Jasper, 1999; Thiemann & Goldste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
2001; Wert & Neisworth, 2003) n<strong>on</strong>e<br />
were identified which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g verbal<br />
skills to students with moderate to severe<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities (Buggey, 1995; Hitchcock,<br />
Dowrick, & Prater, 2003; Mechl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
press). The current study exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <strong>on</strong> available<br />
research by evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g use of CBVI to<br />
teach verbal skills to students with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text of functi<strong>on</strong>al activities.<br />
The primary questi<strong>on</strong>s addressed were: 1.<br />
Would CBVI <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease the percentage of correct<br />
verbal resp<strong>on</strong>ses made by students follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s by cashiers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fast food restaurants?<br />
2. Would CBVI <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease the percentage<br />
of steps completed correctly by students us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a fast food restaurant?<br />
Method<br />
Participants<br />
48 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
Three students (two male <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e female),<br />
ages 17 to 20 years participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study.<br />
Each was enrolled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a high school class for<br />
students with moderate to severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was selected based <strong>on</strong> age, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disability, need for community skills,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fast food restaurants.<br />
The school had a str<strong>on</strong>g community-based<br />
program <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which students traveled to community<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs approximately three times per<br />
week us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a city bus, school transportati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
or walk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Instructi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the community focused<br />
<strong>on</strong> social skills, mobility, purchas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recreati<strong>on</strong>. Students were screened for<br />
the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g entry level skills prior to the<br />
study: (a) visual ability to make selecti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong><br />
the computer screen; (b) physical ability to<br />
make selecti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the computer screen <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
complete steps at restaurants; (c) wait resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
of 3 s; (d) ability to make verbal requests;<br />
(e) generalized verbal imitati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
make requests <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se to computer audio<br />
prompts. Students were screened for verbal<br />
imitati<strong>on</strong> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a commercial software program.<br />
All three students had received <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay (CTD) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
computer-based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
David was a 17-year, 2 m<strong>on</strong>th old male diagnosed<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a moderate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disability (IQ 46, Stanford-B<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>et<br />
Intelligence Scale, Fourth Editi<strong>on</strong>). He communicated<br />
verbally <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> short sentences, but<br />
needed wait time to process his thoughts. He<br />
frequently chose not to speak when questi<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rarely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiated c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. In<br />
unfamiliar situati<strong>on</strong>s he would look at his<br />
teacher or an adult to communicate for him.<br />
He breathed heavily when <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> stressful situati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exhibited physical aggressi<strong>on</strong> when<br />
upset <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g throw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g objects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> destroy-
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g materials. He traveled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the community<br />
with assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to pay for<br />
items <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently. He was able to locate<br />
many departments with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> stores <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> read<br />
most prices. He was able to care for most of his<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al hygiene needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dress <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> undress<br />
himself. He enjoyed us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the computer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
was able to type his pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. His<br />
needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded: (a) select<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g preferred items<br />
to purchase; (b) complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g toilet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills;<br />
(c) refra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from “dissect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g” food (take<br />
apart <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> eat <strong>on</strong>e item at a time); (d) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
task endurance; (e) appropriate reacti<strong>on</strong><br />
to stress; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (f) decreas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g reliance <strong>on</strong><br />
an adult to speak for him. At fast food restaurants<br />
he relied <strong>on</strong> an adult to place his order<br />
or to verbally prompt him to speak.<br />
Joseph was a 20-year, 2 m<strong>on</strong>th old male<br />
diagnosed with Down syndrome <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a moderate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disability (IQ 36, Stanford-<br />
B<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>et Intelligence Scale, Fourth Editi<strong>on</strong>). He<br />
spoke <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> short sentences, exhibited some articulati<strong>on</strong><br />
difficulties pr<strong>on</strong>ounc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g blends,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> frequently held his head down <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
“mumbled” un<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligibly. He dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
some aggressive behavior when upset (some<br />
classmates exhibited behaviors to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease the<br />
probability that he would become agitated),<br />
was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a behavior support plan, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
took psychotropic medicati<strong>on</strong> to decrease aggressi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disruptive behavior. He was described<br />
as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g very “neat” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized. He<br />
was able to wash, dry, fold, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ir<strong>on</strong> cloth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imal assistance. He used most kitchen<br />
appliances with assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enjoyed prepar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
foods for himself us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g visual cues for<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recipes. He also enjoyed talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to friends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family <strong>on</strong> the teleph<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sport<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g events <strong>on</strong> televisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the community. His needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded: (a) purchas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> stores; (b) mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bank deposits;<br />
(c) carry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a wallet; (d) tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time; (e) recogniz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
co<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (f) us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g digital appliances.<br />
In fast food restaurants he relied <strong>on</strong><br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to choices <strong>on</strong> the display board <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
answer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, “yes”/no“ to questi<strong>on</strong>s from the<br />
cashier or look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at an adult for assistance.<br />
On occasi<strong>on</strong>s he would also say a number such<br />
as ”<strong>on</strong>e“ while po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the display board.<br />
Hanna was a 17-year, 1 m<strong>on</strong>th old female<br />
diagnosed with partial agenesis of the corpus<br />
callosum with associated lipoma of the corpus<br />
callosum <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a moderate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disability<br />
(IQ 40, WISC-III). She was able to speak <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
complete sentences, however, her verbalizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate for the c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
or social situati<strong>on</strong>. She would also make <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate<br />
exclamati<strong>on</strong>s such as “ouch,” giggle,<br />
or obsessively talk about a topic. She was described<br />
as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g both pleasant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cooperative<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enjoyed social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s. She was<br />
able to write her first name <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> manuscript,<br />
recognize letters of the alphabet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some<br />
basic sight words. She could count to 20 with<br />
manipulatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> write numerals 1-5. Hanna<br />
was able to complete most pers<strong>on</strong>al management<br />
skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g dress<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> undress<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
but needed assistance with groom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Her<br />
needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded: (a) walk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently<br />
without rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> without lean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong><br />
walls <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> furniture; (b) us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>; (c)<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a table; (d) carry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a tray; (e) throw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
items away; (f) refra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from star<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; (g)<br />
simple food preparati<strong>on</strong>; (h) us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a teleph<strong>on</strong>e;<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (i) operati<strong>on</strong> of dials for cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
In fast food restaurants she stood <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of<br />
the cashier <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> giggled, looked to an adult for<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, failed to order, or ordered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate<br />
items for the sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Arrangements<br />
All <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong>s were implemented<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the computer-based video program. Sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a secluded<br />
room <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the library of the students’<br />
high school. Generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> three community fast-food<br />
restaurants: McD<strong>on</strong>ald’s, Wendy’s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hardee’s.<br />
The restaurant cha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s were chosen due to<br />
their frequency of use by participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
range of stimulus <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se requirements<br />
(Table 1). In additi<strong>on</strong>, the particular store<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each cha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> was selected due to its proximity<br />
to the students’ high school. Generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the community were c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
before the lunch rush hour (10:30-<br />
11:00 a.m.).<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong>s, a laptop computer<br />
with touch screen was placed <strong>on</strong> a table<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of the student. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor sat to<br />
the right <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> slightly beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d the student with<br />
a clipboard to record data, provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>termittent<br />
re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> error correcti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
to advance the computer program follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
verbal resp<strong>on</strong>se by students. A digital video<br />
camera was positi<strong>on</strong>ed <strong>on</strong> an adjacent table<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g reliability data collecti<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Computer-Based Video Instructi<strong>on</strong> / 49
TABLE 1<br />
Task Analysis for Verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Motor Resp<strong>on</strong>se Requirements Across Three Restaurants<br />
McD<strong>on</strong>ald’s Hardee’s Wendy’s<br />
“s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich name” “s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich name” “here”<br />
“small french fry” “small french fry” “s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich name”<br />
“small” “name of dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k” “small” “name of dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k” “small french fry”<br />
“here” “here” “small” “name of dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k”<br />
unzip wallet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> give bill unzip wallet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> give bill unzip wallet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> give bill<br />
take change, put <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> wallet take change, put <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> wallet take change, put <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> wallet<br />
obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> tray obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> tray obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> tray<br />
obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> locate table <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sit down<br />
locate table <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sit down locate table <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sit down throw away trash<br />
throw away trash<br />
Materials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Equipment<br />
Equipment. A Dell Latitude laptop computer<br />
with zip drive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> CD player was used to deliver<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> al<strong>on</strong>g with a TouchW<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dow<br />
(Edmark Corporati<strong>on</strong>) for direct selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
the computer screen. The software program,<br />
Hyperstudio 4.0 (Roger Wagner Publish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
Inc.) was used to create <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> deliver the multimedia<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al programs. Video capti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were made us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a S<strong>on</strong>y digital video camera<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> still photographs of items <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fast food<br />
restaurant were made us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a S<strong>on</strong>y digital camera.<br />
Video record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs were burned to a compact<br />
disk, downloaded to the computer hard<br />
drive, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then accessed through the Hyperstudio<br />
4.0 program. Digital photographs were<br />
stored directly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hyperstudio 4.0, which was<br />
used to create a visual simulati<strong>on</strong> of order<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
at a fast food restaurant through use of these<br />
still photographs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> video record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Computer-based<br />
video programs were made for<br />
each fast food restaurant. Programs were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualized<br />
for each participant by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
photographs of the student eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the restaurant<br />
or by vary<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g food orders based <strong>on</strong><br />
student’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual preferences, result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
two different computer-based video programs<br />
developed for each student. Food <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<br />
preferences were determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed before the study<br />
by ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students, parents, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers.<br />
Students paid for food orders by giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
cashier a prespecified amount of m<strong>on</strong>ey ($10<br />
or $20 bill) that was large enough to pay for<br />
the order. The bill was placed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a wallet with<br />
a zipper closure. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI, students resp<strong>on</strong>ded<br />
to the video simulati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> com-<br />
puter prompt by remov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle bill from<br />
the wallet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> plac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it <strong>on</strong> the table. Change<br />
from the cashier dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g generalizati<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
or the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI was placed<br />
back <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the wallet by the student.<br />
Video Models. Video record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs were made<br />
depict<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the entire process for verbally order<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a fast food restaurant. Video<br />
record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs served as models <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> specific segments<br />
were delivered by the computer-based<br />
program as stimuli to elicit a resp<strong>on</strong>se by the<br />
student or follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a student resp<strong>on</strong>se. An<br />
adult familiar to the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> actual employees<br />
at the restaurants appeared <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> video<br />
record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Students viewed video segments of<br />
the adult model perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g steps they would<br />
later perform <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the restaurant or the restaurant<br />
cashier mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g verbal requests (e.g. “Is<br />
this for here or to go?”) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks<br />
(stimuli) that the student would resp<strong>on</strong>d to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the restaurant (e.g. giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g change).<br />
General Procedures<br />
50 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
Students received <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a 3 s CTD procedure <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> computer-based<br />
video program. Instructi<strong>on</strong> occurred 1-2 times<br />
per day (morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or afterno<strong>on</strong>), 4-5 days<br />
per week. Each sessi<strong>on</strong> lasted approximately<br />
15 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, with delivery of 3 trials (1 trial per<br />
restaurant) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> total task format. Criteria was<br />
reached when each student performed 100%<br />
unprompted corrects for 4 of 5 trials.
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> Probe Procedures<br />
Prior to the first student receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI, generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
probe measures were taken <strong>on</strong>e<br />
time at each of the three restaurants to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
each student’s ability to verbally place<br />
orders <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to complete the steps for us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
fast food restaurant. In additi<strong>on</strong>, probe data<br />
were collected at each fast food restaurant<br />
immediately prior to the sec<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> third<br />
student receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI. Students traveled together<br />
to each of the fast food establishments.<br />
Up<strong>on</strong> enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the restaurant, students were<br />
seated at a back table farthest away from the<br />
counter to prevent model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g resp<strong>on</strong>ses. The<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor then told the first student, “It’s your<br />
turn to order your food.” The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
waited 3 s for the student to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate a resp<strong>on</strong>se.<br />
Table 2 describes stimulus <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
requirements for <strong>on</strong>e restaurant. Students<br />
were scored <strong>on</strong> the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g verbal<br />
steps: (a) say, “here” (to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate locati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g items); (b) say name of s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich;<br />
(c) say “small french fries”; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (d) say “small”<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the name of the dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k. Students were also<br />
scored <strong>on</strong> the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g motor steps: (a) unzip<br />
wallet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> give bill to cashier; (b) take change<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> wallet; (c) pick up tray; (d) walk<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k from dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k mach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e; (e)<br />
walk to <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>; (f) locate a table<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sit down; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (g) place trash <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> trash can.<br />
Students could perform each step correctly,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correctly, or not resp<strong>on</strong>d. Incorrect verbal<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded request<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an item not <strong>on</strong><br />
the menu, request<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a wr<strong>on</strong>g size, request<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
an item not identified as preferred, po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to the menu display, or say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “to go.” Incorrect<br />
motor resp<strong>on</strong>ses were obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an item<br />
or complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a step out of sequence, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g too many or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct items. A no<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se was def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed as fail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to verbalize, or<br />
fail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an item or complete a step<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>3sofcomplet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a prior step. A correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se (unprompted correct) was def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
as complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a motor resp<strong>on</strong>se with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3sof<br />
complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the prior step or verbally resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>3sofacashier’s questi<strong>on</strong>. Incorrect<br />
or no verbal resp<strong>on</strong>ses resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
hold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up a 3 5 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex card with the<br />
correct written resp<strong>on</strong>se for the cashier to<br />
read. Incorrect or no motor resp<strong>on</strong>se resulted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> skipp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the step (e.g., not obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>) or the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the step<br />
out of view of the student (e.g., pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for<br />
item, obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k).<br />
Students received n<strong>on</strong>-specific verbal praise<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pats <strong>on</strong> the back <strong>on</strong> the average of every<br />
third step (VR3) for general attend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
attempts to perform the task. Students received<br />
natural re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement of eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g items obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed at the restaurant.<br />
Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> with the computerbased<br />
video program, students returned to the<br />
fast food restaurants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were evaluated <strong>on</strong><br />
their ability to generalize verbal resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g steps for us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the restaurant.<br />
Students who reached criteria with the computer-based<br />
video program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> completed<br />
the generalizati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> were evaluated<br />
for skill ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> subsequent probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
at fast food restaurants.<br />
Computer-Based Video Instructi<strong>on</strong> (CBVI)<br />
CBVI was c<strong>on</strong>ducted with the first student<br />
immediately follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the first generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
probe c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Each sessi<strong>on</strong> began with the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the attenti<strong>on</strong> of the student<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> deliver<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a task directi<strong>on</strong> such as, “Let’s<br />
practice go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Wendy’s.” Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the task<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>, the computer-based video program<br />
began with a video segment of the adult<br />
model enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the restaurant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> walk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
the counter. A video segment then showed the<br />
employee ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a questi<strong>on</strong> such as, “May I<br />
take your order?” (Table 2) followed by a still<br />
photograph of the employee “wait<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for the<br />
answer.” Interventi<strong>on</strong> began with a0sdelay.<br />
Each student rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed at 0 s until he/she had<br />
100% correct wait resp<strong>on</strong>ses (correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
after the computer or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
prompt) for three trials. For steps requir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
verbal resp<strong>on</strong>se, the c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt was a<br />
photograph of the correct answer paired with<br />
the correct verbal resp<strong>on</strong>se (e.g., photograph<br />
of student eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the restaurant paired with<br />
a recorded voice say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, “here” or photographs<br />
of food items paired with a recorded<br />
voice say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the item names) (Figure 1). Correct<br />
verbal resp<strong>on</strong>ses, after the computer<br />
prompt, were def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed as the student say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g:<br />
(a) say, “here” (to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate locati<strong>on</strong> for c<strong>on</strong>sum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
items); (b) say name of s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich; (c)<br />
say “small french fries”; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (d) say “small”<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the name of the dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k. Students were<br />
taught to say a generic name for a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich<br />
(e.g., “cheeseburger”), which could be ap-<br />
Computer-Based Video Instructi<strong>on</strong> / 51
TABLE 2<br />
Stimulus, Resp<strong>on</strong>se Requirements, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Prompt of Computer-Based Video Program Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Hyperstudio 4.0 for Hardee’s Restaurant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> David’s Resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
Stimulus (video) Stimulus (photo) Resp<strong>on</strong>se C<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Prompt<br />
Adult model enters<br />
restaurant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> walks<br />
to counter<br />
Cashier says, “Hi, can I<br />
help you?”<br />
Cashier says, “Is that for<br />
here or to go?”<br />
Cashier says, “three<br />
dollars <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> twentytwo<br />
cents”<br />
Cashier gives change to<br />
adult model<br />
Instructor gives change<br />
to student<br />
Adult model picks up<br />
tray<br />
Adult model walks to<br />
dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k mach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e,<br />
obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s: ice, Sprite,<br />
straw<br />
Places lid <strong>on</strong> cup<br />
Adult model walks to<br />
napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dispenser<br />
pulls out napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
places napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> tray<br />
Adult model walks to<br />
table, pulls out chair<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sits down<br />
Adult model walks to<br />
trash can, puts trash<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> can, places tray <strong>on</strong><br />
top of trash can,<br />
walks out of<br />
restaurant<br />
Cashier wait<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
Cashier wait<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
Cashier wait<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
Napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dispenser<br />
Table with chairs<br />
Tray <strong>on</strong> counter<br />
Table with chairs<br />
Dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k mach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dispenser<br />
Napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dispenser<br />
Trash can<br />
Table with chairs<br />
Dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k dispenser<br />
Trash can<br />
Table with chairs<br />
Napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dispenser<br />
Trash can<br />
Table with chairs<br />
plied to any restaurant, rather than a specific<br />
name such as “Big Mac.” For dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> french<br />
fry orders, students were taught to say “small”<br />
rather than “regular,” “medium,” or “biggie.”<br />
For steps requir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a motor resp<strong>on</strong>se, the c<strong>on</strong>-<br />
“Cheeseburger, small<br />
french fry, small<br />
Sprite”<br />
3 photos: cheeseburger,<br />
small French fry, small<br />
Sprite with Hardee’s<br />
wrappers<br />
Record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g:<br />
“cheeseburger, small<br />
french fry, small<br />
Sprite”<br />
“here” Photo of David eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at<br />
Hardee’s<br />
Record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: “here”<br />
Unzip wallet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> place<br />
bill <strong>on</strong> table<br />
Take change <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
wallet<br />
Video model of adult<br />
giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bill to cashier<br />
Video model of adult<br />
tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g change<br />
Touch photo of tray Photos rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> screen<br />
Touch photo of dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<br />
mach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Touch photo of napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dispenser<br />
Touch photo of table <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
chairs<br />
52 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
Photos rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> screen<br />
Photos rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> screen<br />
Photos rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> screen<br />
Touch photo of trash can Photos rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> screen<br />
troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt was the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
the correct photograph represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the correct<br />
step <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sequence of the task analysis<br />
(pick up tray, obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k, obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, sit<br />
at table, or throw away trash); or dem<strong>on</strong>strat-
Figure 1. Hyperstudio “card” with c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt of photographs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> verbal record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of item names.<br />
Correct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct butt<strong>on</strong>s advanced the program by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor dependent <strong>on</strong> student<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the step (remov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g $10 or $20 bill from<br />
the wallet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> plac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it <strong>on</strong> the table <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g change <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the wallet).<br />
Correct motor resp<strong>on</strong>ses were def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed as: (a)<br />
touch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a correct photograph <strong>on</strong> the computer<br />
screen to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate correct step <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sequence<br />
of the task analysis (pick up tray, obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k, obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, sit at table, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
throw away trash); (b) remov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g $10 or $20<br />
bill from the wallet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> plac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it <strong>on</strong> the table;<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g change from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the wallet. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 0 s delay<br />
trials, CTD trials implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a 3 s delay<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval were provided after the questi<strong>on</strong> was<br />
delivered by the cashier or completi<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
previous step. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the CTD procedure, a<br />
student resp<strong>on</strong>se was recorded as: (a) unprompted<br />
correct (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a correct verbal or motor resp<strong>on</strong>se with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3 s<br />
of a questi<strong>on</strong> or completi<strong>on</strong> of a previous step<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> before delivery of the c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
prompt); (b) unprompted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cor-<br />
rect verbal or motor resp<strong>on</strong>se with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3sofa<br />
questi<strong>on</strong> or previous step; (c) prompted correct<br />
(correct verbal or motor resp<strong>on</strong>se after<br />
the computer or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor prompt); (d)<br />
prompted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct verbal or motor<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se after the computer or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
prompt); <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (e) no resp<strong>on</strong>se (failure to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate<br />
a verbal or motor resp<strong>on</strong>se with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3sof<br />
the computer or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor prompt). An unprompted<br />
or prompted correct verbal resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
was followed by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor advanc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the computer-based program to the next<br />
video segment. Unprompted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct verbal<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se or no resp<strong>on</strong>se was followed by the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor advanc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the program to show the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt (e.g., photograph of food<br />
items paired with the correct verbal resp<strong>on</strong>se)<br />
(Table 2) (Figure 1). Prompted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct verbal<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se or no resp<strong>on</strong>se after the prompt<br />
was followed by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se. For steps requir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a motor<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se, students were required to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract<br />
Computer-Based Video Instructi<strong>on</strong> / 53
with the computer-based program by touch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
photographs <strong>on</strong> the computer screen us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the TouchW<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dow. Three photographs appeared<br />
across the bottom of the screen <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor asked, “What do you do next?”<br />
(Figure 2). An unprompted or prompted correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se activated an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>visible “butt<strong>on</strong>”<br />
positi<strong>on</strong>ed <strong>on</strong> the photograph which advanced<br />
the computer program to show a video<br />
segment corresp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the photograph<br />
(e.g., selecti<strong>on</strong> of napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dispenser photograph<br />
followed by video segment of adult<br />
model obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> at the fast food<br />
restaurant) (Table 2). An unprompted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct<br />
motor resp<strong>on</strong>se or no resp<strong>on</strong>se resulted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the photographs rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the screen.<br />
If the student made a prompted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se or no resp<strong>on</strong>se after the computer<br />
prompt, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted to the correct<br />
photograph.<br />
Experimental Design<br />
A multiple probe design across three students<br />
(Tawney & Gast, 1984) was used to evaluate<br />
effectiveness of the computer-based video program<br />
to teach verbal resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of fast<br />
food restaurants. Verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> motor skills for<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g three fast food restaurants were taught<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay (CTD) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the computer-based<br />
video program. Experimental<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded generalizati<strong>on</strong> probes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the natural envir<strong>on</strong>ment (three fast food restaurants)<br />
prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
CBVI, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance probes across the<br />
three fast food restaurants. Prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
probe measurements were c<strong>on</strong>ducted for<br />
all three restaurants. Probe measures were followed<br />
by CBVI for the first student. When<br />
criteria (100% unprompted corrects, 4 of 5<br />
trials) was reached for a particular student,<br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe measures were aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> collected<br />
at the three restaurants followed by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> for the sec<strong>on</strong>d student. Subsequent<br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s served as<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance checks for each student. This<br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> CBVI format c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
until each student reached criteria.<br />
Reliability Measures<br />
Interobserver agreement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedural reliability<br />
data were collected simultaneously <strong>on</strong><br />
100% of generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 33% of all CTD, CBVI<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the community,<br />
<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e reliability observer<br />
were present, whereas videotapes were<br />
made dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently<br />
evaluated by the reliability observer.<br />
Interobserver agreement was reported for<br />
each step of the task analysis us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tby-po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<br />
method <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> observer agreements was divided by<br />
number of agreements plus disagreements<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiplied by 100. Procedural reliability<br />
data were collected <strong>on</strong> the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> computer behaviors: (a) delivery of<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong>al cues; (b) ensur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong>al resp<strong>on</strong>se;<br />
(c) deliver<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g task directi<strong>on</strong>s; (d) resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to student errors (CBVI <strong>on</strong>ly); (e)<br />
advanc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the computer program dependent<br />
<strong>on</strong> student resp<strong>on</strong>ses (CBVI <strong>on</strong>ly); <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (f)<br />
delivery of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>termittent verbal re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement.<br />
Procedural reliability agreement was determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
by divid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g number of observed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
behaviors by number of opportunities<br />
Figure 2. Hyperstudio “card” with photographs selected by student to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate correct motor resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sequence of the task analysis.<br />
54 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005
to emit the behaviors, multiplied by 100 (Bill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gsley,<br />
White, & Muns<strong>on</strong>, 1980).<br />
Results<br />
Reliability<br />
Mean <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terobserver agreement was 99.4%<br />
across all participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, 100%<br />
for generalizati<strong>on</strong>s sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fast food restaurants,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 99.2% dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI (range 81.8-<br />
100). Disagreement dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI occurred<br />
due to Joseph mumbl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his resp<strong>on</strong>se <strong>on</strong> two<br />
occasi<strong>on</strong>s result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> difficulty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
his resp<strong>on</strong>se. Mean procedural agreement was<br />
98.1% across all participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
97.4% for generalizati<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fast food<br />
restaurants (range 83.3-100) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 98.2%<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI (range 66.7-100). Procedural<br />
disagreement dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI was due to the<br />
computer program fail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to advance when<br />
the student touched the correct photograph<br />
<strong>on</strong> the screen. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor manually advanced<br />
the program with the computer mouse<br />
<strong>on</strong> these occasi<strong>on</strong>s. Disagreement dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
probe c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s at the restaurants<br />
was attributed to the cashiers fail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to direct<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s to students or verbally prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
student answers.<br />
Effectiveness<br />
Figure 3 shows the effectiveness of the computer-based<br />
video program <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students<br />
to verbally resp<strong>on</strong>d to questi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
make purchases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fast food restaurants. Data<br />
are reported for generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each of the three fast food establishments,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> with CBVI, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance of<br />
skills. Data are separated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> motor<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses. Closed circles represent the<br />
percentage of correct verbal resp<strong>on</strong>ses for<br />
each trial dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g generalizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the mean<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se per sessi<strong>on</strong> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI. Results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased correct verbal resp<strong>on</strong>ses for<br />
each student immediately follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI.<br />
Prior to CBVI, n<strong>on</strong>e of the students verbally<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ded more than 25% correct <strong>on</strong> any<br />
trial. Correct verbal resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was 0% for<br />
David <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Joseph. Hanna r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>omly ordered<br />
items such as “hot dog,” “cheese s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich,”<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “kids meal” or failed to order an item,<br />
while Joseph po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted to the display board <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
David did not attempt to make a verbal re-<br />
sp<strong>on</strong>se. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI, mean correct verbal<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 100% for David, 75%<br />
for Joseph <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hanna. Furthermore, students<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed their ability to verbally resp<strong>on</strong>d<br />
correctly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fast food restaurants. David<br />
performed 100% mean correct verbal resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
after 30 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 56 days while Joseph<br />
averaged 91.7% correct after 26 days <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Hanna averaged 75% correct after 17 days.<br />
David reverted back to po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the display<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e sessi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> failed to answer “here”<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g two sessi<strong>on</strong>s follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI while<br />
Hanna did not order a chicken s<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>wich as<br />
taught dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI, but rather ordered a<br />
cheeseburger dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each of the generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the actual<br />
fast food restaurants.<br />
Due to previous exposure, each student was<br />
able to correctly perform some motor skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the fast food restaurant dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e probe<br />
prior to CBVI. Each was able to c<strong>on</strong>sistently<br />
locate a table to sit down <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Joseph was able<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>sistently take his change, take his tray,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k from the dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k mach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e.<br />
David’s mean performance was 35% correct<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s while Joseph’s<br />
mean performance was 70% correct<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hanna’s mean performance was 55% correct.<br />
Each student dem<strong>on</strong>strated an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his/her ability to perform the motor steps<br />
correctly immediately follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI. David<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed his ability to perform motor steps<br />
after 30 days, but failed to obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 56<br />
days follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI. Likewise, Joseph <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed a napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e sessi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Hanna never obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed a napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the restaurant.<br />
Efficiency<br />
Measures of efficiency were calculated for<br />
number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al trials to criteria with<br />
CBVI. David needed the least number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
trials (16) while Joseph needed 37<br />
trials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hanna needed 41. Joseph dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
the greatest difficulty acquir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
sequence of motor skills while Hanna dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
more difficulty learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g verbal resp<strong>on</strong>ses.<br />
An adaptati<strong>on</strong> to the orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al computer-based<br />
video program was needed for<br />
each student. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the questi<strong>on</strong>, “May I<br />
take your order”? or “How may I help you?”<br />
students failed to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate a verbal resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
prior to delivery of the c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt by<br />
Computer-Based Video Instructi<strong>on</strong> / 55
Figure 3. Graph of students’ performance, circles: verbal resp<strong>on</strong>se; squares: motor resp<strong>on</strong>se.<br />
the computer. It appeared that students did<br />
not underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that they were expected to<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>d to the questi<strong>on</strong> prior to see<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
screen with photographs of three items paired<br />
with the verbal record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g nam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each item.<br />
After 12 trials for each student, a verbal directi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
“What do you say?” was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>serted by the<br />
56 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the cashier’s questi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Figure 3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates an immediate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
percentage of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses for each student<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the adaptati<strong>on</strong> (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated by<br />
two slash marks <strong>on</strong> the graph).<br />
Number of errors after the prompt was also<br />
calculated. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 0 s delay, no errors oc-
curred after the prompt. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 3 s delay,<br />
3.5% errors were committed after the prompt<br />
for David, 7.1% for Hannah, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 11.3% for<br />
Joseph. Joseph had difficulty resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt for motor resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
while Hannah’s errors occurred follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt for verbal resp<strong>on</strong>ses.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that verbal skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fast food<br />
restaurant purchas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills can be taught to<br />
students with moderate to severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities through CBVI. Each student<br />
learned to resp<strong>on</strong>d correctly to requests of<br />
cashiers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> complete motor skills for obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
items across three restaurants. Although<br />
the study supports the computer-based, video<br />
program as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g verbal<br />
skills, these skills were limited to order<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
three generic food <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k items <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> answer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the locati<strong>on</strong> for c<strong>on</strong>sum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g items<br />
(“here”). Generalizati<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the community,<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI, dem<strong>on</strong>strated the<br />
need for additi<strong>on</strong>al verbal skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g:<br />
reject<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g items <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correctly suggested by the<br />
cashier; cancel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g part of an order; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
specific items. In additi<strong>on</strong> to extend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
students’ verbal repertoire, future research<br />
should c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to evaluate use of computerbased<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> as a “st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> al<strong>on</strong>e” means to<br />
deliver <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay<br />
procedure, the current computer program<br />
delivered the c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for motor<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses, the computer program <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently<br />
advanced the program dependent<br />
<strong>on</strong> student resp<strong>on</strong>ses. However, dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g verbal<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor advanced the program<br />
to a subsequent screen, which then provided<br />
re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement to the resp<strong>on</strong>se or delivered<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt. To <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease the<br />
usefulness of computer-based programs to deliver<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, features such as speech recogniti<strong>on</strong><br />
may be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> future research.<br />
Further, some motor skills may not be as<br />
effectively taught us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g observati<strong>on</strong> al<strong>on</strong>e<br />
through computer-based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. For example,<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly David was able to locate a napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI. Unlike pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for items <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g change <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the wallet, the computerbased,<br />
video program required students to<br />
touch a photograph <strong>on</strong> the screen to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate<br />
which motor skill to perform next, however,<br />
students did not actually perform the motor<br />
task dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g CBVI. Future research may exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
use of simulati<strong>on</strong> plus community-based<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> to teach skills requir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g specific<br />
motor resp<strong>on</strong>ses not readily replicated<br />
through computer-based simulati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, future research should evaluate<br />
CBVI to teach skills across more formal or<br />
complex restaurants. Additi<strong>on</strong>al skills such a<br />
social behaviors (e.g. us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> skills (e.g., appropriately<br />
enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>) should be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
thereby teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a cha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent skills<br />
needed with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> restaurant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
When faced with limited ability to travel to<br />
community sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to teach skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
need for repetitive practice, presentati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> through multimedia programs appears<br />
to be an effective means for replicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
life-like scenarios with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a simulated, classroom<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest will be the<br />
applicati<strong>on</strong> of more advanced technology features<br />
as they become more readily available<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to special educati<strong>on</strong> programs.<br />
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Received: 7 August 2003<br />
Initial Acceptance: 1 October 2003<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Acceptance: 15 February 2004<br />
Computer-Based Video Instructi<strong>on</strong> / 59
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005, 40(1), 60–67<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a Pers<strong>on</strong>al Digital Assistant to Enhance the<br />
Independence of an Adolescent with Asperger Syndrome<br />
Heather Fergus<strong>on</strong>, Brenda Smith Myles, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Taku Hagiwara<br />
University of Kansas<br />
Abstract: The Pers<strong>on</strong>al Digital Assistant (PDA), while <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream populati<strong>on</strong>, is not generally<br />
utilized by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with disabilities. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a multiple-basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e design across sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs we tested effectiveness<br />
of us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a PDA to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence of an adolescent with Asperger Syndrome (AS). Results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated<br />
use of the PDA was effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> decreas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the student’s reliance <strong>on</strong> adults to complete tasks at home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> at<br />
school.<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the Individuals with <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Act Amendments of 1997 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Technology-related Assistance for Individuals<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> Act of 1988 as Amended <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
1994, school districts must provide technology<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> related services to support students with<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the general educati<strong>on</strong> curriculum<br />
(Mirenda, Wilk, & Cars<strong>on</strong>, 2000). This act<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced assistive technology as a means of<br />
help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with disabilities overcome<br />
the obstacles that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>hibit them from fully tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
part <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities at school, home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
community, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g enhanc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve memory <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organizati<strong>on</strong> skills<br />
(Bremer & Rauch, 1998; Bull, Bull, Garofalo,<br />
& Harris, 2002; Lewis, 1998, 2000).<br />
Assistive technology <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes a variety of<br />
supports rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from augmentative communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
devices to more comm<strong>on</strong>ly used<br />
desktop <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> laptop computers. One device<br />
that appears promis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for students with disabilities<br />
is the PDA (Swan, Swan, & Van Hover,<br />
2002). The PDA, a h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>held computer that<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly serves as a pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> organizer,<br />
allows data <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>put via an <strong>on</strong>-screen keyboard<br />
or h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recogniti<strong>on</strong> program us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a stylus. With multimedia capabilities, it is<br />
capable of play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g both sound <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> video clips.<br />
Pictures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other visual representati<strong>on</strong>s are<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should<br />
be addressed to Brenda Smith Myles, Department of<br />
Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, University of Kansas, Joseph R.<br />
Pears<strong>on</strong> Build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, 5 th Floor, 1122 W. Campus Road,<br />
Lawrence, KS 66045-3101. E-mail: bmyles@ku.edu<br />
60 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
vivid <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> precise due, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part, to the highresoluti<strong>on</strong><br />
color screens. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the PDA<br />
can be hooked up to a computer to synchr<strong>on</strong>ize<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>nected to network<br />
systems, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Internet for exchang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
e-mails <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> explor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the World Wide<br />
Web. In additi<strong>on</strong>, portable keyboards can c<strong>on</strong>nect<br />
to the Pocket PC to create a discrete<br />
word-process<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g system, enabl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
such as names, addresses, ph<strong>on</strong>e numbers,<br />
dates, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al schedules to be stored for<br />
easy access <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> retrieval. Schedul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> time<br />
management programs are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded as default<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the PDA (Lewis, 1998; Swan<br />
et al.).<br />
Despite their use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream, few<br />
studies have been c<strong>on</strong>ducted <strong>on</strong> the impact of<br />
PDAs. Nevertheless, the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has been<br />
established to date. For <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals without<br />
disabilities, the PDA has assisted students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
organiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g classroom notes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prepar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for<br />
tests (Norris & Soloway, 2003). PDAs have also<br />
been used to support <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with special<br />
needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> career <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> leisure activities (Furniss<br />
et al., 2001) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> (Davies, Stock, &<br />
Wehmeyer, 2002). Davies et al. found that<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s with disabilities who used PDAs functi<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently, learned more,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> required less assistance from support pers<strong>on</strong>nel.<br />
The purpose of this study was to add to the<br />
literature base <strong>on</strong> PDA use with students with<br />
special needs. Specifically, this study was designed<br />
to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e whether a PDA could
enhance the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence of an adolescent<br />
with AS at home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> at school.<br />
Method<br />
Participant<br />
Kent, a Caucasian male <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al year of<br />
public middle school <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Midwestern<br />
United States was the participant. He was 14years<br />
old, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had a diagnosis of AS made by<br />
a medical professi<strong>on</strong>al us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g criteri<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Diagnostic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Statistical Manual of Mental<br />
Disorders – 4 th Editi<strong>on</strong> (American Psychiatric<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong>, 1994). Kent’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligence quotient<br />
was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the above average range <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his<br />
grades were average. He had c<strong>on</strong>siderable difficulty<br />
with his h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it both<br />
tiresome <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tedious.<br />
A Behavior Assessment System for Children<br />
(Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992) was adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istered<br />
to Kent’s resource room teacher, his<br />
mother, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kent himself. His teacher reported<br />
that Kent was rated “At-Risk” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
Problems, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was identified as “Cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ically<br />
Significant” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Anxiety, Atypicality, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Withdrawal. Kent’s mother classified him as<br />
“At-Risk” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hyperactivity, Anxiety, School<br />
Problems, Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Problems, Withdrawal,<br />
Adaptive Skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Behavioral Symptom Index;<br />
he received “Cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ically Significant” scores<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Atypicality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Attenti<strong>on</strong> Problems. The<br />
discrepancy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>ses between Kent’s<br />
teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mother appears c<strong>on</strong>sistent with<br />
other reports by educators <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> parents address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the characteristics of a child with AS<br />
(Barnhill et al., 2000; Myles, Fergus<strong>on</strong>, &<br />
Hagiwara, 2003). Kent rated himself as “At-<br />
Risk” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Anxiety <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Atypicality; other areas<br />
fell <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> “Average” or above ranges <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his report.<br />
An Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile<br />
(Brown & Dunn, 2002) was also completed by<br />
Kent. This measure <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that Kent<br />
avoided sensati<strong>on</strong> much more than most people,<br />
was more sensitive to sensory stimuli than<br />
most people, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exhibited registrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sensory seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a manner similar<br />
to most people.<br />
Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
The study took place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kent’s math <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social<br />
studies classes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his home. Kent’s math<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the resource room <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a small group sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded two other<br />
students, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his social studies class was held<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a general educati<strong>on</strong> classroom with 20<br />
other students.<br />
Target Behavior<br />
Kent relied heavily <strong>on</strong> prompts from his parents<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers to complete his daily activities.<br />
Without multiple prompts from his<br />
mother to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ish rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e daily tasks, for example,<br />
Kent would become distracted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stop<br />
his rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. In school, Kent’s teachers<br />
prompted him to gather the appropriate materials<br />
before class, pay attenti<strong>on</strong> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g class,<br />
submit his homework, record his homework<br />
assignments, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> to his next class.<br />
Kent needed to functi<strong>on</strong> more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently<br />
to complete rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e daily tasks, especially as<br />
dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for greater <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
by age <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grade level. Thus, the behavior<br />
targeted for this study was to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease Kent’s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g home activities,<br />
school tasks, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g home activities<br />
by decreas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his dependence <strong>on</strong> the adults <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
his life.<br />
Instruments<br />
A Hewlett Packard Jornada 560 Pers<strong>on</strong>al Digital<br />
Assistant (Hewlett-Packard, 2001) with Microsoft<br />
W<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dows for Pocket PC Software 2002<br />
(Microsoft, 2002) was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
Kent’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence when complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g early<br />
morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, school, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks. Kent, his<br />
mother, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource room teacher received<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the PDA. In essence, the PDA<br />
rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the same as the product available to<br />
the general public. The calendar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> alarm<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>s that are a part of the Microsoft W<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dows<br />
for the Pocket PC were used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A data collecti<strong>on</strong> sheet was designed to outl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
the four morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> desired times<br />
when Kent needed to complete each task every<br />
morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his home. A sec<strong>on</strong>d data sheet,<br />
created us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the same format, listed four<br />
even<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities. The data collecti<strong>on</strong> form<br />
listed each task <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its start time <strong>on</strong> the left.<br />
Three additi<strong>on</strong>al columns <strong>on</strong> the right allowed<br />
Kent’s mother to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate (a) if he completed<br />
the task <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently, (b) if he com-<br />
Pocket PC <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asperger Syndrome / 61
pleted the task with prompts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) the time<br />
when the task was completed. Kent’s mother<br />
completed this form. A similar data sheet list<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
six tasks dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> math<br />
over a 50-m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute period was used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was completed by the first<br />
author. Figures 1, 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3 present the morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
school, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g data sheets, respectively.<br />
Procedure<br />
A multiple-basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e design across sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs was<br />
used to evaluate the effectiveness of us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
Figure 1. Morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g data collecti<strong>on</strong> sheet.<br />
62 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
PDA to improve the time management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
task completi<strong>on</strong> rate of a junior high student<br />
with AS. Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs were morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks, school<br />
tasks, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e phase, Kent was given a<br />
list of tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated times for the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
activities: (a) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as he was<br />
gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ready for school; (b) at school dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
math <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social studies classes; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
even<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prior to go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to bed. A task was<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently if Kent<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ished the task with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> two m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes of the<br />
time listed <strong>on</strong> his task list. Each of these tasks<br />
were known to Kent prior to the study <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had
een a part of the expected rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e for several<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phases, an alarm<br />
was set <strong>on</strong> the PDA to alert Kent to start each<br />
of the targeted tasks. The alarm sounded audibly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also flashed visually. Kent’s mother<br />
recorded the number of morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks he<br />
completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently with the support of<br />
his PDA, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the number of tasks that she<br />
needed to prompt him to complete, al<strong>on</strong>g<br />
with the time that each task was completed.<br />
The first author recorded the number of<br />
school tasks Kent completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently<br />
with the support of his PDA, the number of<br />
tasks that he required prompts to complete,<br />
Figure 2. School data collecti<strong>on</strong> sheet.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the time that each task was completed.<br />
The number of tasks Kent completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently<br />
was divided by the total number of<br />
tasks to arrive at a percent of tasks completed.<br />
Reliability<br />
Interobserver reliability, assessed <strong>on</strong> 20% of<br />
data days by Kent’s paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>al, was<br />
100%.<br />
Results<br />
As illustrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Figure 4, dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e,<br />
Kent completed 0% of his morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pocket PC <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asperger Syndrome / 63
even<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 63% of his<br />
school tasks without prompts. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
phases, us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the PDA as a primary<br />
prompt, Kent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently completed a<br />
mean of: 47% of morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks, 87% of school<br />
tasks, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 33% of his even<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks. The study<br />
was carried out over a 20-day period. Data<br />
were taken for 15 days at school because the<br />
school year ended. The break <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the data l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities <strong>on</strong><br />
Day 15 represents the transiti<strong>on</strong> between the<br />
last day of school <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the start of summer<br />
vacati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
The purpose of this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> was to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
if a PDA could assist an adolescent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g home- <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> school-based tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently.<br />
Results should be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted<br />
carefully with limitati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s given<br />
Figure 3. Even<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g data collecti<strong>on</strong> sheet.<br />
to the length of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>glesubject<br />
design procedures.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
64 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
Results of this study could, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part, be attributed<br />
to the novelty of the PDA. This device<br />
appeared to appeal to Kent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may have<br />
helped to ease the transiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
He quickly learned how to manipulate<br />
the PDA <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> required rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phases<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not “adjust” them. While Kent required<br />
little tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to use the PDA, by comparis<strong>on</strong>,<br />
his teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mother experienced difficulty<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g how to use the technology, even after<br />
multiple tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s. This is significant<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that technology use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
can <strong>on</strong>ly be successful when adequate support<br />
provided (Mirenda et al., 2000).<br />
Kent’s data <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that generalizati<strong>on</strong> may<br />
have occurred across sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. That is, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>de-
Figure 4. Kent’s performance <strong>on</strong> complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, school, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
Pocket PC <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asperger Syndrome / 65
pendent task completi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the third sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g before the PDA<br />
was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> after the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> had<br />
been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. This f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
appears c<strong>on</strong>sistent with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
by Bock (1994, 1999) who found a similar<br />
pattern of generalizati<strong>on</strong> when teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g categorizati<strong>on</strong><br />
strategies to students with autism<br />
spectrum disorders.<br />
Kent’s mother commented that dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase Kent checked the time the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> announced, “Come <strong>on</strong>! It’s time to go [to<br />
school]!” This was significantly different from<br />
his mother’s prior reports that she had to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uously cajole <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> argue with her s<strong>on</strong> to<br />
get him to leave the house to go to school <strong>on</strong><br />
time each morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In additi<strong>on</strong>, Kent used his<br />
PDA to record his appo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. He also set his PDA so that an<br />
alarm sounded <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a light at the top of the<br />
device flashed. The light <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> alarm would<br />
alert Kent to open the PDA, where his rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>der<br />
would be displayed visually <strong>on</strong> the<br />
screen. Perhaps, given Kent’s sensory issues,<br />
the stimulati<strong>on</strong> of multiple senses allowed him<br />
to beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently (Dunn,<br />
Myles, & Orr, 2002).<br />
Similar to studies by Davies et al. (2002) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Norris <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Soloway (2003), the PDA was effective<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a student’s target behavior.<br />
Although few studies have been c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
with PDAs, cautious optimism exists<br />
regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the use of this technology. In particular,<br />
the PDA <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> similar technology may<br />
be a viable tool for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with special<br />
needs. Positive aspects of palmtop computers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude their portability, small size, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
popularity am<strong>on</strong>g the general public.<br />
Thus, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>spicuous nature of the PDA<br />
allows users to support themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a variety<br />
of sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs without call<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong> to any<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al differences. Use of this type of technology<br />
to render assistance to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with<br />
disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those with AS, may assist<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased levels of participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the community<br />
(Davies et al.; Norris & Soloway).<br />
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407, & 103–218 (1994).<br />
Received: 7 August 2003<br />
Initial Acceptance: 6 October 2003<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Acceptance: 15 February 2004<br />
Pocket PC <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asperger Syndrome / 67
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005, 40(1), 68–79<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Simultaneous Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Various Discrete<br />
Tasks to Students with Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
Bunyam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Birkan<br />
Anadolu University<br />
Abstract: Effectiveness of a simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure was evaluated for students with mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong> at different levels of schools (preschool, primary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>dary grades) us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g various discrete tasks.<br />
Participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded three students whose functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g levels ranged from typically develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
moderate mental disabilities. Effectiveness of a simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure was evaluated through use<br />
of a multiple probe design across behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> replicated across students. Results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that the procedure<br />
was successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g targeted behaviors to all students. Students ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed target behaviors at high rates<br />
up to 7, 18, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 25 weeks after tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalized resp<strong>on</strong>ses across people, materials, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
Limitati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implicati<strong>on</strong>s for future research are discussed.<br />
Special educators strive for effective teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
strategies that m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imize errors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong><br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (Gibs<strong>on</strong> & Schuster, 1992; Tek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> &<br />
Kircaali-Iftar, 2001) Several effective, near-errorless<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedures used to teach children<br />
with disabilities a variety of skills dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the acquisiti<strong>on</strong> phase of learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g have been<br />
discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the literature (Wolery, Ault, &<br />
Doyle, 1992) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude c<strong>on</strong>stant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> progressive<br />
time delay. In additi<strong>on</strong> to these procedures,<br />
simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Gibs<strong>on</strong> &<br />
Schuster) also results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> low student error<br />
rates (Fetko, Schuster, Harley, & Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s,<br />
1999).<br />
Simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is a systematic<br />
form of the antecedent prompt <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> test procedure<br />
because all trials are c<strong>on</strong>ducted with<br />
zero sec<strong>on</strong>d delays between the discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ative<br />
stimulus <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the teacher’s prompt. However,<br />
simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedures are different<br />
from antecedent prompt <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> test strategies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> two dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct ways. First, when us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, a c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
prompt is always used. Antecedent prompt<br />
The author is grateful to Dr. G<strong>on</strong>ul Kircaali-Iftar,<br />
Director, Research Institute for the H<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>icapped,<br />
for her <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sightful review <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feedback, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to Gazi<br />
Acar, special educati<strong>on</strong> teacher, Research Institute<br />
for the H<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>icapped, for collect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g reliability data.<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should be<br />
addressed to Bunyam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Birkan, Anadolu Universitesi,<br />
Engelliler Arastirma Enstitusu, 26470, Eskisehir,<br />
TURKEY. E-mail: bbirkan@anadolu.edu.tr<br />
68 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> test procedures traditi<strong>on</strong>ally have not<br />
used c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt as evidenced by variable<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sometimes high learner error rates<br />
(Gibs<strong>on</strong> & Schuster, 1992; Schuster & Griffen,<br />
1993; Johns<strong>on</strong>, Schuster, & Bell, 1996). Sec<strong>on</strong>d,<br />
when us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g antecedent prompt <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> test<br />
procedures, probe or test trials can occur at<br />
any po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> time but usually have occurred<br />
immediately after tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trials <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a modellead-test<br />
format (Wolery et al., 1992). The<br />
probe trials used dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g always occur immediately prior to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Schuster <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Griffen (1993),<br />
when us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, “A natural<br />
discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ative stimulus is presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
is followed immediately by a c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
prompt. Learners then imitate the prompt.<br />
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce learners never have an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent opportunity<br />
to resp<strong>on</strong>d dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al trials,<br />
probe trials are c<strong>on</strong>ducted to assess the<br />
transfer of stimulus c<strong>on</strong>trol from the c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
prompt used dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al trials to<br />
the natural discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ative stimulus” (p. 300).<br />
Although not extensively researched like<br />
other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al strategies appear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
literature, research has shown some examples<br />
of the effectiveness of simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks to students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
moderate mental disabilities (Gibs<strong>on</strong> & Schuster,<br />
1992; Schuster & Griffen).<br />
Though the number of studies report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
use of simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is limited, re-
search <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates that it has been used successfully<br />
with elementary-aged students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> preschoolers<br />
to teach both discrete <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
tasks (Ault, Wolery, Gast, Doyle, & Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
1990; Dogan & Tek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-Iftar, 2002; Doyle, Gast,<br />
Wolery, Ault, & Meyer, 1992; S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>glet<strong>on</strong>, Schuster,<br />
Morse, & Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, 1999).<br />
Schuster, Griffen, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Wolery (1992) found<br />
simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to be slightly more<br />
efficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g elementary age students<br />
with moderate mental disabilities to identify<br />
grocery words expressively. In an efficiency<br />
study that has been reported to date, simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was found to be more efficient<br />
than c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay when the procedures<br />
were used to teach grocery sight<br />
words to elementary students with moderate<br />
mental retardati<strong>on</strong> (Schuster et al., 1992). In<br />
the <strong>on</strong>ly study that has reported us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to teach a cha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed task,<br />
Schuster <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Griffen (1993) found that the<br />
procedure was effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g four elementary<br />
students to make juice from frozen<br />
c<strong>on</strong>centrate. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>glet<strong>on</strong>, Schuster, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ault<br />
(1995) used simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to teach<br />
two elementary students with moderate retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
to expressively identify photographs of<br />
community signs (e.g., stop <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exit) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structive feedback about signs<br />
(e.g., ‘Exit means to go out’). Some of the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structive feedback was acquired by the participants.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
has been effective when teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sight<br />
word read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to student with moderate mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong> at the elementary (Griffen,<br />
Schuster, & Morse, 1998) as well as the high<br />
school level (S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>glet<strong>on</strong> et al., 1999).<br />
Although limited <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> number, several studies<br />
have reported the effectiveness of simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g when used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e<br />
arrangements to teach discrete tasks. Gibs<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Schuster (1992) found simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to be effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g three of<br />
four preschool children with <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> without developmental<br />
delays, to read nouns that had<br />
been selected from storybooks. MacFarl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-<br />
Smith, Schuster, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Stevens (1993) taught<br />
three preschool children with developmental<br />
delays to identify fruits <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vegetables, while<br />
Wolery, Holcombe, Werts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cipoll<strong>on</strong>i<br />
(1993) used simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to teach<br />
five preschoolers with developmental delays to<br />
identify rebus symbols. Wolery et al. also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
classificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> perta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to the rebus symbols as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structive feedback,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> found that participants acquired some of<br />
this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> when simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
was used. Tek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kircaali-Iftar (2002)<br />
found that both simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay were effective but simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was more efficient than<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> term of the number of<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g errors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time through criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g three preschoolers with developmental<br />
delays receptively identify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g animals.<br />
Dogan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-Iftar (2002) found<br />
that simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g three preschoolers with developmental<br />
delays receptively identify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g occupati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
from picture cards.<br />
Students with mental retardati<strong>on</strong> are likely<br />
to have different educati<strong>on</strong>al goals. No study<br />
was found that taught various tasks to each<br />
student <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same study us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e to <strong>on</strong>e<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al arrangement. Only two studies<br />
were located <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which different stimuli were<br />
used to teach different tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a small group<br />
arrangement. In the first study (Brown & Holvoet,<br />
1982), <strong>on</strong>e student was taught to open<br />
an envelope, remove an advertisement, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
attach it to a cork board. A sec<strong>on</strong>d student was<br />
taught to manually sign ‘picture’ when shown<br />
a photograph. In the sec<strong>on</strong>d study (Fickel,<br />
Schuster, & Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, 1998), <strong>on</strong>e student was<br />
taught to identify expressively 12 unlabeled<br />
outl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es of states from maps of the United<br />
States. A sec<strong>on</strong>d student was taught to verbally<br />
state the sums of six additi<strong>on</strong> facts. A third<br />
student was taught to dem<strong>on</strong>strate the manual<br />
signs for six communicati<strong>on</strong> picture symbols.<br />
And a fourth student was taught to expressively<br />
identify 24 nati<strong>on</strong>al flags.<br />
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has been experimentally<br />
evaluated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly a limited number<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s, the lack of research<br />
where subjects are taught various tasks, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
absence of resp<strong>on</strong>se prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g research with<br />
students with mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
research is warranted (Dogan & Tek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-Iftar,<br />
2002; Gibs<strong>on</strong> & Schuster, 1992; S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>glet<strong>on</strong> et<br />
al., 1999; Tek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> & Kircaali-Iftar, 2002).<br />
This study addresses three research questi<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
(a) Will simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g be effective<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different discrete tasks to<br />
three students with mental retardati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sight words, receptively identify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
digit numbers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> hours,<br />
halves, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quarters? (b) Will students ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-<br />
Simultaneous Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Discrete Tasks / 69
ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the acquired tasks overtime? (c) Will students<br />
generalize the acquired tasks across people,<br />
materials, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs?<br />
Method<br />
Participants<br />
Three students referred to the developmental<br />
disabilities unit of the Research Institute for<br />
the H<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>icapped at Anadolu University, Turkey<br />
to enroll <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a special educati<strong>on</strong> support<br />
service participated. They were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
regular educati<strong>on</strong> classrooms at various levels<br />
(preschool, primary, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>dary grades).<br />
Each student was taught a different discrete<br />
task us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different stimuli. Students ranged<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> age from 6 to 13 years. No student received<br />
medicati<strong>on</strong> or had known sensory impairments<br />
that affected his or her participati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Erol was a six year four m<strong>on</strong>th old, male. He<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the mild range of mental retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
with an IQ score of 58 accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the<br />
Stanford-B<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>et Intelligence Scale (SBIS). He<br />
was able to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
He performed many gross motor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e motor skills of his age. He was able to<br />
perform most self-care skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently.<br />
His weaknesses were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> problem solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, acquir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
some c<strong>on</strong>cepts such as positi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast. He attended a preschool program<br />
four days a week for four hours each day <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a regular class with 16 other children.<br />
He attended morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Yunus was an eight year 10 m<strong>on</strong>th old,<br />
male. He had Down syndrome <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the moderate range of mental retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
with an IQ score of 38 accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the SBIS.<br />
Yunus’ strengths were his gross <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e motor<br />
skills, performed most self-care skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently.<br />
Areas of weaknesses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded receptive<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expressive communicati<strong>on</strong> skills, social<br />
peer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perceptual discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
skills. He attended a primary school program<br />
five days a week for three hours each day<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a regular class with 25 other children.<br />
He attended afterno<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> was a 13 year 8 m<strong>on</strong>th old, female.<br />
She functi<strong>on</strong>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the moderate range of<br />
mental retardati<strong>on</strong> with an SBIS IQ score of<br />
45. Her weaknesses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded vocati<strong>on</strong>al skills,<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> skills, community skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
social peer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>, while her strengths<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded basic read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, math, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>ey<br />
skills. She attended a sec<strong>on</strong>dary school program<br />
five days a week for three hours each day<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a regular class with 30 other children.<br />
She attended morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Prerequisite skills were determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed through<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er observati<strong>on</strong> prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
study. Each student (a) could attend to a task<br />
for 10-15 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, (b) possessed adequate visual<br />
acuity to see target words, numbers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> time<br />
<strong>on</strong> a clock when they were presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
various forms, (c) possessed adequate auditory<br />
acuity to hear the discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ative stimulus,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> praise statements,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (d) could verbally <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> physically imitate a<br />
teacher’s model. In additi<strong>on</strong>, Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> named<br />
numbers 1 to 12, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> named hour h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of any clock. Sec<strong>on</strong>dary re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcers<br />
also were identified for each student prior<br />
to the study.<br />
The author c<strong>on</strong>ducted all experimental sessi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a special educati<strong>on</strong> teacher tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> data collecti<strong>on</strong> procedures collected reliability<br />
data.<br />
Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
All experimental sessi<strong>on</strong>s were c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a room (6 mX6m)located at<br />
the Research Institute for the H<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>icapped.<br />
Instructi<strong>on</strong> was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a 1:1 arrangement. Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> student sat face to face at a table. Sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
occurred <strong>on</strong> week days.<br />
Experimental Design<br />
A multiple probe design across behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
replicated across students was used to evaluate<br />
effectiveness of simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedures.<br />
Experimental c<strong>on</strong>trol is dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
when a change <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dependent variable<br />
occurred <strong>on</strong>ly after the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
variable was implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a time lagged<br />
fashi<strong>on</strong> (Tawney, & Gast, 1984).<br />
General Procedures<br />
70 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er used a simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
procedure to teach students with mental retardati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Tasks for each student <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
three sets of stimuli. The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
<strong>on</strong>e sessi<strong>on</strong> per day, which c<strong>on</strong>sisted of<br />
a daily probe sessi<strong>on</strong> followed by the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>. The maximum amount of time allocated<br />
for each sessi<strong>on</strong> was about 10 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Ses-
si<strong>on</strong>s were c<strong>on</strong>ducted week days after school<br />
hours for two students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g school<br />
hours for <strong>on</strong>e student.<br />
Screen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Task Selecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Digit numbers, expressive words, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> hours, halves, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quarters were selected<br />
for the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g reas<strong>on</strong>s: (a) targeted<br />
stimuli <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded the same task taught <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
classrooms, (b) ability to read digit numbers,<br />
expressive words, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
hours, halves, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quarters facilitates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
life skills, (c) acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of targeted stimuli<br />
reduces negative attenti<strong>on</strong> from peers<br />
when <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (d) each<br />
student’s IEP <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded an objective for read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
digit numbers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expressive words, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time. Screen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedures resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
25 unknown words for Yunus, n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e digit numbers<br />
for Erol, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> hours, halves,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quarters for Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er presented each potential item<br />
twice us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a 1:1 format <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recorded student<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses as (a) correct, (b) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct, or (c)<br />
no resp<strong>on</strong>se. Length of the resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval<br />
was 4 s follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the task directi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> presentati<strong>on</strong><br />
of the stimulus. The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er praised<br />
correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ignored <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
no resp<strong>on</strong>ses. Students received praise for attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> the average of every fourth resp<strong>on</strong>se.<br />
At the end of each screen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
students chose a re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcer (e.g., pretzel,<br />
c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>y, cracker, sticker etc.). For each student,<br />
an item was targeted for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> if <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct<br />
or no resp<strong>on</strong>ses occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all screen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Erol’s task was to identify whether or not he<br />
receptively identified digit numbers (i.e., 1-2-<br />
3-4-5-6-7-8-9) across three sets (i.e., three digit<br />
numbers per set). Erol’s teacher selected the<br />
task based <strong>on</strong> which curriculum-based skills he<br />
had not acquired <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classroom. Each<br />
digit number was marked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> red <strong>on</strong> Mat Book<br />
(Kilicoglu, Micozkadioglu, & Dede, 2001)<br />
used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms for preschool<br />
grades. Screen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for Erol c<strong>on</strong>sisted of present<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
him with n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e digit numbers from Mat<br />
Book (as described above). N<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e unknown<br />
digit numbers were r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>omly assigned as target<br />
stimuli (three sets of three numbers).<br />
Yunus’ task was to expressively identify 20<br />
expressive words grouped across four sets<br />
(i.e., five expressive words per set). Yunus’<br />
teacher selected the task based <strong>on</strong> which curriculum-based<br />
skills he had not acquired <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classroom. Yunus had learned to recognize<br />
a few of the expressive words of Let’s<br />
Start Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Dogan, Guden, & P<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ar, 2001)<br />
used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms for primary<br />
grades but not many other words. Screen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
for Yunus c<strong>on</strong>sisted of show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g him 20 flashcards<br />
(measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 8 cm by 12 cm) pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted<br />
approximately 3 cm high us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a permanent<br />
black marker <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex cards. N<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e unknown<br />
expressive words (father, board, table, desk,<br />
w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dow, plot, sister, mother, door) were r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>omly<br />
assigned as target stimuli (three sets of<br />
three words).<br />
Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s task was to verbally state time <strong>on</strong><br />
a clock (three sets of five stimuli each) when<br />
presented with clock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the teacher<br />
state the positi<strong>on</strong> of hour h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute<br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the clock. The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er selected target<br />
behaviors of tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time for Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> at her<br />
teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> parents request. Screen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for<br />
Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sisted of (a) present<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g her with<br />
15 different time situati<strong>on</strong>s (<strong>on</strong>e at a time)<br />
which were r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>omly ordered (five stimuli of<br />
hours, five stimuli of halves, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> five stimuli of<br />
quarters), (b) stat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the positi<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to tell the time.<br />
Materials<br />
Instructi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong>s required stimulus cards,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a clock. The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er selected target digit<br />
numbers for Erol from the Mat Book used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms for preschool grades.<br />
Digit numbers were pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted approximately 7<br />
cm high us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a permanent black marker <strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex cards measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 10 cm by 15 cm. The<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er selected target expressive words for<br />
Yunus from the Let’s Start Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Book to learn<br />
read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms<br />
for primary grades. Words were pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted<br />
approximately 3 cm high us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a permanent<br />
black marker <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex cards measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 8 cm<br />
by 12 cm. The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er selected a clock with a<br />
diameter of 19 cm <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hour numbers pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted<br />
2 cm high us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a permanent black marker,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with the m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g just like a<br />
real clock.<br />
Full Probe C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, the teacher c<strong>on</strong>ducted a<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum of three full probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s (a full<br />
Simultaneous Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Discrete Tasks / 71
probe c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>) with each student across all<br />
stimulus sets <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the task us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the 1:1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
format. He presented each item three<br />
times <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>om order for a total of 353 trials<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial full probe c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s (93 trials<br />
for Erol, 95 trials for Yunus, 165 trials for<br />
Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>). The teacher secured the student’s<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong>, presented the stimulus followed by<br />
the task directi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> waited 4sforaresp<strong>on</strong>se.<br />
If the student resp<strong>on</strong>ded correctly,<br />
the teacher delivered praise <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the form of<br />
smil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, nodd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g affirmatively, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
“yes” or “good.” The teacher waited an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter<br />
trial-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval of 4 s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> presented the next<br />
stimulus. If the student did not resp<strong>on</strong>d or<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correctly, the teacher waited the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-trial <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> presented the next<br />
stimulus. Student attenti<strong>on</strong> was praised <strong>on</strong> a<br />
VR4 schedule. The teacher offered a tangible<br />
re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement (e.g., pretzel, c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>y, cracker,<br />
or sticker etc.) at the end of each probe sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Full probe c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s also occurred after<br />
each student reached criteri<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> each stimulus<br />
set. These full probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s were c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1:1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> format. Interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued when data trend for the<br />
untra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed sets was stable.<br />
Daily Probe Sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er c<strong>on</strong>ducted a daily probe sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
immediately prior to every tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
assess acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of stimuli currently be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. Daily probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s began when<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for all students were stable. The<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er used the same format as described for<br />
full probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Each student received <strong>on</strong>e<br />
trial per stimulus item. Data collected dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
daily probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s were used to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
when each set met criteri<strong>on</strong> (80% accuracy for<br />
three days).<br />
Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Procedures<br />
The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er used a simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
procedure dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s. One<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong> occurred each day immediately<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g daily probe sessi<strong>on</strong>. Each student<br />
was taught a different task with each task<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of three to five sets of stimuli. Student<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong> was praised <strong>on</strong> a VR4 schedule.<br />
The maximum time allocated for each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong> was 5 to 10 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. At the end of<br />
72 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
each sessi<strong>on</strong>, students received descriptive<br />
praise for participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were allowed to<br />
choose a re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcer.<br />
Each digit number for Erol received three<br />
trials for a total of n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e trials per sessi<strong>on</strong>. A<br />
trial began with the teacher secur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
by say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, “Hi Erol, we are together aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> to<br />
study numbers. Are you ready?” The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er<br />
then placed the stimulus cards <strong>on</strong> the table <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fr<strong>on</strong>t of Erol <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> said, “Name the red number?”<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> immediately provided the answer<br />
(i.e., the c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt). If Erol resp<strong>on</strong>ded<br />
correctly with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4 s, the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er said,<br />
“Yes, that is great” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> went to the next trial.<br />
No resp<strong>on</strong>ses or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses resulted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er repeat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the questi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the prompt a sec<strong>on</strong>d time. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued until Erol reached 100%<br />
correct resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> three c<strong>on</strong>secutive daily<br />
probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The same <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al procedures were<br />
used for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Yunus words. Yunus received<br />
three trials <strong>on</strong> each word for a total of<br />
n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e trials per sessi<strong>on</strong>. Yunus’ trials began with<br />
the teacher secur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong> by say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, “It is<br />
time to learn some words Yunus. Are you<br />
ready?” After receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an affirmative answer<br />
the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er placed the stimulus cards <strong>on</strong> the<br />
table <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of Yunus. The teacher said,<br />
“Show me, which <strong>on</strong>e is the door?” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> immediately<br />
provided the answer (i.e., the c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
prompt). If Yunus resp<strong>on</strong>ded correctly<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4 s the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er said “Yes, that is great”<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> went to the next trial. No resp<strong>on</strong>ses or<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er repeat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the questi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
prompt a sec<strong>on</strong>d time. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> sessi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
until the Yunus reached 100% correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> three c<strong>on</strong>secutive daily probe<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> received two trials per stimulus<br />
item for a total 10 trials per sessi<strong>on</strong> (five different<br />
time situati<strong>on</strong>s were r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>omly assigned<br />
for each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong> of each stimulus<br />
set). Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s trials began with the teacher<br />
secur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong> by say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, “Well Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
are you ready to learn tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time?” He then<br />
presented the stimulus time <strong>on</strong> the clock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
said, “What time is it?” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> immediately provided<br />
the answer. When Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>ded<br />
correctly, the teacher provided verbal c<strong>on</strong>firmati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> sessi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued until<br />
Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> reached 100% correct resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
three c<strong>on</strong>secutive daily probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s.
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance Probe Procedures<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> targeted tasks<br />
were built <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the full probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s that<br />
occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the multiple probe design. Each<br />
time a set of stimuli reached criteri<strong>on</strong>, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
data were collected <strong>on</strong> the previously<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed sets. In additi<strong>on</strong>, us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a 1:1 format as<br />
described for screen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s also occurred 7, 18, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 25 days<br />
after the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al set of stimuli for each student<br />
reached criteri<strong>on</strong>. These sessi<strong>on</strong>s occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
an identical format to screen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> Probe Procedures<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classroom teacher c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s prior to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial<br />
full probe c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g all<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. These sessi<strong>on</strong>s occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
classrooms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stimulus cards <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> objectives<br />
used dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these sessi<strong>on</strong>s were different<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> color or size from those used dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Moreover, the targeted behaviors<br />
were required from students by their teachers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms.<br />
Reliability<br />
Dependent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent variable reliability<br />
data were collected <strong>on</strong> at least 30% of daily<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> full probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong>;<br />
50% of ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s by reliability observers. The<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er used the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t-by-po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t method to calculate<br />
the dependent measure reliability.<br />
Number of agreements was divided by number<br />
of agreements plus disagreements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
multiplied by 100 (Tawney, & Gast, 1984).<br />
The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er calculated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent variable<br />
reliability by divid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g number of teacher<br />
behaviors observed by number of teacher<br />
behaviors planned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by 100<br />
(Bill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gsley, White, & Muns<strong>on</strong>, 1980). Independent<br />
variable reliability measured the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
teacher behaviors, when appropriate:<br />
(a) hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g materials ready, (b) provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong>al cue, (c) present<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the stimulus<br />
card or object, (d) deliver<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the prompt, (e)<br />
wait<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 4 s, (f) deliver<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g correct c<strong>on</strong>sequences,<br />
(g) provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong>al praise <strong>on</strong><br />
the correct schedule, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (h) wait<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-trial<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval.<br />
Results<br />
Reliability<br />
Reliability data <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated 100% agreement<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g full probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s, 90% (range 87-<br />
100) agreement dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g daily probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
100% agreement dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g generalizati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
80% (range 77-100) agreement dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the dependent<br />
variable.<br />
Independent variable reliability data collected<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that<br />
the teacher implemented the behaviors with<br />
an overall mean accuracy of 100%. Independent<br />
variable reliability data collected dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that the teacher<br />
implemented the procedures appropriately<br />
with an overall mean accuracy of 100%.<br />
Effectiveness<br />
Percentage of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses to targeted<br />
stimuli dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g probe (basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, full, daily, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance) sessi<strong>on</strong>s for each of the three<br />
students are shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Figures 1, 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3,<br />
respectively. Open circles represent percentage<br />
of correct resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g full probe<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong>s, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>. All subjects met criteria<br />
after <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong> of simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
These data revealed that simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different<br />
discrete tasks to children with mental retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms.<br />
Instructi<strong>on</strong>al data for each student, number<br />
of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s, number of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trials,<br />
number <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> percentage of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g errors,<br />
amount of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time, amount of daily<br />
probe time, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> number <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> percentage of<br />
probe errors are shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table 1.<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance Data<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s were built <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
the study by us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a multiple probe design.<br />
This allowed m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the acquired stimuli<br />
throughout the study dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g full probe c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance data also were collected<br />
7, 18, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 25 days follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al full<br />
probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s. These data are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figures 1-3. Students resp<strong>on</strong>ded to targeted<br />
stimuli with a mean 100% dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the 7, 18,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 25 days ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Simultaneous Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Discrete Tasks / 73
Figure 1. Number of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses for Erol dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g full, daily, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Closed circles represent daily probe, full probe, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance probe data, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> open<br />
circles represent generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe data.<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> Data<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe data were collected <strong>on</strong><br />
students’ performance across different people,<br />
stimuli, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs before <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> after<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Before <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, students were<br />
given a generalizati<strong>on</strong> pre-test. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
pre-test students could not identify their targeted<br />
stimuli. After <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, all students<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ded with 100% accuracy <strong>on</strong> all stimulus<br />
sets dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g post-test for generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
74 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
The purpose of this study was to assess the<br />
effectiveness of simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for
Figure 2. Number of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses for Yunus dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g full, daily, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Closed circles represent daily probe, full probe, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance probe data, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> open<br />
circles represent generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe data.<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g various tasks to students with mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong>. In additi<strong>on</strong>, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> of the targeted stimuli were assessed.<br />
Several c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s can be drawn from<br />
the results of this study.<br />
First, simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was effective<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g various tasks to students with mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong>. All students acquired their targeted<br />
stimuli with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 93 tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s (c<strong>on</strong>-<br />
ducted over a period of 2 m<strong>on</strong>ths) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the behaviors up to 7, 18, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 25<br />
days with 100% accuracy. Data collected dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
pretests <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> posttests <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that students<br />
generalized their acquired behaviors<br />
across pers<strong>on</strong>s, sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> materials with<br />
100% accuracy. Previous studies have used simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with preschoolers<br />
(Dogan & Tek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-Iftar, 2002; Gibs<strong>on</strong> & Schus-<br />
Simultaneous Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Discrete Tasks / 75
Figure 3. Number of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses for Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g full, daily, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Closed circles represent daily probe, full probe, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance probe data, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> open<br />
circles represent generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe data.<br />
ter, 1992; MacFarl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> et al., 1993; Tek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> &<br />
Kircaali-Iftar, 2002; Wolery et al., 1993), elementary<br />
students (Schuster et al., 1992; Schuster<br />
& Griffen, 1993; S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>glet<strong>on</strong> et al., 1995) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
high school students (Johns<strong>on</strong> et al., 1996).<br />
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce this study was c<strong>on</strong>ducted with preschool<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elementary students for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g discrete<br />
tasks, the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of the study extend the<br />
current literature about simultaneous prompt-<br />
76 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure when students’ levels of schools<br />
are taken <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
these f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, taken with those from previous<br />
<strong>on</strong> simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that the<br />
procedure is easy to use (e.g., Gibs<strong>on</strong> & Schuster).<br />
Thus, it may have broad applicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> early <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elementary educati<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>texts (Wolery et al., 1993).<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d, students were taught several tasks
TABLE 1<br />
Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Data for Each Student <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> Set Through Criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
Student/Set<br />
No.<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
No.<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
trials<br />
No.<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
errors<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same study. Only <strong>on</strong>e other study was<br />
located that taught more than <strong>on</strong>e tasks us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
different stimuli to a small group of students<br />
(Fickel et al., 1998). Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different prompts<br />
(i.e., verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> manual) across students is<br />
also an additi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
Fickel et al., “This is important given the trend<br />
toward the use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs with students<br />
with disabilities. This trend will require<br />
students to learn <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> more heterogeneous sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> group will place dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <strong>on</strong> teachers<br />
for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g diverse students with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
same <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al group” (p. 239).<br />
Third, several reas<strong>on</strong>s may exist for c<strong>on</strong>duct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> systematic<br />
strategies are exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
students with mental retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
classrooms. Almost all teachers want to: (a)<br />
teach their students with maximum effectiveness<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum amount of time, (b) overcome<br />
barriers for children who have diverse<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g needs, (c) teach different c<strong>on</strong>cepts<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (d) avoid teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different<br />
k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of tasks with different stimuli across students<br />
with vary<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cognitive abilities because<br />
of perceived difficulty. However, our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
variable reliability data <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that the<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er implemented the required teacher behaviors<br />
with a high degree of accuracy. Whatever<br />
the reas<strong>on</strong>, as more students with mental<br />
%<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
errors<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> time<br />
(m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>:sec)<br />
Daily probe<br />
time<br />
(m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>:sec)<br />
No. of<br />
Probe<br />
errors<br />
% probe<br />
errors<br />
Erol<br />
1 15 45 0 0 135 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 18 s 45 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 05 s 17 37<br />
2 11 33 0 0 99 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 16 s 33 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 08 s 9 27<br />
3 5 15 0 0 45 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 44 s 15 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 12 s 5 33<br />
Total 31 93 0 0 280 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 18 s 93 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 25 s 31 33<br />
Yunus<br />
1 16 48 0 0 144 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 01 s 58 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 23 s 13 27<br />
2 8 32 0 0 96 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 55 s 24 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 01 s 8 25<br />
3 5 15 0 0 45 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 22 s 15 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15 s 4 26<br />
Total 29 95 0 0 286 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 18 s 97 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 39 s 25 26<br />
Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
1 12 60 0 0 96 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 36 s 48 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 36 s 21 35<br />
2 16 80 0 0 128 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 19 s 64 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 42 s 39 48<br />
3 5 25 0 0 40 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 05 s 20 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 23 s 11 44<br />
Total 33 165 0 0 265 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 00 s 133 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 41 s 71 43<br />
Gr<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Total 93 353 0 0 831 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 36 s 324 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 45 s 127 35<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong>, especially those with low <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidence<br />
disabilities, move <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to heterogeneous<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classroom sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
purposes, additi<strong>on</strong>al research will be<br />
needed to guide the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al efforts of<br />
classroom teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
(Fickel et al., 1998).<br />
Fourth, amount of time that is spent <strong>on</strong><br />
daily probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s must be c<strong>on</strong>sidered when<br />
implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure.<br />
In this study, simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved high probe time to criteri<strong>on</strong>. However,<br />
this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al procedure resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
high student performance dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalizati<strong>on</strong> probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s as it<br />
was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other studies with simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (e.g., S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>glet<strong>on</strong> et al., 1999). S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce<br />
a major goal of educati<strong>on</strong> for students is to<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalize acquired behaviors,<br />
the additi<strong>on</strong>al probe time that may be associated<br />
with simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g may be defensible.<br />
However, additi<strong>on</strong>al research is<br />
needed before def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itive statements can be<br />
made (S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>glet<strong>on</strong> et al.,).<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, the students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> moderate<br />
disabilities are believed to have benefited<br />
from this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. Although they had no<br />
history with simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure,<br />
they acquired <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalized all of<br />
their targeted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
Simultaneous Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Discrete Tasks / 77
the acquisiti<strong>on</strong>s with 100% accuracy. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate behaviors often observed<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms<br />
(e.g., be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g off-task, n<strong>on</strong> compliance,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aggressi<strong>on</strong> toward others) did not occur<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this study. The subjects were observed<br />
to smile, cooperate, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> participate appropriately<br />
throughout the study. Future research<br />
should assess levels of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate behaviors<br />
exhibited by students when engaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> various<br />
group <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> arrangements<br />
as well as with various <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
strategies (e.g., simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
model-lead-test, system of least prompts) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
techniques (e.g., active versus passive error<br />
correcti<strong>on</strong> procedures).<br />
Although results of this study were positive,<br />
data should be viewed cautiously s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce several<br />
limitati<strong>on</strong>s exist. First, there are several arguments<br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st <strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> provided<br />
out of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms such as removal of<br />
students from the regular classroom for certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
periods, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> difficulties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
between resource room <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regular<br />
classroom (All<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong> & Johnst<strong>on</strong>, 1989;<br />
Kircaali-Iftar, 1992; Reisberg & Wolf, 1986;<br />
Ste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Le<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>hardt, & Bickel, 1989). Sec<strong>on</strong>d, although<br />
all tasks taught <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study were discrete<br />
tasks, they have different forms. Therefore,<br />
these skills may require different<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g abilities. Third, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> was delivered<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a room that is not located <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
students’ schools. Fourth, a high rate of probe<br />
errors occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study. This is c<strong>on</strong>sistent<br />
with other studies us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g simultaneous prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
procedures (Gibs<strong>on</strong> & Schuster, 1992;<br />
Griffen et al., 1998; Schuster et al., 1992; S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>glet<strong>on</strong><br />
et al., 1995; Fickel et al., 1998). On the<br />
other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, no tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g error occurred dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with all students; whereas 33%<br />
errors occurred dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g daily probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
with Erol, 26% errors occurred dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g daily<br />
probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s with Yunus, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 43% errors<br />
occurred dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g daily probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s with<br />
Yasem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. These f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g are c<strong>on</strong>sistent with<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of previous studies (e.g., S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>glet<strong>on</strong> et<br />
al., 1999). Future research may assess effects<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>termittent daily probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> acquisiti<strong>on</strong><br />
of the target behaviors. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g corrective feedback <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>sequent<br />
event dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these daily probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
may decrease error rates currently found.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>, results suggest the possibility<br />
of further research with students across <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tel-<br />
lectual functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g levels. This is particularly<br />
important as the trend <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong> moves<br />
towards more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> classes are expected to be resp<strong>on</strong>sible<br />
for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g many skills to more than <strong>on</strong>e<br />
child with differ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g diagnoses. In this case,<br />
this study can be replicated with small <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
large group arrangement to help teachers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> observati<strong>on</strong>al learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g can be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigated.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, similar skills can be exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the effectiveness of different<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g methods. Moreover, although simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has been compared to<br />
other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al procedures when teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
discrete tasks (i.e., Schuster et al., 1992), the<br />
effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> efficiency of the simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure should be compared to<br />
other strategies (e.g., progressive time delay,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay, system of least prompts,<br />
etc.) with various discrete tasks so that teachers<br />
can provide the most appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
possible to students (Parrott, Schuster,<br />
Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, & Gassaway, 2000).<br />
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Merrill.<br />
Tek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, E., & Kircaali-Iftar, G. (2001). Ozel egitimde<br />
yanlissiz ogretim y<strong>on</strong>temleri (Erroorless learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
procedures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong>). Ankara, Turkey:<br />
Nobel Yay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evi.<br />
Tek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, E., & Kircaali-Iftar, G. (2002). Comparis<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> efficiency of two resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedures delivered by sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tutors.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 37, 283–299.<br />
Wolery, M., Ault, M. J., & Doyle, P. M. (1992).<br />
Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students with moderate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> severe h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>icaps:<br />
Use of resp<strong>on</strong>se prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategies. NY: L<strong>on</strong>gman.<br />
Wolery, M., Holcombe, A., Werts, M. G., & Cipoll<strong>on</strong>i,<br />
R. M. (1993). Effects of simultaneous<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structive feedback. Early <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Development, 4, 20–31.<br />
Received: 7 August 2003<br />
Initial Acceptance: 2 October 2003<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Acceptance: 15 February 2004<br />
Simultaneous Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Discrete Tasks / 79
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005, 40(1), 80–96<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mealtime Behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Children<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Youth with <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Rita L. Bailey <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Maureen E. Angell<br />
Ill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ois State University<br />
Abstract: A s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle-subject multiple treatment design counterbalanced across n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e participants with moderate to<br />
severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple disabilities was used to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the efficacy of a school-based multi-treatment package (a<br />
comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed dysphagia treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement behavior management program) for children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
youth (ages 4-17) with feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g problems as compared to use of a dysphagia treatment program or a positive<br />
re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement behavior management program al<strong>on</strong>e. While results found improvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> development of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive mealtime behaviors with all <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> programs, the comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> package was<br />
the most effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> strategy. These results may help professi<strong>on</strong>als establish best practices for treatment<br />
of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools.<br />
Problematic mealtime behaviors are a comm<strong>on</strong><br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children diagnosed with feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g problems collectively<br />
known as dysphagia (Arveds<strong>on</strong>, 1997; Kerw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
1999; Logemann, 2000; Munk & Repp, 1994).<br />
These behaviors may develop for a variety of<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> range from those that are socially<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate to those that have a detrimental<br />
effect <strong>on</strong> nutriti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> health. These challenges<br />
often make mealtimes unpleasant.<br />
Many problems that children experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the areas of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, growth, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> food acceptance<br />
have been attributed to a comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
of the medical or physical c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
child, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate food selecti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate dynamics dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Satter,<br />
1990). Inappropriate caregiver-child <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that have been found to precipitate<br />
problems may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude attenti<strong>on</strong> for negative<br />
behaviors, resp<strong>on</strong>ses to attempts at forced<br />
feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reducti<strong>on</strong> of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g choices due<br />
to food selectivity preferences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
(Christophersen & Hall, 1978).<br />
Children with dysphagia may f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d mealtimes<br />
stressful <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unpleasant. If children<br />
have experienced airway compromise such as<br />
occurs with aspirati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> chok<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, they may<br />
associate these negative experiences with the<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should<br />
be addressed to Rita L. Bailey, Department of Special<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, Ill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ois State University, Campus<br />
Box 5910, Normal, IL 61790-5910.<br />
act of eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Medically fragile children are<br />
often subjected to medically necessary but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>trusive<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aversive oral/facial sensory <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>puts.<br />
Sucti<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, oral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nasal gastric tube placement,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of facial tape to secure<br />
tubes may lead to tactile defensiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
oral hypersensitivity (Comrie & Helm, 1997).<br />
Early experiences with oral sensory stimuli are<br />
often limited for children with neurological<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or physical impairments, especially for<br />
those who experience extensive episodes of<br />
hospitalizati<strong>on</strong>. This may limit new <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> repeated<br />
exposure to foods. This lack of oral<br />
sensory experiences may lead to food aversi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> refusals, a comm<strong>on</strong> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
with eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disturbances (Pelchat &<br />
Pl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er, 1986). Early experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> repeated<br />
exposure to new foods c<strong>on</strong>tributes to development<br />
of food acceptance patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
of food <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>take. In fact, most children are likely<br />
to reject new foods <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially, but they learn to<br />
like them with time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> repeated neutral exposure<br />
(Birch, Johns<strong>on</strong>, & Fisher, 1995; Birch<br />
& Marl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1982). It is clear that eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g does<br />
not exist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> isolati<strong>on</strong> from the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
which it takes place. Caregiver <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences,<br />
physical c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, social, psychological factors,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g envir<strong>on</strong>ment impact the<br />
development of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Statement of the Problem<br />
80 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
Children with comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed dysphagia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> problematic<br />
mealtime behaviors present a particu-
lar challenge for school pers<strong>on</strong>nel <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
supervisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youth<br />
with disabilities. Several authors have described<br />
programs for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g oral-motor<br />
skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> oral-sensory awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
(e.g., Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er, 1987; Bahr, 2001; Gaebler &<br />
Hanzlik, 1996; Hall, 2001; Morris & Kle<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
1987), direct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> compensatory therapies for<br />
improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills (e.g.<br />
Arveds<strong>on</strong>, 1998; Hall; Kovar, 1997; Larnert &<br />
Ekberg, 1995; Logemann, 2000) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior<br />
management programs to improve behavior<br />
at mealtimes (Kerw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1999; Munk & Repp,<br />
1994; Rasnake & L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>scheid, 1987; Siss<strong>on</strong> &<br />
Dix<strong>on</strong>, 1986). Unfortunately, these have not<br />
been widely used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. In<br />
fact, dysphagia treatment by speech-language<br />
pathologists (SLPs) has historically occurred<br />
predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ately <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> medical sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (Silliman,<br />
2000).<br />
Management of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disorders<br />
has become an issue for school-based<br />
SLPs. The American Speech Language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Hear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Associati<strong>on</strong> addressed this issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their Technical Report Executive Summary<br />
(2002) stat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
The area of pediatric swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
disorders is <strong>on</strong>e of the most rapidly evolv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
patient care areas for medically-based<br />
SLPs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other professi<strong>on</strong>als serv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g children.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g number of highrisk<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fants survive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enter educati<strong>on</strong>al programs,<br />
SLPs must acquire medical knowledge<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills to manage swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
disorders (p. 76).<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, while behavior management<br />
programs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dysphagia treatment for management<br />
of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g problems have been described,<br />
there are relatively few studies that<br />
have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigated comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed treatments for<br />
dysphagia co-exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with behavioral feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
problems. The comparative use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> efficacy of<br />
dysphagia treatment programs, behavior management<br />
programs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed treatment<br />
programs is unknown. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
necessary to establish best practices for treatment<br />
of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
youth.<br />
Dysphagia Treatment Methods<br />
Therapies for pediatric dysphagia <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude direct<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> strategies such as oral-motor<br />
exercises <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g maneuvers (Loge-<br />
mann, 2000). Compensatory strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude<br />
positi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for optimal safety <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> airway<br />
protecti<strong>on</strong>, specialized feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g techniques<br />
to change the feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pattern (i.e.,<br />
therapeutic feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g methods), sensory enhancement<br />
procedures, nutriti<strong>on</strong>al enhancement,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of adaptive feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g equipment<br />
to encourage heightened awareness,<br />
maximizati<strong>on</strong> of skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er, 1987; Arveds<strong>on</strong>,<br />
1997; Arveds<strong>on</strong> & Brodsky, 1993; Gaebler &<br />
Hanzlik, 1996; Hall, 2001; Logemann; Morris<br />
& Kle<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1987). Methods chosen vary accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to the specific needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cognitive abilities<br />
of the child.<br />
Behavior Management Methods<br />
While a variety of behavior management programs<br />
are available, this study employed positive<br />
re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement procedures. Positive re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement<br />
protocols use social praise,<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> encouragement, together with<br />
the selective presentati<strong>on</strong> of preferred re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcers<br />
as social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or tangible rewards. A<br />
pre-sessi<strong>on</strong> assessment of re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcer preference<br />
protocol (Gast et al., 2000) was the<br />
method used to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement<br />
preferences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study.<br />
The purpose of this study was to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
the efficacy of a multi-treatment feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mealtime behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> package<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluate: (a) effects of a dysphagia treatment<br />
program <strong>on</strong> development of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive mealtime behaviors, (b) effects<br />
of a positive re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement behavior<br />
management program (PRBMP) <strong>on</strong> development<br />
of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive mealtime<br />
behaviors, (c) effects of a comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed dysphagia<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> PRBMP program package <strong>on</strong> development<br />
of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive mealtime<br />
behaviors, (d) comparative effectiveness of<br />
each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> package <strong>on</strong><br />
development of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive<br />
mealtime behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youth<br />
with disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (e) whether improvements<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> development of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
positive mealtime behaviors will be ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
when <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s are provided by<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed school staff members.<br />
Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mealtime Behaviors / 81
Method<br />
Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
The sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was an elementary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a junior<br />
high school with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a public school district,<br />
located with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a town of approximately 45,000<br />
people, with 10,416 students mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up the<br />
district’s populati<strong>on</strong>. Of this number, 1470<br />
students received special educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> related<br />
services. Three participants ate their<br />
meals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the lunchroom with peers, while six<br />
participants were fed by school pers<strong>on</strong>nel <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their classrooms, due to safety c<strong>on</strong>cerns, need<br />
for proximity to healthcare pers<strong>on</strong>nel, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or<br />
perceived negative effects of the distract<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
lunchroom envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
Participants<br />
Participants were n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youth<br />
with moderate to severe/profound cognitive<br />
disabilities between the ages of 4 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 17. All<br />
participants received special educati<strong>on</strong> services<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had been previously identified with<br />
feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g impairments to the extent to which<br />
they were fed, assisted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or supervised<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the school envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
Categories of cognitive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> physical<br />
disability were established <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> compliance with<br />
the criteria stated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Individuals with <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Act (P.L. 101-476). Licensed<br />
psychologists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students’ eligibility<br />
teams had made a determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of participants’<br />
classificati<strong>on</strong> through use of appropriate<br />
measures of general <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adaptive behavior. See Table 1 for<br />
participant demographic characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
goal targets. Two participant groups (1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2)<br />
were formed by c<strong>on</strong>venience, that is, they<br />
were grouped by classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> schedules.<br />
Group 3 was formed with <strong>on</strong>e participant<br />
from <strong>on</strong>e classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> two participants from<br />
another classroom to achieve equal numbers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each group.<br />
Brett, Participant 1, was a 15-year-old male<br />
diagnosed with Fragile X syndrome <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated<br />
developmental delays. His cognitive disability<br />
was estimated at moderate/severe. Observati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Schedule for Oral<br />
Motor Assessment (SOMA) (Skuse, Stevens<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Reilly, & Mathisen, 1995) evaluati<strong>on</strong> revealed<br />
the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g characteristics: (a) stuff<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
his mouth with large bites of food, (b)<br />
82 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
often not swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g between bites, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c)<br />
apparent decreased awareness of food <strong>on</strong> his<br />
face as evidenced by lack of appropriate napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
use. Brett was c<strong>on</strong>sidered at risk for chok<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
due to the large bites of food <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his mouth<br />
prior to swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, these mealtime<br />
behaviors were not c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be socially<br />
acceptable. Two primary goals were<br />
identified for Brett (see Table 1).<br />
Jas<strong>on</strong>, Participant 2, was a 17-year-old male<br />
diagnosed with Down syndrome <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated<br />
developmental delays. His level of cognitive<br />
disability was estimated at moderate/severe.<br />
Observati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the SOMA<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> revealed the primary feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g characteristics:<br />
(a) stuff<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his mouth with large<br />
bites of food, (b) often not swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g between<br />
bites; (c) decreased chew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ability, (d)<br />
severe t<strong>on</strong>gue thrust, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (e) apparent decreased<br />
awareness of food <strong>on</strong> his face as evidenced<br />
of lack of appropriate napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> use.<br />
Two primary goals were identified for Jas<strong>on</strong><br />
(see Table 1).<br />
Denver, Participant 3, was a 14-year-old<br />
male diagnosed with seizure disorder <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental<br />
delays of unknown orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. His<br />
level of cognitive disability was estimated at<br />
moderate. Observati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
SOMA evaluati<strong>on</strong> revealed the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
characteristics: (a) many food spills from<br />
the spo<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the mouth while eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (b)<br />
open mouth/lips with chew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. While these<br />
characteristics did not place him at a high risk<br />
for chok<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, they were determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed to decrease<br />
social acceptability. Therefore, two<br />
goals were identified for Denver (see Table 1).<br />
Nate, Participant 4, was a 6-year-old male<br />
diagnosed with Trisomy 13, a sec<strong>on</strong>dary seizure<br />
disorder, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imal visi<strong>on</strong>. The level<br />
of Nate’s cognitive disability was estimated at<br />
severe. Although Nate had a percutaneous<br />
endoscopic gastr<strong>on</strong>omy (PEG) tube, it was reportedly<br />
used <strong>on</strong>ly when he was ill. Nate exhibited<br />
sensory defensiveness by cry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or<br />
mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g away when touched around or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
mouth. Observati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
SOMA evaluati<strong>on</strong> revealed the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
characteristics: (a) a passive oral manipulati<strong>on</strong><br />
of food for “textured” pureed c<strong>on</strong>sistency<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (b) total dependence <strong>on</strong> the feeder<br />
for the provisi<strong>on</strong> of food, although Nate had<br />
the physical ability to br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> toward<br />
his face <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other circumstances. Two primary<br />
goals were identified for Nate (see Table 1).
TABLE 1<br />
Participant Demographic Characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Target Goals: Groups 1, 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3<br />
Target Goals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Codes Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Goals (FG)<br />
Mealtime Behavior Goals (MBG)<br />
Level of<br />
Cognitive Functi<strong>on</strong> Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Supports<br />
Participant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Group Number Diagnosis Age Gender<br />
Fragile X Syndrome 15 M Moderate Supervisi<strong>on</strong> 1. Take small bites (MBG)<br />
2. Swallow between bites (FG)<br />
Down Syndrome 17 M Moderate to Severe Supervisi<strong>on</strong> 1. Use napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> with request (MBG)<br />
2. Swallow between bites (FG)<br />
Unknown, Seizure Disorder 14 M Moderate Supervisi<strong>on</strong> 1. No spills <strong>on</strong> self or tray (MBG)<br />
2. Close lips with chew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (FG)<br />
6 M Severe Staff feeds; PEG-tube; wheel 1. Assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with spo<strong>on</strong> (MBG)<br />
chair with head supports; 2. Rhythmic sequence of 2 or more jaw<br />
pureed diet; thick liquids movements with chew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (FG)<br />
7 F Severe Staff feeds; pureed diet; adaptive 1. Open mouth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> anticipati<strong>on</strong> of spo<strong>on</strong><br />
spo<strong>on</strong>; PEG-tube; wheel chair, (MBG)<br />
positi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g supports<br />
2. Close lips with spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (FG)<br />
4 F Severe Staff feeds; pureed diet; wheel 1. Assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with spo<strong>on</strong> (MBG)<br />
chair with head supports; soft 2. Active lips with spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (FG)<br />
spo<strong>on</strong>, tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cup; thick<br />
liquids<br />
11 M Severe Supervisi<strong>on</strong> 1. Eat a n<strong>on</strong>-preferred food. (MBG)<br />
2. Clean face with no request. (FG)<br />
Trisomy 13 Seizure Disorder<br />
Visual Impair-ment<br />
Cerebral Palsy Seizure<br />
Disorder<br />
Unknown Bl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d Seizure<br />
Disorder<br />
Group 1<br />
Participant 1<br />
Brett<br />
Group 1<br />
Participant 2<br />
Jas<strong>on</strong><br />
Group 1<br />
Participant 3<br />
Denver<br />
Group 2<br />
Participant 4<br />
Nate<br />
Group 2<br />
Participant 5<br />
Stacy<br />
Group 2<br />
Participant 6<br />
Jessica<br />
Seizure at birth; effects of<br />
encephalitis<br />
1. Assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
(MBG)<br />
2. Active lips with spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. (FG)<br />
Group 3<br />
Participant 7<br />
Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Group 3<br />
Participant 8<br />
Kyle<br />
1. Eat a n<strong>on</strong>-preferred food. (MBG)<br />
2. Clean face without request. (FG)<br />
Cerebral Palsy 4 M Severe Staff spo<strong>on</strong>s; bottle for liquids;<br />
adaptive bowl, spo<strong>on</strong>; diced<br />
food; wheel chair with head,<br />
chest supports<br />
Unknown 13 F Severe Staff feeds; pureed diet; thick<br />
liquids; adaptive cup, spo<strong>on</strong><br />
Group 3<br />
Participant 9<br />
Anna<br />
Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mealtime Behaviors / 83
Stacy, Participant 5, was a 7-year-old female<br />
with a diagnosis of cerebral palsy. She presented<br />
with a severe physical impairment with<br />
mixed muscle t<strong>on</strong>e. Her level of cognitive<br />
functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was estimated at severe. Stacy had<br />
a PEG tube, with which she was given all liquids,<br />
as well as two tube feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs per school<br />
day. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to teacher report, oral feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
had been attempted <strong>on</strong> a daily basis at school<br />
with variable results.<br />
Stacy’s diet was restricted to pureed c<strong>on</strong>sistency<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly. Observati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
SOMA evaluati<strong>on</strong> revealed the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
characteristics: (a) an open-mouth posture<br />
with spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, (b) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sistent orientati<strong>on</strong><br />
to the spo<strong>on</strong> or the feeder, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sistent open<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the mouth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> anticipati<strong>on</strong><br />
of the spo<strong>on</strong>. See Table 1 for two primary<br />
goals identified for Stacy.<br />
Jessica, Participant 6, was a 4-year-old female<br />
with developmental delays of unknown<br />
orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, a sec<strong>on</strong>dary seizure disorder <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dness.<br />
Her level of cognitive functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was<br />
estimated at severe. Jessica’s diet was pureed,<br />
with liquids thickened <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> given through a<br />
“sippy” cup. Jessica was fed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a wheel chair<br />
with head supports <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fed with a soft spo<strong>on</strong>,<br />
due to an active bite reflex. Results of observati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the SOMA evaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
revealed the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g characteristics:<br />
(a) m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imal lip movements to clean the<br />
spo<strong>on</strong>, (b) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sistent bite reflex, (c) m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imal<br />
lateral jaw movements with chew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(d) total dependence <strong>on</strong> the feeder for spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
although she was able to br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
toward face <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other circumstances. Jessica<br />
also exhibited extreme tactile/sensory defensiveness<br />
by pull<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g away <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or cry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, particularly<br />
when touched <strong>on</strong> the h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, but also<br />
when touched <strong>on</strong> the face. Two primary goals<br />
were identified for Jessica (see Table 1).<br />
Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Participant 7, was an 11-year-old<br />
male diagnosed with cognitive deficits follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a severe seizure at birth, as a result of<br />
encephalitis. Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s level of cognitive disability<br />
was estimated at severe. He was also identified<br />
as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a behavior disorder. Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
was able to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently eat a regular diet,<br />
with verbal prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to attend to the feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
task. Observati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the SOMA<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> revealed the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
characteristics: (a) categorical refusal of fruit,<br />
(b) decreased evidence of sensory awareness<br />
as evidenced by no napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> use with food <strong>on</strong><br />
84 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
his lips or face, (c) giggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-stimulat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> flapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> eye, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hair<br />
twirl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g movements while eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, (d) stuff<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
his mouth at the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of a meal, but<br />
refus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to eat after a few bites. Two primary<br />
goals were identified for Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (see Table 1).<br />
Kyle, Participant 8, was a 4-year-old male<br />
with a diagnosis of cerebral palsy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated<br />
physical impairment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental<br />
delays. His level of cognitive disability was estimated<br />
at severe. Observati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
SOMA evaluati<strong>on</strong> revealed the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
characteristics: (a) decreased lip closure<br />
to clean the spo<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (b) no <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
use of utensils although he was able to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger<br />
feed. Two goals were identified for Kyle (see<br />
Table 1).<br />
Anna, Participant 9, was a 13-year-old female<br />
with developmental delays <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> physical<br />
impairment of unknown orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The level of<br />
her cognitive disability was estimated at severe.<br />
Observati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the SOMA<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> revealed the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
characteristics: (a) marked food preferences<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g n<strong>on</strong>-preferred foods, (b) complete<br />
reliance <strong>on</strong> the feeder for spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (but<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent cup use), (c) food spillage from<br />
the lips, (d) apparent sensory defensiveness<br />
with touch to the face evidenced by turn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
rapidly away when her face was wiped, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (e)<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imal lateral t<strong>on</strong>gue movements, (f) delayed<br />
oral stages of swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Two primary<br />
goals were identified for Anna (see Table 1).<br />
Methods Used to Determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Mealtime Behavior Goals<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data (C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> A) of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mealtime behaviors were collected us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the SOMA evaluati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> observati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(Skuse et al., 1995). Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e probes were c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
at each participant’s home school,<br />
with the same feeders <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
where they were currently be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or<br />
supervised dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipal Investigator<br />
(PI), a licensed, certified SLP, c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
these basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e evaluati<strong>on</strong>s. All evaluati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were videotaped to allow for further<br />
analysis by the PI <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for purposes of calculat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrater reliability percentages by an<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al licensed SLP. The additi<strong>on</strong>al SLP<br />
viewed all SOMA evaluati<strong>on</strong> videotapes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
videotapes of three pre-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> mealtime<br />
observati<strong>on</strong>s. The PI <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong>al SLP <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>di-
vidually identified feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill deficits us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the SOMA scor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sheet descripti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
written descripti<strong>on</strong> of normal development of<br />
feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills (Guerra & Vaughn, 1994). The<br />
PI <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong>al SLP <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually listed feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skill deficits that each identified as primary<br />
for each participant. These two <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
met <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> compared their lists of primary<br />
feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill deficits. When a feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill deficit<br />
was identified by both the PI <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al SLP, it was added to a list of potential<br />
feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill goals for that participant. The<br />
PI <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong>al SLP reviewed tapes together<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discussed potential goals until the two<br />
came to an agreement regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the primary<br />
feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill deficit for each participant. The<br />
SOMA evaluati<strong>on</strong> was used as a structured<br />
method for assist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> identificati<strong>on</strong> of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skill deficits <strong>on</strong>ly. SOMA scores were not<br />
computed because the test was devised for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> young children.<br />
Behavior goals were identified by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews<br />
with teachers, related services staff, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> parents/caregivers<br />
of the participants. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews, the PI completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal observati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of mealtimes to c<strong>on</strong>firm presence of<br />
behaviors. Next, a list of potential behavior<br />
goals was created for each participant. The PI<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Co-PI (a university Department of Special<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> faculty member <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior specialist)<br />
used the list to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e a primary<br />
positive mealtime behavior goals for each participant.<br />
Design<br />
An A-BC-C-BC2-BC multiple treatment design<br />
across three groups of three participants<br />
(Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) with brief withdrawal<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s (Birnbrauer, Peters<strong>on</strong>, &<br />
Solnick, 1974; Hers<strong>on</strong> & Barlow, 1976) was<br />
used to evaluate the effectiveness of an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
package (B – a dysphagia treatment<br />
program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>C–aPRBMP) <strong>on</strong> the dependent<br />
variables (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually identified feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive mealtime behavior goals) of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with moderate, severe, or multiple disabilities.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sider<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the ethical implicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of a withdraw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g all treatments for children<br />
with severe feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g problems, the researchers<br />
chose to implement a brief withdrawal of <strong>on</strong>e<br />
of the two <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the withdrawal<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. With<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this design, the dependent<br />
variables were measured under basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>-<br />
diti<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a counterbalanced sequence to three<br />
groups of children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youth. The multiple<br />
treatment design was chosen as it has been<br />
reported as useful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, “Would X <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
work better than Y <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>” (Holcombe,<br />
Wolery, & Gast, 1994). Individual performance<br />
data were recorded for each<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>. Individual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> comparative<br />
group results were obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed across each<br />
study c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Each participant group was exposed to six<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A) c<strong>on</strong>sisted<br />
of a SOMA evaluati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pre-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
observati<strong>on</strong>s. The BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved a<br />
dysphagia treatment program comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with<br />
a PRBMP. For the B <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, either<br />
the dysphagia treatment program al<strong>on</strong>e or the<br />
PRBMP al<strong>on</strong>e was implemented (i.e., either B<br />
or C was withdrawn). The B <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were counterbalanced across groups. The BC2<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved a return to the dysphagia<br />
treatment program comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with the<br />
PRBMP. The BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved the dysphagia<br />
treatment program comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with the<br />
PRBMP implemented by the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed classroom<br />
staff <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>nel.<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
The PI <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> graduate students with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a university<br />
Department of Speech Pathology <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Audiology<br />
charted basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e percentages of accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
participants were fed by the same school staff<br />
as dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the SOMA evaluati<strong>on</strong>s. The graduate<br />
students were tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of a plus ()<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>us (-) system to chart accurate performance<br />
of target skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors. In this<br />
system, graduate students recorded a plus ()<br />
sign if participants performed the target skill<br />
or behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a (-) sign if participants did<br />
not perform the target behavior for each bite<br />
or opportunity. Graduate students dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
a functi<strong>on</strong>al underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the <br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> – system prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong> of the first<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e sessi<strong>on</strong>. One of Denver’s goals required<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g method. For this<br />
method, graduate students were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed to<br />
use a stopwatch <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> make a slash mark for<br />
number of events that occurred dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval. At the end of each sessi<strong>on</strong>, marks<br />
were tallied <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> divided by the number of<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sessi<strong>on</strong> to yield the rate of<br />
Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mealtime Behaviors / 85
occurrences. Observati<strong>on</strong>s dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum<br />
of three lunchtime meals were used to collect<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for each participant prior to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong> of sequential treatment c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong>s were provided by graduate students<br />
at the lunchtime meal four days per<br />
week for a total of 11 weeks. School staff provided<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al three<br />
weeks of the study. Prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong> of all<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s, graduate students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> school<br />
staff received tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g together <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of positive<br />
re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement behavior management<br />
strategies, data collecti<strong>on</strong> methods, methods<br />
for adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluati<strong>on</strong> of preference<br />
assessments, procedural reliability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the dysphagia treatment techniques. All pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s were supervised<br />
by licensed, certified SLPs dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the study.<br />
Prior to each treatment sessi<strong>on</strong> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behavior<br />
management programs, a pre-sessi<strong>on</strong> assessment<br />
of re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcer preferences (Gast et<br />
al., 2000) was c<strong>on</strong>ducted for each participant.<br />
Students with moderate disabilities who had<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tact communicati<strong>on</strong> systems or who could<br />
gesture toward actual re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcers or visual representati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated their preferred<br />
re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcer for each sessi<strong>on</strong> by verbally stat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
or po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to it. The PRBMP <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded sensory<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcers or token re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement<br />
systems (O’Brien, Repp, Williams, &<br />
Christophersen, 1991). Participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Group<br />
1 used a sticker re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement chart <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> token<br />
exchange system as their positive re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement<br />
program. Immediate sensory <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
social re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcers were used as the positive<br />
re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement program for Groups 2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3.<br />
Sequence of C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Each group was exposed to each of the six<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, which were counterbalanced by<br />
groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to reduce both maturati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sequence effects. The basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
(A) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved assessment of current performance<br />
levels for target feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive<br />
mealtime behaviors. Graduate students<br />
recorded occurrence of target skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors<br />
for three mealtimes prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong><br />
of any <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The (BC) c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sisted of a com-<br />
86 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
b<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed dysphagia treatment program (B) with<br />
the PRBMP (C). The dysphagia treatment<br />
program package c<strong>on</strong>sisted of a 5-m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> oralmotor<br />
stimulati<strong>on</strong> program (OMSP) described<br />
by Gaebler <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hanzlik (1996) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
modified by the PI for use with older children.<br />
The same OMSP was used for each child. Additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the dysphagia treatment<br />
program package <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded a group<br />
oral-motor exercise program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> direct <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of target skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
behaviors.<br />
Positi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for optimal swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, modificati<strong>on</strong><br />
of foods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sistencies to meet participants’<br />
abilities, use of adaptive equipment,<br />
therapeutic feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g methods, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nutriti<strong>on</strong><br />
enhancement were c<strong>on</strong>sidered absolutely necessary<br />
for ensur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each participant’s safety<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs were implemented as a part of<br />
every feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>. These comp<strong>on</strong>ents of<br />
the dysphagia treatment program were not<br />
withdrawn at any time dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the study. The<br />
BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was implemented four days per<br />
week for three weeks.<br />
The (B) c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (dysphagia treatment<br />
program) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved remov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the PRBMP (C).<br />
The (B) c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sisted of adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ister<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the OMSP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> group oral-motor exercise program<br />
as a part of every <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The OMSP was completed <strong>on</strong> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
basis with each participant prior to the mealtime.<br />
Oral-motor exercises were completed after<br />
each meal so as not to fatigue the system<br />
prior to eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The dysphagia treatment program<br />
also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded a direct <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al comp<strong>on</strong>ent,<br />
with verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> visual model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
target skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive mealtime behaviors<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an oral-hygiene program (i.e., tooth<br />
brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g). The B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was implemented<br />
four days per week for two weeks.<br />
The behavior management withdrawal c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
(C) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved remov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the dysphagia<br />
treatment program. The (C) c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sisted<br />
of positive social, sensory, or tangible<br />
re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement as determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the presessi<strong>on</strong><br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i preference assessment for performance<br />
of target skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors. The (C)<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> occurred four days per week for two<br />
weeks.<br />
The (BC) c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was then repeated for<br />
an additi<strong>on</strong>al 3-week time period, us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
same <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous (BC)<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was identified as (BC2).<br />
Prior to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong> of the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al phase
(i.e., before the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong> of C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
BC), the PI, Co-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigator, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> graduate<br />
students reviewed tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrati<strong>on</strong><br />
of the dysphagia treatment program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
PRBMP at the school site for school pers<strong>on</strong>nel<br />
with the same methods, h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>outs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
as presented dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the previous tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. School staff members were also given<br />
a written packet c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the pre-sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
preference assessment materials, the OMSP,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> daily activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> materials for oral-motor<br />
exercises. The BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> occurred for<br />
a 3-week time period. Guidance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
by the PI, Co-PI, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> graduate students<br />
were systematically faded as the classroom pers<strong>on</strong>nel<br />
exhibited skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> specialized feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior management techniques. By the<br />
start of the third week of c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> BC, the<br />
school staff provided 100% of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
To counterbalance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s, Group 1<br />
followed an A-BC-B-C-BC2-BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
sequence, Group 2 followed an A-B-BC-C-<br />
BC2-BC sequence, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Group 3 followed an<br />
A-C-BC-B-BC2-BC sequence. Individual performance<br />
data were collected dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>al graduate students c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent analysis of at least 20% of all<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s to calculate performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedural<br />
reliability (Bill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gsley, White, & Muns<strong>on</strong>,<br />
1980; Tawney & Gast, 1984).<br />
Trend <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Level Analysis<br />
Frequency data for target skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each phase of treatment were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>verted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to percentages of accurate resp<strong>on</strong>ses.<br />
Changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> trends were<br />
analyzed accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to percentages of dependent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent variables. Kazd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s<br />
(1982) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tawney <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gast’s (1984) techniques<br />
for calculati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> statistical analysis<br />
for s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle-subject experimental design were<br />
employed.<br />
Reliability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Validity<br />
To establish reliability, an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent licensed<br />
SLP observed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rated videotaped<br />
records of all evaluati<strong>on</strong>s. To ensure reliability<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> provisi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s, programs were<br />
implemented by the same feeders/cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians<br />
over the course of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>. The PI<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> two additi<strong>on</strong>al licensed SLPs supervised<br />
<strong>on</strong>-site 4 days per week. The Co-PI was present<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial weeks of the project <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provided<br />
<strong>on</strong>-site support <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>termittently dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the study <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sistently dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the BC<br />
phase. Interrater <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedural reliability<br />
measures were completed for 20% of all <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
To c<strong>on</strong>trol for extraneous variables, the PI<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Co-PI provided all tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the same<br />
materials, methods, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>outs for all graduate<br />
students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> school staff members. All<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s were adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istered under direct<br />
supervisi<strong>on</strong> of the research team. This helped<br />
to ensure procedural reliability across <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>ists.<br />
The brief withdrawal c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
also helped to isolate the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>(s) that<br />
produced the greatest effect.<br />
To attempt to show generalizability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>, two different graduate students<br />
provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s for the first 11 weeks of<br />
the study <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the school staff provided all<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s for the last three weeks. Data<br />
were collected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same manner by the<br />
same graduate students dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the entire 14week<br />
study period as a way of dem<strong>on</strong>strat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> effects across <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>ists<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants.<br />
Results<br />
Figures 1, 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3 present <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual participant<br />
data for three selected participants (<strong>on</strong>e<br />
participant from each group) relative to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
goals. Tables 2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3 present group <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual data relative to feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
positive mealtime behavior goals. Comparis<strong>on</strong><br />
of participants’ performances dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g study<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s provides clear evidence of effectiveness<br />
of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Group Trends - Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Positive<br />
Mealtime Behavior Goals<br />
Group results were compared across all feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skill goals to assess trends <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
results (see Table 2). For all participants, therapeutic<br />
ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s were made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills from<br />
the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A) through the comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> with staff provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s (BC). Visual <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>specti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
data revealed that greater ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s were made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed (BC) treatment<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the other c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
Groups 1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2. Group 3 made greater ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mealtime Behaviors / 87
Figure 1. Graphic display of Brett’s performance data for two goals across c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Mean percentage ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the first BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
across all groups was 15%, 7% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 6% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. A mean<br />
percentage decrease of 1% occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skill acquisiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 7%<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. The greatest overall<br />
88 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills were observed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Group 1 (A-BC-B-C-BC2-BC). This group<br />
ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed 41% from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A)<br />
to the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. From basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e (A) to<br />
the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, Group 3 (A-C-BC-B-BC2-<br />
BC) ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed 14% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Group 2 (A-B-BC-C-<br />
BC2-BC) ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed 9%.
Figure 2. Graphic display of Nate’s performance data for two goals across c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Group results were compared across positive<br />
mealtime behavior goals to assess<br />
trends <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> results (see Table 3).<br />
Across all participants, ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s were made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
mealtime behaviors from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e (A)<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> through the comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed treatments<br />
(BC) c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Visual <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>specti<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
data also show that greater ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s were made<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive mealtime behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
treatment (BC) c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Group<br />
1, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Group 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Group 3. The BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
yielded a mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of 25% across all<br />
groups. The mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recorded across all<br />
groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was 13%, 10% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, 4% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 10% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. The greatest<br />
overall mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> identified mealtime<br />
behaviors were observed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Group 2 (A-B-<br />
BC-C-BC2-BC) with a ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of 74%. Group 1<br />
(A-BC-B-C-BC2-BC) ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed 61% from the<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A) through the BC<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Group 3 (A-C-BC-B-BC2-<br />
BC) ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed 53%.<br />
Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mealtime Behaviors / 89
Figure 3. Graphic display of Kyle’s performance data for two goals across c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed Results for Mealtime Behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skill Acquisiti<strong>on</strong><br />
The greatest mean percentage ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (20%)<br />
across comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skill goals for<br />
all three groups occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Participants ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed a mean 8% for comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
mealtime behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the B<br />
90 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a mean 6% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of 6% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> occurred across all<br />
groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> goals. Comparis<strong>on</strong> of group<br />
means across all behaviors, c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sequence of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s yielded a mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
of 42% from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A)
TABLE 2<br />
Individual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Group Data<br />
Mean Percent Change Across C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s-Target Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills<br />
through the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Group results<br />
were not c<strong>on</strong>sidered as str<strong>on</strong>g as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
data due to the small number of participants<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> variability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> goals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Individual Results<br />
Group 1<br />
Brett. Brett’s performance data are shown<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Figure 1. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Goal 1 (take<br />
small bites) revealed a mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
rate of 47%. Mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
rate was 82% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, 90% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 96% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In<br />
the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, a mean rate of 94% was<br />
recorded, followed by 96% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Brett ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed an overall mean of 49%<br />
from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A) through the<br />
BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Goal 1. Brett’s Goal 2 (swallow<br />
between bites) began with a mean of 55%<br />
accurate resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, his mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
rate rose 24% to 79%. In the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
this rate decreased by 2%. In the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Brett’s mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se rate<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Mean BC B C BC2 BC<br />
Total<br />
Mean Ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Brett (Swallow Between Bites) 55 24 2 18 5 8 43<br />
Jas<strong>on</strong> (Swallow Between Bites) 66 22 9 3 1 1 30<br />
Denver (Close Lips) 24 36 20 10 0 5 51<br />
Comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed Group Means 48 27 9 2 1 5 41<br />
Group 2<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Mean B BC C BC2 BC<br />
Total<br />
Mean Ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Nate (Rhythmic Sequence of 3 or More<br />
Jaw Movements with Chew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) 70 6 3 11 8 6 12<br />
Stacy (Close Lips with Spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) 15 8 34 8 6 38 6<br />
Jessica (Active lips with spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) 4 11 0 4 20 18 9<br />
Comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed Group Means 30% 8 12 2 7 17 9<br />
Group 3<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Mean C BC B BC2 BC<br />
Total<br />
Mean Ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (Clean Face-No Request) 6 6 1 1 45 27 12<br />
Kyle (Active Lips with Spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) 68 0 15 4 4 4 27<br />
Anna (Clean Face-No Request) 1 1 6 0 0 1 4<br />
Comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed Group Means 25 2 7 1 16 8 14<br />
was 95%. Brett’s mean performance decreased<br />
by 5% to 90% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. A<br />
mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se rate of 98% was observed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. This represents a<br />
mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of 43% from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
(A) through the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for<br />
Brett’s Goal 2.<br />
Jas<strong>on</strong>. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Goal 1 (use napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
with request) revealed a mean accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se rate of 7%. In the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, this<br />
rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased by 90% to 97%. In the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se rate rose to<br />
100%. He ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed a 100% accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
rate through the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g C, BC2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Jas<strong>on</strong> ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed a total mean of<br />
93% from the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A)<br />
through the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Goal 1. Jas<strong>on</strong>’s<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Goal 2 (swallow between<br />
bites) was recorded at a mean 66% accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se rate. In the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, this rate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 88%. In the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, a mean<br />
ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of 9% yielded an accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se rate<br />
of 97%. In the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, this rate decreased<br />
to 94%. A mean rate of 95% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mealtime Behaviors / 91
TABLE 3<br />
Individual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Group Data<br />
Mean Percent Change Across C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s-Target Mealtime Behaviors<br />
Group 1<br />
BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 96% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
was recorded. A total mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of 30% from<br />
the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A) to the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
was recorded for Jas<strong>on</strong>’s Goal 2.<br />
Denver. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Goal 1 (no spill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>on</strong> self or tray) revealed a mean accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se rate of 12%. A mean 44% accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se was achieved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decreased to 37% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In<br />
the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, Denver <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased his accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se rate to 52% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
but decreased to a mean 49% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. He improved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
to a mean of 54%. Denver ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed a total mean<br />
of 42% from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A) to the<br />
BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Goal 1. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for<br />
Denver’s Goal 2 (close lips with chew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) revealed<br />
a mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se rate of 24%.<br />
In the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, his mean rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
by 36% to 60% correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
to a mean 80% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In<br />
the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, Denver’s mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
rate decreased to 70%. This rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
unchanged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
by 5% to 75% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Mean BC B C BC2 BC<br />
Total<br />
Mean Ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Brett (Take Small Bites) 47 35 8 6 2 2 49<br />
Jas<strong>on</strong> (Use Napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> with Request) 7 90 3 0 0 0 93<br />
Denver (No Spills <strong>on</strong> Self or Tray) 12 32 7 15 3 5 42<br />
Comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed Group Means 22 52 1 7 2 2 61<br />
Group 2<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Mean B BC C BC2 BC<br />
Total<br />
Mean Ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Nate (Assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Self-Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with Spo<strong>on</strong>) 8 47 27 14 2 2 88<br />
Stacy (Open Mouth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Anticipati<strong>on</strong> of Spo<strong>on</strong>) 44 27 11 2 8 8 52<br />
Jessica (Assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Self-Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with Spo<strong>on</strong>) 8 1 16 14 36 17 82<br />
Comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed Group Means 20 24 18 9 14 9 74<br />
Group 3<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Mean C BC B BC2 BC<br />
Total<br />
Mean Ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (Eat N<strong>on</strong>-preferred Foods) 9 20 5 7 1 37 60<br />
Kyle (Self-feed with Spo<strong>on</strong>) 70 3 8 2 14 0 23<br />
Anna (Eat N<strong>on</strong>-preferred Foods) 4 46 16 7 16 23 76<br />
Comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed Group Means 28 23 6 4 0 20 53<br />
92 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
Denver ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed a total mean of 51% from the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A) through the<br />
BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Goal 2.<br />
Nate. Nate’s performance data are shown<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Figure 2. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Goal 1 (assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
self-feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with spo<strong>on</strong>) revealed a mean accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se rate of 8%. This rate rose to<br />
55% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, to 82% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to 96% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In<br />
the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, Nate’s accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
rate decreased by 2% to 94%. In the BC<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, this rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 96%. Percent<br />
ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A) to the<br />
BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was 88%. Nate’s h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-tomouth<br />
movements improved throughout the<br />
study from requir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g maximal assistance to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent performance.<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Nate’s Goal 2 (rhythmic<br />
sequence of 3 or more jaw movements with<br />
chew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) revealed a mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
rate of 70%. This rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 76% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to 79% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, Nate’s mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
rate decreased to 68% but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to<br />
76% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In the BC c<strong>on</strong>di-
ti<strong>on</strong>, this rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 82%. Total percent<br />
ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> for Nate’s Goal 2 from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
(A) to the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was 12%.<br />
Stacy. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Stacy’s Goal 1<br />
(open mouth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> anticipati<strong>on</strong> of spo<strong>on</strong>) was<br />
measured at a mean 44% accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
rate. This rate rose to 71% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 82% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, but decreased<br />
to 80% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Stacy’s mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se rate rose<br />
to 88% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 96% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Stacy’s<br />
total mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
(A) to the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was 52% for Goal 1.<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Stacy’s Goal 2 (close lips with<br />
spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) was a mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se rate<br />
of 15%. In the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, this rate rose 23%<br />
to 75%. In the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, accurate resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
decreased to a mean rate of 57% but<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 65% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Stacy’s<br />
mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se rate decreased to<br />
59% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Stacy’s mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se rate was<br />
21%, corresp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a decrease of 38%.<br />
Total mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
(A) to the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was 6% for Goal 2.<br />
Jessica. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Goal 1 (assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
self-feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with spo<strong>on</strong>) revealed a mean accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se rate of 8%. In the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
this rate decreased to a mean 7%, but<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to a mean 23% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, Jessica’s mean accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 37% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to 73% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Jessica ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed an additi<strong>on</strong>al 17% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses to a mean 90%. From the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A) to the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, Jessica<br />
ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed a mean 82% accurate resp<strong>on</strong>ses. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
data for Jessica’s Goal 2 (active lips with<br />
spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) was 4% for mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>ses.<br />
In the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, this rate was 15%<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed stable throughout the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
but fell to 11% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In<br />
the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, Jessica’s mean rate of accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 31%. In the<br />
BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, her mean rate decreased to<br />
13%. Total ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
(A) to the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was 9%.<br />
Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Goal 1 (eat n<strong>on</strong>preferred<br />
food) was measured at a mean accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se rate of 9%. In the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
this rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 29% but decreased<br />
to 24% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s mean<br />
accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se rate improved to 31% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, 32% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improved by 37% to 69% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Total mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> from basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
(A) to the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was 60%.<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s Goal 2 (use napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
without request) revealed a mean accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se rate of 6%. In the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, this<br />
rate dropped to a mean 0%, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 1%<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decreased aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> to<br />
0% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s mean rate of accurate resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
to 45% but decreased by 27% to 18%<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Total <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<br />
rate of accurate resp<strong>on</strong>ses from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A) to the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was 12%<br />
for Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s Goal 2.<br />
Kyle. Kyle’s performance data are shown<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Figure 3. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Goal 1 (assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
self-feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) revealed a mean<br />
rate of accurate resp<strong>on</strong>ses of 70%. In the C<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, this rate was 73%, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 81%<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decreased to 79% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, Kyle’s<br />
mean rate of accurate resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to<br />
93% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, Kyle dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, an act that had<br />
previously required full physical assistance to<br />
complete. Total ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
(A) to the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (BC) was 23%<br />
for Kyle’s Goal 1. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data (A) for Kyle’s<br />
Goal 2 (active lips with spo<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) revealed a<br />
mean rate of accurate resp<strong>on</strong>ses of 68%. In<br />
the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, this rate was unchanged. In<br />
the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, the mean accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 83%, to 87% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
to 91% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to 95%<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Total ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> from the<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A) to the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
was 27% for Kyle’s Goal 2.<br />
Anna. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Goal 1 (accept<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-preferred foods) revealed a mean accurate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se rate of 4%. In the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
this rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased 46% to 50%. Anna’s mean<br />
accurate resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 66% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to 73% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, but<br />
decreased to 57% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. This<br />
rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 80% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Total ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A)<br />
through the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was 76% for Goal<br />
1. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data for Anna’s Goal 2 (accept face<br />
wip<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) revealed a mean rate of accurate resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
of 4%. In the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, this rate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased by 46% to 50% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed stable<br />
throughout the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In the B c<strong>on</strong>di-<br />
Feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mealtime Behaviors / 93
ti<strong>on</strong>, this rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 66% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to 93% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
mean rate of accurate resp<strong>on</strong>ses decreased by<br />
33% to 60%. Total ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> from the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (A) through the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was<br />
56% for Goal 2. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, Anna began<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g her napk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> to make attempts to wipe<br />
her face dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Reliability Data<br />
Data relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrater agreement <strong>on</strong> participant<br />
performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>ists’<br />
procedural fidelity were collected simultaneously<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at least 20% of all sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
across all c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s (Bill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gsley et al., 1980;<br />
Tawney & Gast, 1984). These data were collected<br />
by videotape <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> by <strong>on</strong>-site raters (graduate<br />
students), who were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> – scor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g system <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g system. These two methods<br />
yielded both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrater agreement coefficients<br />
for participant performance data <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedural<br />
reliability coefficients.<br />
Mean <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrater agreement <strong>on</strong> participant<br />
performance was .93 (range: .89-.98) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
acceptable. A total of 45 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrater<br />
reliability rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs were recorded via videotape<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 61 <strong>on</strong>-site rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs were completed by the<br />
graduate students. Procedural reliability<br />
agreement data (Bill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gsley et al., 1980) were<br />
recorded across all <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>ists. A procedural<br />
reliability coefficient of .98 was calculated<br />
for graduate student <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>ists<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a coefficient of .90 was calculated for<br />
school staff <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>ists <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Limitati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
A number of limitati<strong>on</strong>s were identified <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this<br />
study. First was the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ability to c<strong>on</strong>trol feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
methods or envir<strong>on</strong>ments outside of the<br />
school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. It is not known how alternative<br />
feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g envir<strong>on</strong>ments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or methods affected<br />
outcomes of this study. It is possible<br />
that poor feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g techniques occurr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
other sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs may have limited <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual participants’<br />
progress toward feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill or positive<br />
mealtime behavior goals.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d was that <strong>on</strong>ly observable feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mealtime behaviors were measured.<br />
Researchers did not have access to videofluoroscopic<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong>s of swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for pre<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
post<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> measures of swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
The SOMA evaluati<strong>on</strong> was not st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ardized<br />
for use with older children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youth. Therefore,<br />
an objective pre- <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> post<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
assessment of all phases of swallow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was not<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong> of Research F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
94 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-March 2005<br />
A functi<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ship was established between<br />
the dysphagia treatment program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
development of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills for all participants.<br />
A mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of 6% was achieved across<br />
all <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> groups across <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualized<br />
feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill goals dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the dysphagia<br />
treatment c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (B). Individual participants<br />
(i.e., Denver, Jessica) made ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of over<br />
10% dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> toward their feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skill goals. A mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of a 6% performance<br />
rate by children with moderate to severe<br />
disabilities that affect motor, sensory, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cognitive arenas supports use of dysphagia<br />
treatment methods for development of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skills. These f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs support previous research<br />
regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effects of dysphagia treatment<br />
programs <strong>on</strong> improvement of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skills (Domaracki & Siss<strong>on</strong>, 1989; Gaebler &<br />
Hanzlik, 1996; Helfrich-Miller, Rector, &<br />
Straka, 1986).<br />
No overall functi<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ship was<br />
found between the PRBMP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improvement<br />
of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills. A mean decrease of 1% occurred<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill acquisiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the C<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> across all participants. While <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
results varied (i.e., Brett <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Stacy’s<br />
goals), positive re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement for exhibit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
desired feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill did not appear to be<br />
generally effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g development<br />
of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills. However, a functi<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
was established between PRBMP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
development of positive mealtime behaviors.<br />
A mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of 13% was measured across all<br />
participants for positive mealtime behavior<br />
goals dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Two <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
participants’ results (i.e., Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Anna)<br />
were especially promis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, with mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of<br />
20% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 46% respectively (see Table 3).<br />
These results c<strong>on</strong>firm previous research regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
effects of systematic positive re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement<br />
<strong>on</strong> improvement of positive mealtime<br />
behaviors (Kahng, Tarbox, & Wilke,<br />
2001; Kerw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1999; O’Brien et al., 1991).
A functi<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ship was established<br />
between use of a comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> package<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills. Across<br />
all participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills, a mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
of 15% was made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 7%<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. This is remarkable<br />
progress, given the developmental nature of<br />
feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill acquisiti<strong>on</strong> (Guerra & Vaughn,<br />
1994). Several participants (i.e., Brett, Jas<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Denver, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Stacy) exhibited ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of more<br />
than 20% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. A functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship was also found between use of the<br />
comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> package <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development<br />
of positive mealtime behaviors. A mean<br />
ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of 25% was recorded for all participants<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> across positive mealtime behavior goals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. An additi<strong>on</strong>al mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of<br />
4% was recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Several<br />
participants (i.e., Brett, Jas<strong>on</strong>, Denver,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Stacy) exhibited mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s above 20% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Dust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Anna exhibited<br />
mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s above 20% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC2 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A str<strong>on</strong>ger relati<strong>on</strong>ship was found between<br />
improvement of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive<br />
mealtime behaviors with use of the comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> package (BC) than with use of<br />
the dysphagia treatment program (B) al<strong>on</strong>e<br />
or the PRBMP (C) al<strong>on</strong>e. Across all participants<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> goals, the comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
package yielded the greatest improvements<br />
(20%). Ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC were greater<br />
than ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the B c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (8%) or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (6%). Greater mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
were recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> improvement of positive<br />
mealtime behaviors (25% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> BC) with the<br />
comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> approach than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> development<br />
of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills (15% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> BC)<br />
across all participants. These results may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate<br />
that development of feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills may be<br />
a more difficult process than changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior.<br />
These results support use of a comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> package for treatment of<br />
both feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill deficits <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> problematic<br />
mealtime behaviors across a variety of disability<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ages. While significant evidence<br />
exists that feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g problems often<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve a comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of physical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavioral<br />
issues (e.g., Arveds<strong>on</strong>, 1997; Gisel, Birnbaum,<br />
& Schwartz, 1997; Logemann, 2000),<br />
the efficacy of dysphagia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> PRBMP treatment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s has not been previously<br />
evaluated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a way that determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es the effects<br />
of each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> separately <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
to isolate the effects of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terven-<br />
ti<strong>on</strong>s. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> used a multiple treatment<br />
design across n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e participants with<br />
moderate to severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities, a<br />
wide range of ages, diagnoses, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mealtime behavior deficits <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> three<br />
school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
A mean decrease of 7% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills was<br />
recorded across all participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, although results varied across participants<br />
(see Table 2). This f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g underscores<br />
the need for advanced tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
support for school staff members work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with<br />
children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youth with feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g problems. No<br />
participant returned to pre<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> levels<br />
as a result of staff implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
A positive f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was that a mean ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of 10%<br />
occurred across groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior goals<br />
when school staff members provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the BC c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Further research<br />
is needed to c<strong>on</strong>firm f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of this study <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e effects of additi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s that will enhance the nutriti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> health of children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youth with disabilities.<br />
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Received: 14 October 2003<br />
Initial Acceptance: 10 December 2003<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Acceptance: 15 April 2004
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