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debriefing following data collection. Although a digital voice recorder was utilized to record each session, <strong>the</strong> flipchart notes allowed participants to see <strong>the</strong> ideas that had been generated previously and enabled <strong>the</strong> moderator to summarize <strong>the</strong> group’s responses prior to moving on to <strong>the</strong> next question. Each focus group was held at <strong>the</strong> participants’ school in a room that was free from distractions. The moderator began each interview by facilitating participant introductions, clarifying <strong>the</strong> roles of <strong>the</strong> moderators and participants, explaining <strong>the</strong> purpose of <strong>the</strong> focus group, discussing confidentiality and how <strong>the</strong> results would be used, and reviewing <strong>the</strong> focus group questions. The moderator and assistant moderator convened following each focus group to discuss, clarify, and summarize <strong>the</strong> main points of <strong>the</strong> session. Five structured questions were asked within each focus group interview. The first three questions ga<strong>the</strong>red data on <strong>the</strong> participants’ service learning program and <strong>the</strong>ir beliefs about <strong>the</strong> key elements of inclusive HSSLPs (see Dymond, Renzaglia, & Chun, 2007). The fourth question requested participants to describe <strong>the</strong> methods <strong>the</strong>y found most effective for including students with disabilities in service learning. The final question required <strong>the</strong>m to identify what, if any, barriers <strong>the</strong>y experienced in including students with disabilities in service learning. Findings from <strong>the</strong>se last two questions are <strong>the</strong> basis for this article. Data Analysis Data were analyzed in two stages (Patton, 2002). The first stage involved a qualitative analysis. This method was chosen because it allowed a list of specific methods and barriers to emerge from <strong>the</strong> data, and <strong>the</strong> use of inductive analysis to determine categories that cut across schools. The second stage involved determining <strong>the</strong> number of schools that identified each method and barrier. This analysis was performed to clarify <strong>the</strong> extent to which <strong>the</strong> methods and barriers were prevalent across schools. Coding. The digital recording of each focus group session was transcribed verbatim. Utilizing a content analysis procedure (Patton, 2002), each transcript was read several 24 / Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008 times in order to develop a list of codes to describe each method for and barrier to including students with disabilities in service learning. Once <strong>the</strong> codes were finalized, transcripts were re-read and a code was assigned to each method or barrier. A second researcher independently reviewed all coded data to verify <strong>the</strong> appropriateness of <strong>the</strong> assigned codes and <strong>the</strong> consistency used in applying <strong>the</strong> codes. Where differences of opinion existed, <strong>the</strong> two researchers discussed <strong>the</strong> coding until <strong>the</strong>y arrived at agreement. The final codes are listed as methods in Table 2 and barriers in Table 3. Data reduction. Using an inductive approach, methods across all five schools were examined and grouped into categories. Methods that were similar were included in <strong>the</strong> same category if <strong>the</strong>y were complementary in meaning and helped to define <strong>the</strong> category. Each method was assigned to only one category. This process was repeated for <strong>the</strong> list of barriers. As with <strong>the</strong> initial coding, a second researcher independently reviewed <strong>the</strong> codes assigned to each category to confirm <strong>the</strong>ir appropriateness. Differences of opinion were discussed between <strong>the</strong> two researchers until agreement was obtained about <strong>the</strong> codes included in each category. The final categories are defined in Tables 2 and 3. Following <strong>the</strong> qualitative analysis, a frequency count was performed to determine <strong>the</strong> number of schools that identified each method and barrier. This allowed for comparisons in <strong>the</strong> magnitude of responses and <strong>the</strong> level of agreement among schools. All methods and barriers, regardless of <strong>the</strong> number of participants or schools that identified <strong>the</strong>m, were included in <strong>the</strong> analysis. We anticipated that <strong>the</strong> methods and barriers identified by each school might vary due to <strong>the</strong> nature of <strong>the</strong> school (i.e., geographic location, size, ethnicity, percent low income, type of students with disabilities served) so we purposefully selected schools that were diverse across <strong>the</strong>se dimensions. The decision to retain all data was made because <strong>the</strong> primary purpose of <strong>the</strong> study was to capture <strong>the</strong> range of practitioner experiences and beliefs about methods and barriers. Deleting ideas mentioned by only one person or school would have diminished our understanding of practices advocated by stakeholders in diverse, inclusive HSSLPs.
TABLE 2 Methods for Including Students with Disabilities in Inclusive HSSLPs (N 5) Category Methods # of Schools Activity selection and Give students choices 4 structure (n 5) Place students in situations where <strong>the</strong>y will be successful 4 Choose activities depending on students’ ability level 3 Include more hands-on activities 2 Offer a variety of activities 2 Assess students to determine <strong>the</strong>ir capabilities 2 Start with smaller, teacher initiated projects 1 Collaboration (n 5) Collaborate with general and/or special education teachers 3 Obtain support for service learning from all staff involved with students 2 Provide enough staff 2 Obtain information about students’ abilities 2 Obtain information about methods for ensuring students’ success 1 Provide teachers with information about students’ disabilities 1 Discuss service learning opportunities during IEP meetings, 504 meetings, or transition meetings 1 Expectations (n 5) Have <strong>the</strong> same expectations for students with and without disabilities 3 Treat students with disabilities like everyone else 3 Expect students to participate 2 Allow students to fail 1 Encouragement (n 4) Allow student ownership of <strong>the</strong> project 3 Get to know <strong>the</strong> students with disabilities 3 Ask students how <strong>the</strong>y would like to be involved in service learning 2 Allow students to have an active role in decision-making 1 Grouping (n 4) Pair students with and without disabilities to complete projects 4 Include normal proportions of students with and without disabilities 2 Modifications (n 3) Provide additional instruction 2 Provide supplementary instruction in <strong>the</strong> special education classroom 1 Modify <strong>the</strong> rules when needed 1 Modify grading practices 1 Note. HSSLPs high school service learning programs; n number of schools contributing methods to each category Trustworthiness. Guba and Lincoln (1989) indicated that rigorous qualitative analyses use procedures that support “trustworthiness” of <strong>the</strong> data. In this study, trustworthiness was ensured by a) analyzing data transcribed verbatim from a high quality digital voice recorder, b) using a two-step process to understand <strong>the</strong> data, and c) verifying interpretations of <strong>the</strong> data between two researchers. Results Data from this study are organized around: a) methods for including students with disabilities in inclusive HSSLPs and b) barriers to Inclusive High School Service Learning Programs / 25
Page 1 and 2: Education and Training in Developme
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Page 21 and 22: Discussion and Recommendations Lake
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Page 31 and 32: participate in service learning pro
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Page 51 and 52: Affirmative sentences emphasize a v
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nosed as having ASD. Therefore, PEC
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Preschool Teacher Perceptions of As
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TABLE 1 Teacher Demographics 1 Teac
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TABLE 3 Assistive Technology Self-A
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Integration or supplemental perspec
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I don’t know if the</stro
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sessions, and the
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that would be difficult to develop
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Riemer-Reiss, M. L., & Wacker, R. R
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TABLE 1 Characteristics of Campers
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appropriate answers were provided.
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Figure 2. Effects of STAR intervent
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garding how to effectively interact
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Shafer K. (1992). Peer-mediating in
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proach, features are built into <st
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independent transitions were totale
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Figure 1. Number of independent tas
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type of skills (e.g., domestic, lei
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Peer-Implemented Time Delay Procedu
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show that peer tutors can reliably
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General Procedures The dependent va
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Skill training. The teacher and one
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Figure 2. Percent of correct respon
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heterogeneous group of students is
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States’ Eligibility Guidelines fo
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Method Procedure The first author d
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TABLE 1—(Continued) IQ part score
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eligibility to exhibit an IQ two or
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