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Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2008, 43(1), 102–110<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities<br />
Use of a H<strong>and</strong>held Prompting System to Transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
Independently Through Vocati<strong>on</strong>al Tasks for Students with<br />
Moderate <strong>and</strong> Severe Intellectual Disabilities<br />
David F. Cihak<br />
University of Tennessee<br />
Kelby Kessler <strong>and</strong> Paul A. Alberto<br />
Georgia State University<br />
Abstract: The use of a h<strong>and</strong>held prompting system by four students with moderate to severe intellectual<br />
disabilities to independently transiti<strong>on</strong> between an ordered chain of tasks was examined in a community<br />
vocati<strong>on</strong>al setting Effectiveness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held prompting system was assessed using a multiple-probe design<br />
across participants. Analysis of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data revealed that students successfully used <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held system to increase<br />
independent transiti<strong>on</strong>s from task to task. Independent transiti<strong>on</strong>ing was maintained at a 100% level for up<br />
to nine weeks.<br />
The need to shift stimulus c<strong>on</strong>trol from a<br />
teacher to some o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r stimulus in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment provides a foundati<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
development of self-management procedures<br />
(Cooper, Her<strong>on</strong>, & Heward, 1987; Kazdin,<br />
1994; Repp, 1983). Self-management procedures<br />
frequently limit discriminative stimuli<br />
allowing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual to focus attenti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> a<br />
target behavior (Gifford, Rusch, Martin, &<br />
White, 1984). One self-management procedure<br />
that promotes a shift in stimulus c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
by limiting discriminative stimuli is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of<br />
h<strong>and</strong>held prompting systems (Cihak, Kessler,<br />
& Alberto, in press; Davies, Stock, & Wehmeyer,<br />
2002a, 2002b, 2004; Fergus<strong>on</strong>, Myles-<br />
Smith, & Hagiwara, 2005; Furniss et al., 2001;<br />
Riffel et al., 2005).<br />
Workers with moderate <strong>and</strong> severe intellectual<br />
disabilities often are asked to change<br />
from <strong>on</strong>e task to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next without help. Those<br />
who are unable to do so may experience decreased<br />
success (Lagomarcino, Hughes, &<br />
Rusch, 1989; Mank & Horner, 1988), maintain<br />
excessive dependence <strong>on</strong> job coaches <strong>and</strong><br />
exhibit limited behavioral maintenance<br />
(Rusch, 1986), engage in off-task behavior<br />
while waiting for external delivered prompts<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cerning this article should<br />
be addressed to David Cihak, College of Educati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Health, & Human Sciences, A412 Claxt<strong>on</strong> Complex,<br />
Knoxville, TN 37996-3442.<br />
102 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
(Browder & Shapiro, 1985; MacDuff, Krantz,<br />
McClannahan, 1993), <strong>and</strong> maintain low productivity<br />
rates (Agran, Fodor-Davis, & Moore,<br />
1986). The probability of those undesirable<br />
outcomes was decreased by instructi<strong>on</strong> in specific<br />
self-management skills (Certo, Mezzullo,<br />
& Hunter, 1985; Rusch, Martin, Lagomarcino,<br />
& White, 1987). Thus, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of h<strong>and</strong>held<br />
prompting systems by workers with moderate<br />
<strong>and</strong> severe intellectual disabilities may result<br />
in employee aut<strong>on</strong>omy <strong>and</strong> decrease dependence<br />
<strong>on</strong> coworkers, teachers, job coaches,<br />
<strong>and</strong> peers (Cihak et al., in press; Davies et al.,<br />
2002a, b, 2004; Fergus<strong>on</strong> et al., 2005; Furniss<br />
et al., 2001; Riffel et al., 2005).<br />
H<strong>and</strong>held computers (e.g., PDA, Pocket<br />
PC) are promising technology devices because<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are portable, inexpensive, reliable, easy<br />
to maintain, program, use, <strong>and</strong> are socially<br />
desirable. One way to distinguish between<br />
h<strong>and</strong>held computer technologies is between<br />
commercially available devices <strong>and</strong> those that<br />
are custom made for an individual pers<strong>on</strong><br />
(Cook & Hussey, 2002). The term commercially<br />
available refers to devices that are massproduced.<br />
These include commercial devices<br />
designed for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> general populati<strong>on</strong>. Increasingly,<br />
commercial products are being designed<br />
according to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> principles of universal<br />
design. Universal design is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> design of technologies<br />
to be usable by all people, to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
greatest extent possible, without <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for<br />
adaptati<strong>on</strong> or specialized design. In this ap-