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ing in <strong>the</strong> target behavior. To raise <strong>the</strong> values of <strong>the</strong> consequence, we identified <strong>the</strong> persons who were relevant to or had established rapport with Tatsunori, and <strong>the</strong>n described <strong>the</strong> feelings <strong>the</strong>y might experience when he engaged in appropriate behaviors, using <strong>the</strong> phrases that <strong>the</strong>y typically used. Retrospectively, we changed three parameters in <strong>the</strong> perspective sentence from Study 1 to Study 2: a specificity parameter, a time parameter, and a likeability parameter. A specificity parameter has a continuum, ranging from a specific perspective to a general perspective. Specific perspective sentences include <strong>the</strong> thoughts and feelings of an individual specific and relevant to <strong>the</strong> student. For example, Scattone et al. (2002) used “Ms Ann will be happy if I do not holler” (p. 542) in <strong>the</strong>ir perspective sentences. Kuoch and Mirenda (2003) used “(Interventionist) will be very happy to see everyone playing games and having fun” “Mom will be happy if Henry eats <strong>the</strong> food” (p. 227). In contrast, general perspective sentences describe <strong>the</strong> perspectives of people in general (e.g., friends, we, people, everybody) who are not specific or relevant to <strong>the</strong> student. For example, Thiemann and Goldstein (2001) used “Friends like to show each o<strong>the</strong>r what <strong>the</strong>y are doing,” “This means <strong>the</strong>y want to show me something, and <strong>the</strong>y like it if I look” in a Social Story (p. 432). Similarly, Ivey, Heflin, and Alberto (2004) used “Usually people like to have a party to celebrate” in <strong>the</strong>ir Social Story (p. 170). Between <strong>the</strong> two loci of <strong>the</strong> continuum, “my friends” “my teachers” or “my neighbors” are placed. For example, Brownell (2002) included “If I say things that I heard on TV, my friends might not know what I’m talking about” (p. 128). With respect to a time parameter, two types of perspectives may be used: non-contingent perspective and contingent perspective. A noncontingent perspective uses o<strong>the</strong>rs’ perspectives that might exist regardless of <strong>the</strong> occurrence of a target behavior. For example, Thiemann and Goldstein (2001) used “Friends like playing with different toys and games,” “Friends like to show each o<strong>the</strong>r what <strong>the</strong>y are doing” (p. 432) in <strong>the</strong>ir perspective sentences. These perspectives may exist regardless of <strong>the</strong> occurrence of contingent responses, securing attention, initiating comments, and initiating re- 58 / Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008 quests, which were selected as target behaviors. Similarly, a Social Story used by Lorimer et al. (2002) included “Adults like to talk” (p. 56) as a perspective sentence. These perspectives may exist regardless of <strong>the</strong> occurrence of interrupting vocalization or tantrum, which was targeted to be reduced. In contrast, contingent perspectives describe o<strong>the</strong>rs’ perspectives that emerge immediately following <strong>the</strong> occurrence or non-occurrence of target behaviors. For example, Adams, Gouvousis, Vanlue, and Waldron (2004) used “Mom and Dad are sad when I get upset,” “When I use my quiet voice, Mom and Dad are happy” for a perspective sentence. In this study, crying, screaming, falling, and hitting were selected as target behaviors. Similarly, Kuoch and Mirenda (2003) used “It makes people very sad when Andrew doesn’t share” in <strong>the</strong>ir perspective sentences. For this participant, aggression, yelling, and crying were selected as target behaviors, which often followed sharing objects. Finally, a likeability parameter shows a continuum of a reinforcement value of <strong>the</strong> person whose perspective is described in a Social Story, ranging from least to most valuable. Logically, <strong>the</strong> perspectives of people who are not specific to <strong>the</strong> individual are likely to be of less valuable to him or her. However, even among persons specific to <strong>the</strong> individual, <strong>the</strong> value of perspective varies, depending on whose perspective it is. For Taro, we used a perspective sentence (“When everybody complies with <strong>the</strong> turn, everybody feels good because everybody can be fairly in <strong>the</strong> chair”) that described <strong>the</strong> perspective of people who were not highly specific (specificity parameter) and not highly valuable (likeability parameter), and that emerged contingent on <strong>the</strong> occurrence of his target behaviors (contingency parameter). For Kenji, we used perspective sentences (“So, many people in <strong>the</strong> hotel thought I am cool. Many people around me watch me do something and think I am cool”) that describe <strong>the</strong> perspective of people who were highly general (specificity parameter) and, <strong>the</strong>refore, less valuable (likeablity parameter), and that existed regardless of <strong>the</strong> occurrence of his target behaviors (contingent parameter). In Study 2, we used a perspective sentence (“Ms. [teacher’s name] thinks <strong>the</strong> person is wise
when <strong>the</strong> person washes hands after toileting. Mr. [teacher’s name] thinks <strong>the</strong> person is cool when <strong>the</strong> person washes hands after toileting. Ms. [teacher’s name] thinks <strong>the</strong> person is lovely when <strong>the</strong> person washes hands after toileting”) that included a perspective of o<strong>the</strong>rs who were specific (specificity parameter) and valuable (likeability parameter) to Tatsunori and that emerged contingent on engaging in his target behaviors (contingency parameter). Theoretically, <strong>the</strong> perspectives of o<strong>the</strong>rs who are specific and valuable to <strong>the</strong> student are more likely to be meaningful. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, describing o<strong>the</strong>rs’ perspectives that occur contingent on a target behavior are much more helpful in understanding <strong>the</strong> meaning of <strong>the</strong> behavior being exhibited (Gray, 2004). Therefore, using a perspective sentence describing a specific, valuable, and contingent perspective is more likely to be effective in improving target behaviors. However, <strong>the</strong> negative side needs to be noted, too. For example, using <strong>the</strong> perspective of a person specific to <strong>the</strong> individual may hinder generalization of behavior change. Therefore, if <strong>the</strong> goal of <strong>the</strong> intervention is to enable <strong>the</strong> individual to use a skill in a variety of situations, using a perspective of a person less specific to <strong>the</strong> individual may be appropriate. It cannot be emphasized enough that we did not demonstrate <strong>the</strong> effectiveness of <strong>the</strong> parameter change in this study. In addition to changing <strong>the</strong> parameters of Social Stories, we changed participants from Study 1 to Study 2. Taro and Kenji in Study 1 were diagnosed with or scored in a range of autism, whereas Tatsunori in Study 2 was diagnosed with ADHD. Adding a perspective sentence may have changed Tatsunori’s hand-washing, not because <strong>the</strong> parameters of <strong>the</strong> perspective sentences were changed to be specific, valuable, and contingent but because he was more motivated by o<strong>the</strong>rs’ perspectives than Taro and Kenji, who was diagnosed with or considered to have autism. Many more participants with autism spectrum disorders and related disabilities need to be studied to determine if using a sentence including more specific, valuable, and contingent perspective is effective in improving any type of adaptive behaviors in any situations. Not only component analyses (e.g., <strong>the</strong> effect of perspective sentences) but also parametric analyses (e.g., <strong>the</strong> effect of specificity, contingency, and likeability parameters) warrant future research. References Adams, L., Gouvousis, A., Vanlue, M., & Waldron, C. (2004). Social Story intervention: Improving communication skills in a child with an autism spectrum disorder. Focus on Autism and O<strong>the</strong>r Developmental Disabilities, 19, 87–94. Asahide-gakuen-kyoiku-kenkyu-sho, & Nipponshinri-tekisei-kenkyu-sho. (1980). Shinpan S M syakai-seikatsu-nouryoku-kensa [Revised version of social maturity scale]. Tokyo, Japan: Nipponbunka-kagaku-sya. Bledsoe, R., Myles, B. S., & Simpson, R. L. (2003). Use of a Social Story intervention to improve mealtime skills of an adolescent with Asperger syndrome. Autism, 7, 289–295. Brownell, M. D. (2002). Musical adapted Social Stories to modify behaviors in students with autism: Four case studies. <strong>Journal</strong> of Music Therapy, 39, 117–144. Gray, C. (2004). The new Social Story book. Arlington, TX: Future Horizon. Hagiwara, T., & Myles, B. S. (1999). A multimedia Social Story intervention: Teaching skills to children with autism. Focus on Autism and O<strong>the</strong>r Developmental Disabilities, 14, 82–95. Ivey, M. L., Heflin, J., & Alberto, P. (2004). The use of Social Stories to promote independent behaviors in novel events for children with PDD-NOS. Focus on Autism and O<strong>the</strong>r Developmental Disabilities, 19, 164–176. Kuoch, H., & Mirenda, P. (2003). Social Story interventions for young children with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and O<strong>the</strong>r Developmental Disabilities, 18, 219–227. Kuttler, S., Myles, B. S., & Carlson, J. K. (1999). The use of Social Stories to reduce precursors to tantrum behavior in a student with autism. Focus on Autism and O<strong>the</strong>r Developmental Disabilities, 13, 176–182. Lorimer, P. A., Simpson, R. L., Myles, B. S., & Ganz, J. B. (2002). The use of Social Stories as a preventative behavioral intervention in a home setting with a child with autism. <strong>Journal</strong> of Positive Behavior Interventions, 4, 53–60. Michael, J. (2000). Implications and refinements of <strong>the</strong> establishing operation concept. <strong>Journal</strong> of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 401–410. Myles, B. S., Trautman, M., & Schelvan, R. (2004). The hidden curriculum: Practical solutions for understanding unstated rules in social situations. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing Co. Sansosti, F. J., Powell-Smith, K. A., & Kincaid D. (2004). A research sys<strong>the</strong>sis of social story inter- Effects of Perspective Sentences / 59
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Education and Training in Developme
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Guardianship: Its Role in t
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guardians who are knowledgeable abo
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type of skills (e.g., domestic, lei
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Peer-Implemented Time Delay Procedu
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show that peer tutors can reliably
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General Procedures The dependent va
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Skill training. The teacher and one
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Figure 2. Percent of correct respon
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heterogeneous group of students is
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States’ Eligibility Guidelines fo
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Method Procedure The first author d
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TABLE 1—(Continued) IQ part score
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eligibility to exhibit an IQ two or
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ility guidelines for MR from state
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