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Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Training<br />
in<br />
Developmental<br />
Disabilities<br />
Focusing <strong>on</strong> individuals with<br />
cognitive disabilities/mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, autism, <strong>and</strong> related disabilities<br />
Volume 43 Number 1 March 2008
March 2008 Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities Vol. 43, No. 1, pp. 1–132
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities,<br />
The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children<br />
Editor: Stanley H. Zucker<br />
Ariz<strong>on</strong>a State University<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sulting Editors<br />
Martin Agran<br />
Reuben Altman<br />
Phillip J. Belfiore<br />
Shar<strong>on</strong> Borthwick-Duffy<br />
Michael P. Brady<br />
Fredda Brown<br />
Mary Lynne Calhoun<br />
Shar<strong>on</strong> F. Cramer<br />
Caroline Dunn<br />
Lise Fox<br />
David L. Gast<br />
Herbert Goldstein<br />
Robert Henders<strong>on</strong><br />
Carolyn Hughes<br />
Larry K. Irvin<br />
James V. Kahn<br />
H. Earle Knowlt<strong>on</strong><br />
Barry W. Lavay<br />
Rena Lewis<br />
Kathleen J. Marshall<br />
Editorial Assistant: Hannah H. Hainline<br />
Ariz<strong>on</strong>a State University<br />
John McD<strong>on</strong>nell<br />
Gale M. Morris<strong>on</strong><br />
Gabriel A. Nardi<br />
John Nietupski<br />
James R. Patt<strong>on</strong><br />
Edward A. Polloway<br />
Thomas G. Roberts<br />
Robert S. Rueda<br />
Diane L. Ryndak<br />
Edward J. Sabornie<br />
Laurence R. Sargent<br />
Gary M. Sasso<br />
Tom E. C. Smith<br />
Scott Sparks<br />
Fred Spo<strong>on</strong>er<br />
Robert Stodden<br />
Keith Storey<br />
David L. Westling<br />
John J. Wheeler<br />
Mark Wolery<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities is sent to all members of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities of The Council<br />
for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children. All <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> members must first be members of The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> membership dues<br />
are $25.00 for regular members <strong>and</strong> $13.00 for full time students. Membership is <strong>on</strong> a yearly basis. All inquiries c<strong>on</strong>cerning membership,<br />
subscripti<strong>on</strong>, advertising, etc. should be sent to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities, 1110 North Glebe Road, Arlingt<strong>on</strong>, VA 22201.<br />
Advertising rates are available up<strong>on</strong> request.<br />
Manuscripts should be typed, double spaced, <strong>and</strong> sent (five copies) to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Editor: Stanley H. Zucker, Special Educati<strong>on</strong> Program, Box<br />
872011, Ariz<strong>on</strong>a State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2011. Each manuscript should have a cover sheet that gives <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> names, affiliati<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong><br />
complete addresses of all authors.<br />
Editing policies are based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Publicati<strong>on</strong> Manual, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> American Psychological Associati<strong>on</strong>, 2001 revisi<strong>on</strong>. Additi<strong>on</strong>al informati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
provided <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> inside back cover. Any signed article is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al expressi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> author; likewise, any advertisement is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>sibility<br />
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Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities is abstracted <strong>and</strong> indexed in Psychological Abstracts, PsycINFO, e-psyche, Abstracts<br />
for Social Workers, Internati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g> of Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> Research, Current C<strong>on</strong>tents/Social <strong>and</strong> Behavioral Sciences, Excerpta Medica,<br />
Social Sciences Citati<strong>on</strong> Index, Adolescent Mental Health Abstracts, Educati<strong>on</strong>al Administrati<strong>on</strong> Abstracts, Educati<strong>on</strong>al Research Abstracts,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Language <strong>and</strong> Language Behavior Abstracts. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, it is annotated <strong>and</strong> indexed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ERIC Clearinghouse <strong>on</strong> H<strong>and</strong>icapped <strong>and</strong><br />
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Educati<strong>on</strong> Resources.<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities Vol. 43, No. 1, March 2008, Copyright 2008 by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental<br />
Disabilities, The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities<br />
The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children<br />
Board of Directors<br />
Officers<br />
Past President Phil Parette<br />
President Polly Parrish<br />
President-Elect J. David Smith<br />
Vice President Emily Bouck<br />
Secretary T<strong>on</strong>i Merfeld<br />
Treasurer Am<strong>and</strong>a Boutot<br />
Members<br />
Leslie Broun<br />
Linda Laz<br />
Nikki Murdick<br />
Angie St<strong>on</strong>e-MacD<strong>on</strong>ald (Student Governor)<br />
Dianne Zager<br />
Deborah Wichmanowski<br />
Executive Director<br />
Tom E. C. Smith<br />
Publicati<strong>on</strong>s Chair<br />
Jack Hourcade<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong>s Chair<br />
Darlene Perner<br />
The purposes of this organizati<strong>on</strong> shall be to advance <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> welfare of pers<strong>on</strong>s with developmental disabilities, research in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
educati<strong>on</strong> of pers<strong>on</strong>s with developmental disabilities, competency of educators in this field, public underst<strong>and</strong>ing of developmental disabilities,<br />
<strong>and</strong> legislati<strong>on</strong> needed to help accomplish <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se goals. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> shall encourage <strong>and</strong> promote professi<strong>on</strong>al growth, research, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
disseminati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> utilizati<strong>on</strong> of research findings.<br />
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES (ISSN 1547-0350) (USPS 0168-5000) is published quarterly in<br />
March, June, September, <strong>and</strong> December, by The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities, 1110 North<br />
Glebe Road, Arlingt<strong>on</strong>, Virginia 22201-5704. Members’ dues to The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental<br />
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Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental<br />
Disabilities<br />
Editorial Policy<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities focuses <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
welfare of pers<strong>on</strong>s with developmental disabilities. ETDD invites research <strong>and</strong><br />
expository manuscripts <strong>and</strong> critical review of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature. Major emphasis is <strong>on</strong><br />
identificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> assessment, educati<strong>on</strong>al programming, characteristics, training<br />
of instructi<strong>on</strong>al pers<strong>on</strong>nel, habilitati<strong>on</strong>, preventi<strong>on</strong>, community underst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>and</strong><br />
provisi<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> legislati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Each manuscript is evaluated an<strong>on</strong>ymously by three reviewers. Criteria for acceptance<br />
include <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following: relevance, reader interest, quality, applicability,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> field, <strong>and</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omy <strong>and</strong> smoothness of expressi<strong>on</strong>. The review<br />
process requires two to four m<strong>on</strong>ths.<br />
Viewpoints expressed are those of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> authors <strong>and</strong> do not necessarily c<strong>on</strong>form to<br />
positi<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> editors or of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> officers of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Submissi<strong>on</strong> of Manuscripts<br />
1. Manuscript submissi<strong>on</strong> is a representati<strong>on</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> manuscript is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> author’s<br />
own work, has not been published, <strong>and</strong> is not currently under c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
publicati<strong>on</strong> elsewhere.<br />
2. Manuscripts must be prepared according to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> recommendati<strong>on</strong>s in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Publicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Manual of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> American Psychological Associati<strong>on</strong> (Fifth Editi<strong>on</strong>, 2001).<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ard typewriter type, laser, or high density dot printing are acceptable.<br />
3. Each manuscript must have a cover sheet giving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> names <strong>and</strong> affiliati<strong>on</strong>s of all<br />
authors <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> address of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> principal author.<br />
4. Graphs <strong>and</strong> figures should be originals or sharp, high quality photographic<br />
prints suitable, if necessary, for a 50% reducti<strong>on</strong> in size.<br />
5. Five copies of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> manuscript al<strong>on</strong>g with a transmittal letter should be sent to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Editor: Stanley H. Zucker, Special Educati<strong>on</strong> Program, Box 872011, Ariz<strong>on</strong>a<br />
State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2011.<br />
6. Up<strong>on</strong> receipt, each manuscript will be screened by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> editor. Appropriate<br />
manuscripts will <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n be sent to c<strong>on</strong>sulting editors. Principal authors will receive<br />
notificati<strong>on</strong> of receipt of manuscript.<br />
7. The Editor reserves <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> right to make minor editorial changes which do not<br />
materially affect <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> meaning of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> text.<br />
8. Manuscripts are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> property of ETDD for a minimum period of six m<strong>on</strong>ths. All<br />
articles accepted for publicati<strong>on</strong> are copyrighted in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> name of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong><br />
Developmental Disabilities.
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities<br />
VOLUME 43 NUMBER 1 MARCH 2008<br />
Guardianship: Its Role in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Transiti<strong>on</strong> Process for Students with<br />
Developmental Disabilities 3<br />
ERIN M. PAYNE-CHRISTIANSEN <strong>and</strong> PATRICIA L. SITLINGTON<br />
Inclusive High School Service Learning Programs: Methods for <strong>and</strong> Barriers<br />
to Including Students with Disabilities 20<br />
STACY K. DYMOND, ADELLE RENZAGLIA, <strong>and</strong> EUL JUNG CHUN<br />
Using Pivotal Resp<strong>on</strong>se Training with Peers in Special Educati<strong>on</strong> to Facilitate<br />
Play in Two Children with <strong>Autism</strong> 37<br />
LAURA R. KUHN, AMY E. BODKIN, SANDRA D. DEVLIN <strong>and</strong> R. ANTHONY DOGGETT<br />
Effects of Perspective Sentences in Social Stories TM <strong>on</strong> Improving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Adaptive Behaviors of Students with <strong>Autism</strong> Spectrum Disorders <strong>and</strong> Related<br />
Disabilities 46<br />
SHINGO OKADA, YOSHIHISA OHTAKE, <strong>and</strong> MASAFUMI YANAGIHARA<br />
Effectiveness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Picture Exchange Communicati<strong>on</strong> System as a Functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> Interventi<strong>on</strong> for Individuals with <strong>Autism</strong> Spectrum Disorders:<br />
A Practice-Based Research Syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis 61<br />
KAI-CHIEN TIEN<br />
Preschool Teacher Percepti<strong>on</strong>s of Assistive Technology <strong>and</strong> Professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Development Resp<strong>on</strong>ses 77<br />
JULIA B. STONER, HOWARD P. PARETTE, EMILY H. WATTS, BRIAN W. WOJCIK, <strong>and</strong><br />
TINA FOGAL<br />
Effects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR Interventi<strong>on</strong> Program <strong>on</strong> Interacti<strong>on</strong>s between Campers<br />
with <strong>and</strong> without Disabilities during Inclusive Summer Day Camp Activities 92<br />
CHRISTINA M. BOYD, JEFFREY L. FRAIMAN, KELLY A. HAWKINS, JENNIFER M. LABIN,<br />
MARY BETH SUTTER, <strong>and</strong> MEGHAN R. WAHL<br />
Use of a H<strong>and</strong>held Prompting System to Transiti<strong>on</strong> Independently Through<br />
Vocati<strong>on</strong>al Tasks for Students with Moderate <strong>and</strong> Severe Intellectual<br />
Disabilities 102<br />
DAVID F. CIHAK, KELBY KESSLER, <strong>and</strong> PAUL A. ALBERTO<br />
Peer-Implemented Time Delay Procedures <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of Chained<br />
Tasks by Students with Moderate <strong>and</strong> Severe Disabilities 111<br />
JANET READ GODSEY, JOHN W. SCHUSTER, AMY SHEARER LINGO,<br />
BELVA C. COLLINS, <strong>and</strong> HAROLD L. KLEINERT<br />
States’ Eligibility Guidelines for Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong>: An Update <strong>and</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of Part Scores <strong>and</strong> Unreliability of IQs 123<br />
RENEE BERGERON, RANDY G. FLOYD, <strong>and</strong> ELIZABETH I. SHANDS<br />
Manuscripts Accepted for Future Publicati<strong>on</strong> in Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in<br />
Developmental Disabilities 2<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities retains literary property rights <strong>on</strong> copyrighted articles. Up to 100<br />
copies of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> articles in this journal may be reproduced for n<strong>on</strong>profit distributi<strong>on</strong> without permissi<strong>on</strong> from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
publisher. All o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r forms of reproducti<strong>on</strong> require permissi<strong>on</strong> from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> publisher.
Manuscripts Accepted for Future Publicati<strong>on</strong> in Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities<br />
June 2008<br />
Teacher’s perceived efficacy <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> inclusi<strong>on</strong> of a pupil with dyslexia or mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Findings from Sweden. Lise Roll-Petterss<strong>on</strong>, Stockholm Institute of Educati<strong>on</strong>, Department of<br />
Special Educati<strong>on</strong>, PO Box 34103, SE-10026, Stockholm, SWEDEN.<br />
Descriptive analysis of classroom setting events <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> social behaviors of children with autism<br />
spectrum disorder. Brian A. Boyd, Maureen A. C<strong>on</strong>roy, Jennifer M. Asmus, Elizabeth L.W.<br />
McKenney, <strong>and</strong> G. Richm<strong>on</strong>d Mancil, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, UNC School of<br />
Medicine, Campus Box 7122, B<strong>on</strong>durant Hall, Suite 2050, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7122.<br />
Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r c<strong>on</strong>ceptualizati<strong>on</strong> of treatment acceptability. Stacy L. Carter, 4518 20th St., Lubbock, TX<br />
79407.<br />
Child-<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rapist interacti<strong>on</strong> patterns in ordinary <strong>and</strong> adaptive toys. Hsieh-Chen Hsieh, Department<br />
of Occupati<strong>on</strong>al Therapy, Fu Jen Catholic University, NO. 510 Jh<strong>on</strong>gjheng Rd., Sinjhuang City,<br />
Taipei County, 24205, TAIWAN.<br />
Comparis<strong>on</strong> of assessment results of children with low incidence disabilities. Dennis J. Campbell,<br />
AmySue Reilly, <strong>and</strong> Joan Henley, Department of Leadership <strong>and</strong> Teacher Educati<strong>on</strong>, University of<br />
South Alabama, UCOM 3130, Mobile, AL 36688-0002.<br />
Teaching an algebraic equati<strong>on</strong> to high school students with moderate developmental disabilities.<br />
Bree A. Jimenez, Diane M. Browder, <strong>and</strong> Ginevra R. Courtade, Department of Special Educati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
UNC Charlotte, 6928 Rollingridge Drive, Charlotte, NC 28211.<br />
Do parents prefer special schools for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir children with <strong>Autism</strong>? Javier Moreno, Ant<strong>on</strong>io Aguilera,<br />
<strong>and</strong> David Saldana, Developmental <strong>and</strong> Ed. Psychology, Universidad D Sevilla, Camilo Jose Cela<br />
s/n., 41018, Sevilla, SPAIN.<br />
Utah’s alternative assessment: Evidence regarding six aspects of validity. Karen D. Hager <strong>and</strong><br />
Timothy A. Slocum, Department of Special Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> Counseling, University of<br />
Kentucky, 229 Taylor Educati<strong>on</strong> Building, Lexingt<strong>on</strong>, KY 40506-0001.<br />
Comparis<strong>on</strong> of PECS <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of a VOCA: A replicati<strong>on</strong>. Ann R. Beck, Julia B. St<strong>on</strong>er, <strong>and</strong><br />
Stacey J. Bock, 4100 College of Arts <strong>and</strong> Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, IL 61790-4100.<br />
Parent-delivered community-based instructi<strong>on</strong> with simultaneous prompting for teaching community<br />
skills to children with developmental disabilities. Elif Tekin-Iftar, Anadolu University, Engelliler<br />
Arastirma Enstitusu, Eskisehir, 26470, TURKEY.<br />
Address is supplied for author in boldface type.
Guardianship: Its Role in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Transiti<strong>on</strong> Process for Students<br />
with Developmental Disabilities<br />
Erin M. Payne-Christiansen <strong>and</strong> Patricia L. Sitlingt<strong>on</strong><br />
University of Nor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn Iowa<br />
Abstract: The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore: (a) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> underlying beliefs of those involved in<br />
determining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for guardianship for young adults with developmental disabilities, (b) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> overarching<br />
frameworks or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ories that might explain some of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> more predominate beliefs, <strong>and</strong> (c) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ship of<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> assessment, transiti<strong>on</strong> planning, self-determinati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> age of majority to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship process.<br />
The authors found that planning for guardianship was separated from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> planning process <strong>and</strong><br />
that full guardianship had become <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> set path for every student in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al program. The authors made<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following recommendati<strong>on</strong>s: (a) schools must begin with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assumpti<strong>on</strong> that each individual has <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
potential to lead his/her own life--from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re supports in areas of need can be developed; (b) both <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
planning <strong>and</strong> guardianship process should be based up<strong>on</strong> an <strong>on</strong>going assessment of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s strengths,<br />
needs, preferences, <strong>and</strong> interests; (c) schools must recognize students as emerging young adults, <strong>and</strong> prepare<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to assume a variety of adult roles by helping <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m develop <strong>and</strong> practice self-determinati<strong>on</strong> skills; (d) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
transfer of rights at age of majority should be seen as a key point in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> process; <strong>and</strong> (e) in working<br />
to prepare students for adult life, instructi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> support staff need to be aware of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> wide variety of<br />
alternatives to <strong>and</strong> opti<strong>on</strong>s within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship process.<br />
Even though guardianship is a profound decisi<strong>on</strong><br />
with serious implicati<strong>on</strong>s both for <strong>and</strong><br />
about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> labeled as having a developmental<br />
disability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cept of guardianship<br />
has received little emphasis in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong> field. It seems logical<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> determinati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for guardianship<br />
should be made based up<strong>on</strong> an <strong>on</strong>going<br />
assessment of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s strengths,<br />
needs, preferences, <strong>and</strong> interests, as part of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> planning process. Identifying<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> supports needed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student as he/she<br />
makes <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> to adulthood should be<br />
incorporated into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> planning process,<br />
so that less intrusive alternatives to guardianship<br />
may be possible. Training in self-<br />
The authors express <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir appreciati<strong>on</strong> to Dr.<br />
Deborah J. Gallagher for her active role in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
design <strong>and</strong> implementati<strong>on</strong> of this study <strong>and</strong> to<br />
Crystal Stokes for her editorial assistance during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
final stages of manuscript preparati<strong>on</strong>. Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerning this manuscript should be addressed<br />
to: Patricia L. Sitlingt<strong>on</strong>, Department of<br />
Special Educati<strong>on</strong>, Schindler Educati<strong>on</strong> Center 154,<br />
University of Nor<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rn Iowa, Cedar Falls, IA 50614-<br />
0601. Email: Patricia.Sitlingt<strong>on</strong>@uni.edu<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2008, 43(1), 3–19<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities<br />
determinati<strong>on</strong> should also provide skills that<br />
will assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual in taking c<strong>on</strong>trol of<br />
his/her adult life, <strong>and</strong> advocate for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se supports.<br />
The transfer of rights at age of majority<br />
is an ideal time for decisi<strong>on</strong>s regarding guardianship<br />
to be made.<br />
Studies <strong>on</strong> Guardianship<br />
The majority of research <strong>on</strong> guardianship has<br />
focused <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cerns of elderly people<br />
(Bulcroft, Kielkopf, & Tripp, 1991; Iris, 1988;<br />
O’Sullivan & Hoffman, 1995; Peters, Schmidt,<br />
& Miller, 1985). In particular, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se studies<br />
have focused mainly <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> abuses of <strong>and</strong><br />
difficulties in m<strong>on</strong>itoring guardianship (e.g.,<br />
Bulcroft et al.; Kritzer, Dicks, & Abrahms<strong>on</strong>,<br />
1993; O’Sullivan & Hoffman; Peters et al.). A<br />
number of authors have undertaken an analysis<br />
of court records of guardianship hearings<br />
for elderly pers<strong>on</strong>s. Analyses of court records<br />
in Florida (Peters et al.), Ohio <strong>and</strong> Washingt<strong>on</strong><br />
(Bulcroft et al.), Wisc<strong>on</strong>sin (Kritzer et al.),<br />
<strong>and</strong> Maryl<strong>and</strong> (O’Sullivan & Hoffman) identified<br />
several similar c<strong>on</strong>cerns. These c<strong>on</strong>cerns<br />
included: (a) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong>able validity<br />
Guardianship / 3
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assessment or rigor used in determining<br />
incompetency; (b) late notificati<strong>on</strong>s to alleged<br />
wards; (c) lack of participati<strong>on</strong> of (or even <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
presence of) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged ward; (d) inadequate<br />
independent counsel to serve <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged<br />
ward; (e) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> frequent assignment of a full<br />
guardian when a partial or limited guardianship<br />
may have sufficed; <strong>and</strong> (f) a lack of m<strong>on</strong>itoring<br />
of annual reports filed by guardians<br />
(both low numbers of reports filed <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
failure to notify or sancti<strong>on</strong> guardians who<br />
failed to file an annual report).<br />
Guardianship <strong>and</strong> individuals with disabilities.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>cerns have also been raised regarding <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
use of guardianship for individuals with disabilities<br />
(e.g., Endicott, 1988; Hoyle & Harris,<br />
2001; Pepper, 1989), <strong>and</strong> possible alternatives<br />
to guardianship have been proposed<br />
(Pierangelo & Crane, 1997; Racino, 1993; Wilber,<br />
1991). As Stancliffe, Abery, Springborg,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Elkin (2000) pointed out, “One of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dangers of guardianship is that it can easily go<br />
bey<strong>on</strong>d protecting rights <strong>and</strong> seriously interfere<br />
with self-determinati<strong>on</strong> if guardians exercise<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol in areas where pers<strong>on</strong>s could<br />
make <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own decisi<strong>on</strong>s or engage in collaborative<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>-making with support from significant<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs” (p. 409).<br />
Stancliff et al. (2000) examined levels of<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>trol exercised by 76 adults with<br />
mental disabilities, as related to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir guardianship<br />
status. They found that individuals<br />
with no guardian exercised more pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol over <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir lives than did those with a<br />
limited guardian. Similarly, those with a limited<br />
guardian exercised more pers<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
than participants with a full guardian.<br />
These significant differences remained, even<br />
when c<strong>on</strong>trolling for competency in self-determinati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Millar <strong>and</strong> Renzaglia (2002) c<strong>on</strong>ducted an<br />
in-depth analysis of 221 court records of<br />
guardianship hearings for young adults between<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ages of 17 <strong>and</strong> 29 with a disability<br />
who were living in <strong>on</strong>e of nine counties in<br />
Michigan. The found <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following: (a) 120<br />
full guardians <strong>and</strong> 101 partial/limited guardians<br />
were appointed, but distincti<strong>on</strong>s between<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> powers of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se two guardianship types<br />
were often found to be minimal; (b) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
wards’ primary disability was most often reported<br />
as “mental impairment”; (c) over 50%<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> wards in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sample were 18 years of<br />
4 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
age; <strong>and</strong> (d) over 90% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> young adults<br />
were still in public schools at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
petiti<strong>on</strong> was filed. In additi<strong>on</strong>, petiti<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
most often filed by family members of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
wards (74.7%), usually <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> mo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r. Mo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs<br />
were <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>es typically appointed as legal<br />
guardians.<br />
Millar (2003) extended <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> findings of Millar<br />
<strong>and</strong> Renzaglia (2002) using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same court<br />
files to ask additi<strong>on</strong>al questi<strong>on</strong>s. She found<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following reas<strong>on</strong>s for petiti<strong>on</strong>s for guardianship:<br />
to make all decisi<strong>on</strong>s (37.1%), ward is<br />
not capable of making informed decisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(33%), specific tasks which <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward is unable<br />
to perform (13.5%), to assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward with<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong> making <strong>and</strong> specific daily living tasks<br />
(16.3%), <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>e given (1.8%). Millar also<br />
found <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged ward was present at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
hearing 86.8% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time. If <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual<br />
were not present, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> reas<strong>on</strong> offered was that<br />
attendance would subject <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual to<br />
serious physical <strong>and</strong>/or emoti<strong>on</strong>al harm.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, Millar (2003) found that evaluati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
tended to use st<strong>and</strong>ardized <strong>and</strong> normreferenced<br />
intelligence tests. In all 221 court<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> judges stated that “clear <strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>vincing evidence” was provided <strong>and</strong> that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward was an individual with a developmental<br />
disability <strong>and</strong> required a guardian. Of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
105 full guardians, 88.2 % had appointments<br />
for an indefinite term. Of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 101 limited<br />
guardians, 97% had durati<strong>on</strong>s of five years,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal limit in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> state. Thirty-three percent<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> wards indicated no preference as<br />
to whom <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y believed should be appointed<br />
guardian; thirty-two percent indicated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
same preference as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir petiti<strong>on</strong>er did.<br />
Based up<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se findings, Millar (2003)<br />
suggested: (a) changes in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> way evaluati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
are performed, to include evaluati<strong>on</strong> of adult<br />
daily living skills (including decisi<strong>on</strong> making)<br />
<strong>on</strong> an <strong>on</strong>going basis throughout <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship<br />
term; (b) educati<strong>on</strong> for attorneys <strong>and</strong><br />
judges in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> area of disability, with an emphasis<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that pers<strong>on</strong>s with disabilities can<br />
<strong>and</strong> do lead quality adult lives when given <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
appropriate support; (c) educati<strong>on</strong> for families<br />
<strong>and</strong> educators related to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship<br />
process <strong>and</strong> ramificati<strong>on</strong>s of guardianship impositi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
well before <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
age of majority, (d) increased participati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged ward in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship hearing;<br />
<strong>and</strong> (e) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> m<strong>on</strong>itoring of
guardians who are knowledgeable about community<br />
resources, housing opti<strong>on</strong>s, accounting,<br />
<strong>and</strong> public benefits for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir wards.<br />
Within almost all of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> previously discussed<br />
studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are similar difficulties: (a) problems<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assessment of incompetency, (b)<br />
inadequate due process procedures, (c) assignment<br />
of too high a level of guardianship<br />
(full when limited would have sufficed), <strong>and</strong><br />
(d) poor m<strong>on</strong>itoring of guardianships <strong>on</strong>ce<br />
assigned. Researchers are unsure, however, as<br />
to why <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se difficulties seem so widespread.<br />
While <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se studies are interesting <strong>and</strong> useful,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y fail to provide insight into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> beliefs<br />
<strong>and</strong> attitudes of those involved in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> process<br />
<strong>and</strong> how those beliefs <strong>and</strong> attitudes shaped<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship process. Also missing from<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se studies is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> voice <strong>and</strong> beliefs of individuals<br />
with disabilities, those most affected by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship process. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, no<br />
studies have looked at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
school system, or specifically, special educati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>on</strong> guardianship for young adults with<br />
disabilities. Within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools, transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
planning, m<strong>and</strong>ated by law, is designed to<br />
prepare students for all of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> adult roles <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
will assume. Discussi<strong>on</strong> about guardianship,<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> removal of rights<br />
<strong>and</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong>-making powers from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual,<br />
should occur within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> framework of<br />
four closely related c<strong>on</strong>cepts—(a) transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
assessment, (b) transiti<strong>on</strong> planning, (c) selfdeterminati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> (d) transfer of rights at<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority (Flower, 1994; Hoyle &<br />
Harris, 2001).<br />
The Guardianship Process<br />
To fully underst<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> results of this study, it<br />
is important to underst<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship<br />
<strong>and</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong> processes.<br />
Our State’s Guardianship Process<br />
Guardianship, including <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> process, terms<br />
<strong>and</strong> definiti<strong>on</strong>s used, varies by state. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
state in which this study was c<strong>on</strong>ducted, a<br />
guardian is defined as a “pers<strong>on</strong> appointed by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> court to have <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> custody of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward” (Iowa Administrative Code;<br />
IAC§633.3(20)). A c<strong>on</strong>servator is defined as a<br />
“pers<strong>on</strong> appointed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> court to have custody<br />
<strong>and</strong> care of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> property of a ward”<br />
(IAC§633.3(23)). “Ward” refers to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual<br />
who has been assigned a guardian. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are two types of guardianships –<br />
full guardianship <strong>and</strong> partial guardianship.<br />
Full guardians have all rights allowed by law<br />
over <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir ward, while partial guardians have<br />
specific rights over <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir ward as assigned by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> judge during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> court hearing<br />
(IAC§633). We will first review our state’s legal<br />
process regarding guardianship, followed by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> process regarding c<strong>on</strong>servatorship.<br />
Legal process for guardianship. The legal<br />
process for obtaining guardianship in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
state takes <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following steps. First, an individual<br />
files a petiti<strong>on</strong> for guardianship<br />
(IAC§633.552). The petiti<strong>on</strong>er (who is not<br />
necessarily <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> proposed guardian) can be<br />
any<strong>on</strong>e. The petiti<strong>on</strong>er files a document that<br />
lists <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged ward <strong>and</strong> his/her c<strong>on</strong>tact informati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> proposed guardian<br />
<strong>and</strong> his/her c<strong>on</strong>tact informati<strong>on</strong>. (“Alleged<br />
ward” is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal term used in our state to<br />
refer to a pers<strong>on</strong> who has not yet been assigned<br />
a guardian but for whom a guardianship<br />
petiti<strong>on</strong> has been filed.)<br />
After a petiti<strong>on</strong> is filed, notice is sent to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
alleged ward (IAC§633.554)). The notice<br />
must inform <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged ward that a petiti<strong>on</strong><br />
has been filed <strong>on</strong> his/her behalf requesting a<br />
guardian, that he/she is entitled to representati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> rights that could possibly be<br />
taken away from him/her if assigned a guardian.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> court determines if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged<br />
ward needs a lawyer. The court can<br />
assign counsel if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged ward is incapable<br />
of voicing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need or if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged ward is<br />
indigent (<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> attorney fees, unless <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged<br />
ward is deemed indigent, are paid for by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged ward) (IAC§633.561 <strong>and</strong> IAC§-<br />
633.673). The lawyer’s obligati<strong>on</strong>s are described<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> state’s code (IAC§633.561(4)).<br />
He/she must advise <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged ward of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
proceedings, must advise <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged ward of<br />
his/her rights, must “pers<strong>on</strong>ally interview” <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
alleged ward, <strong>and</strong> must file a report saying<br />
he/she has d<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se three things.<br />
A hearing with a judge is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> third step. The<br />
burden of proof is <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> petiti<strong>on</strong>er for an<br />
initial assignment (IAC§633.551). The lawyer<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> petiti<strong>on</strong>er must first “prove by clear<br />
<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>vincing evidence” that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged<br />
ward is indeed incompetent (IAC§-<br />
633.556(1)). Incompetency is determined by<br />
Guardianship / 5
looking at whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> has: (a) “a decisi<strong>on</strong>-making<br />
capacity which is so impaired<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> is unable to care for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>’s<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al safety or to attend to or provide<br />
for necessities for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> such as food,<br />
shelter, clothing, or medical care” or (b) “a<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>-making capacity which is so impaired<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> is unable to make, communicate,<br />
or carry out important decisi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>cerning<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>’s financial affairs”<br />
(IAC§633.3(23)).<br />
Next, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is a determinati<strong>on</strong> as to who will<br />
be <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardian. The <strong>on</strong>ly requirements are<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardian be a “qualified <strong>and</strong> suitable<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> who is willing to serve in that capacity”<br />
(IAC§633.559). The rights that will be subsumed<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardian are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n identified.<br />
The court is to first c<strong>on</strong>sider a limited guardianship.<br />
There are, however, no specific definiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of “limited guardianship” c<strong>on</strong>tained<br />
within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> state’s code. Limited/Partial guardians<br />
have <strong>on</strong>ly certain rights granted. Full/<br />
Plenary guardians have all rights allowed a<br />
guardian. These rights are divided into two<br />
categories: those that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardian can do<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly with court approval <strong>and</strong> those that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
guardian can do at his/her own discreti<strong>on</strong><br />
(IAC§633.635).<br />
With court approval, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardian may<br />
change <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward’s residency to a more restrictive<br />
<strong>on</strong>e, arrange for elective surgery or n<strong>on</strong>emergency<br />
medical treatment, <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sent to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> withholding/withdrawal of life-sustaining<br />
procedures. Without court approval, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
guardian may decide where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward will live;<br />
select his/her educati<strong>on</strong>al program; choose<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual’s clo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, furniture, vehicle <strong>and</strong><br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r pers<strong>on</strong>al effects; determine what professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
care <strong>and</strong> counseling might be needed;<br />
<strong>and</strong> make any o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r decisi<strong>on</strong>s specified by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
court in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> initial hearing.<br />
Legal process for c<strong>on</strong>servatorship. As menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
previously, while guardians have rights<br />
over <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>servators have rights over<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> property. C<strong>on</strong>servators “have a right to,<br />
<strong>and</strong> shall take, possessi<strong>on</strong> of all <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> real <strong>and</strong><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al property of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward” (IAC§-<br />
633.640). They have <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities of<br />
protecting, preserving, <strong>and</strong> investing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ward’s assets (IAC§633.641). Powers of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>servator are broken down similarly to<br />
those of a guardian--with <strong>and</strong> without court<br />
approval. With court approval, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>serva-<br />
6 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
tor may invest funds, execute leases, make<br />
payments (to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward, to agencies providing<br />
services, to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardian, to any<strong>on</strong>e who has<br />
custody of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward), <strong>and</strong> carry out any o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
duties specified by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> court (IAC§633.647).<br />
Without court approval, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>servator may<br />
collect income, defend or sue for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward,<br />
sell/transfer pers<strong>on</strong>al property, vote in proxy<br />
at corporate meetings, <strong>and</strong> receive property<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward (IAC§633.646).<br />
Fulfilling <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship/c<strong>on</strong>servatorship role.<br />
After <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> hearing <strong>and</strong> assignment of a guardian,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardian is resp<strong>on</strong>sible for filing three<br />
types of reports (IAC§633.669). The initial<br />
report is to be filed within 60 days. From <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
<strong>on</strong>, reports are to be filed annually. A final<br />
report must be filed when guardianship is<br />
terminated (for any reas<strong>on</strong>). C<strong>on</strong>servators<br />
have slightly different requirements, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
same type <strong>and</strong> frequency of reports<br />
(IAC§633.670 <strong>and</strong> IAC§633.671).<br />
Hearings may be held to modify or terminate<br />
guardianship/c<strong>on</strong>servatorship. The burden<br />
of proof rests <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardian if he/she<br />
requests terminati<strong>on</strong> or modificati<strong>on</strong><br />
(IAC§633.551). If <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward requests terminati<strong>on</strong>/modificati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward must first “make<br />
a prima facie showing of some decisi<strong>on</strong>-making<br />
capacity”; <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> burden rests <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
guardian to prove that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward is incompetent<br />
(IAC§633.551). Changes may include<br />
adding additi<strong>on</strong>al restricti<strong>on</strong>s, removing restricti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
or terminating <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship.<br />
Alternatives to Full Guardianship<br />
Because guardianship is a powerful legal c<strong>on</strong>trol,<br />
many alternatives to guardianship are<br />
available. Often, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se alternatives to guardianship<br />
offer m<strong>on</strong>itoring <strong>and</strong> assistance to individuals<br />
with disabilities, but do not require<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y define <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mselves as “incompetent,”<br />
nor that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y give up <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir role in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong>making<br />
process.<br />
Typically, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se alternatives can be grouped<br />
by type of service. These services include assistance<br />
in financial, educati<strong>on</strong>al, vocati<strong>on</strong>al,<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or daily living matters. Financial services<br />
may c<strong>on</strong>sist of: (a) a representative payee, a<br />
designated pers<strong>on</strong> who can receive Supplemental<br />
Security Income (SSI) or Social Security<br />
Disability Insurance (SSDI) payments for a<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> with a disability to assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual
in budgeting <strong>and</strong> spending; (b) a special<br />
needs trust, a fund created to insure that an<br />
inheritance goes to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> designated (if<br />
this pers<strong>on</strong> has a disability) <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assignment<br />
of a trustee to help with m<strong>on</strong>ey management;<br />
(c) joint bank accounts (Pierangelo &<br />
Crane, 1997), an account that would allow a<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d individual to assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual with<br />
a disability with banking <strong>and</strong> budgeting; <strong>and</strong><br />
(d) daily m<strong>on</strong>ey management services (Wilber,<br />
1991), where a n<strong>on</strong>-profit organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
assists with financial affairs.<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong>al services c<strong>on</strong>sist of educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
power of attorney (P. Ehrenman, pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>, November 14, 2001), a document<br />
that allows parents to retain <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> rights<br />
to make educati<strong>on</strong>al decisi<strong>on</strong>s bey<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age<br />
of majority. Vocati<strong>on</strong>al services typically c<strong>on</strong>sist<br />
of supported employment, a program to<br />
provide <strong>on</strong>-<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>-job support to an individual<br />
with a disability through <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of natural<br />
supports (supports occurring in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> envir<strong>on</strong>ment)<br />
or external supports, often using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
support services of adult providers (Butterworth,<br />
Hagner, Kiernan, & Schalock, 1996).<br />
Supported living services are also available,<br />
ranging from living in a group home to <strong>on</strong>e’s<br />
own apartment or home, with supports provided<br />
by adult service providers, as needed.<br />
Some services have multiple functi<strong>on</strong>s, including<br />
power of attorney, a document that allows<br />
an individual appointed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> with a<br />
disability to make decisi<strong>on</strong>s in <strong>on</strong>e or more<br />
areas of adult life. This role can also be terminated<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual with a disability.<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> state’s code, it is<br />
specified that a limited or partial guardianship<br />
should first be c<strong>on</strong>sidered (IAC§633.560), before<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of a full or plenary guardianship.<br />
Because limited/partial guardians<br />
have fewer rights over <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward <strong>and</strong> because<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se rights are based <strong>on</strong> specific, focused<br />
needs of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ward, as determined in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> court<br />
hearing, limited/partial guardianships are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be somewhat less restrictive <strong>and</strong><br />
are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore to be c<strong>on</strong>sidered before full<br />
guardianships.<br />
Transiti<strong>on</strong> to Adult Life<br />
The Individuals with Disabilities Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
Improvement Act (IDEA 2004) m<strong>and</strong>ates individualized<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> planning for move-<br />
ment to all areas of adult life. The definiti<strong>on</strong><br />
for transiti<strong>on</strong> services in IDEA 2004 is a coordinated<br />
set of activities for a child with a disability<br />
that:<br />
● is designed to be within a results-oriented<br />
process, that is focused <strong>on</strong> improving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
academic <strong>and</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>al achievement of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child with a disability to facilitate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
child’s movement from school to postschool<br />
activities, including postsec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>; vocati<strong>on</strong>al educati<strong>on</strong>; integrated<br />
employment (including supported employment);<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinuing <strong>and</strong> adult educati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
adult services; independent living or community<br />
participati<strong>on</strong>; <strong>and</strong> [602(34)(A)]<br />
● is based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual child’s needs,<br />
taking into account <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child’s strengths,<br />
preferences <strong>and</strong> interests. [602(34)(B)]<br />
IDEA 2004 requires that a student’s IEP be<br />
updated annually at age 16 to address <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
following:<br />
● appropriate measurable postsec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
goals based up<strong>on</strong> age appropriate transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
assessments related to training, educati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
employment, <strong>and</strong> where appropriate, independent<br />
living skills;<br />
● transiti<strong>on</strong> services needed to assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student<br />
in reaching <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se goals, including <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
student’s course of study (e.g., career <strong>and</strong><br />
technology educati<strong>on</strong>, college preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
courses)<br />
● a statement that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student has been informed<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> rights (if any) that will transfer<br />
to him or her <strong>on</strong> reaching <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of<br />
majority--no later than <strong>on</strong>e year before<br />
reaching <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority under State<br />
law.<br />
The entire thrust behind transiti<strong>on</strong> services is<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> preparati<strong>on</strong> of young adults with disabilities<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> variety of emerging adult roles <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
will assume, with all <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> rights <strong>and</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities<br />
accorded to an adult. There are four<br />
major c<strong>on</strong>cepts that are a key part of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> planning process: (a) transiti<strong>on</strong> assessment,<br />
(b) transiti<strong>on</strong> planning, (c) self-determinati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> (d) transfer of rights at age<br />
of majority.<br />
Guardianship / 7
Transiti<strong>on</strong> Assessment<br />
IDEA 2004 clearly provides a m<strong>and</strong>ate for including<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> assessment in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> IEP process.<br />
Transiti<strong>on</strong> assessment is an integral part<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al process for students with<br />
disabilities during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>dary school years<br />
<strong>and</strong> serves as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> foundati<strong>on</strong> for planning for<br />
adult roles. Transiti<strong>on</strong> assessment encompasses<br />
age-appropriate methods to assist students<br />
in identifying individual needs,<br />
strengths, preferences, <strong>and</strong> interests <strong>and</strong> in<br />
obtaining informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> future living, work,<br />
<strong>and</strong> educati<strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>ments.<br />
Sitlingt<strong>on</strong>, Neubert, Begun, Lombard, <strong>and</strong><br />
Lec<strong>on</strong>te (2007) defined transiti<strong>on</strong> assessment<br />
as follows:<br />
Transiti<strong>on</strong> assessment is an <strong>on</strong>going process<br />
of collecting informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s<br />
strengths, needs, preferences, <strong>and</strong> interests<br />
as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y relate to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<strong>and</strong>s of current <strong>and</strong><br />
future living, learning, <strong>and</strong> working envir<strong>on</strong>ments.<br />
This process should begin in<br />
middle school <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinue until <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student<br />
graduates or exits high school. Informati<strong>on</strong><br />
from this process should be used to<br />
drive <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> IEP <strong>and</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong> planning process<br />
<strong>and</strong> to develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Summary of Performance<br />
document detailing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s academic<br />
<strong>and</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>al performance <strong>and</strong><br />
postsec<strong>on</strong>dary goals. (pp. 2–3)<br />
Transiti<strong>on</strong> Planning<br />
As stated in IDEA 2004, transiti<strong>on</strong> planning is<br />
individualized <strong>and</strong> is based up<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> “student’s<br />
needs, taking into account <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s<br />
strengths, preferences, <strong>and</strong> interests”<br />
(20 U.S.C § 1401 (30)(B)). A focus <strong>on</strong> preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
for <strong>and</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong> to a successful adult<br />
life can be seen throughout transiti<strong>on</strong> planning<br />
<strong>and</strong> educati<strong>on</strong>, which should begin as<br />
so<strong>on</strong> as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student enters <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school system<br />
(Sitlingt<strong>on</strong> & Clark, 2006).<br />
The skill <strong>and</strong> knowledge domains under <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>cept of transiti<strong>on</strong> are broad. Sitlingt<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> Clark (2006) identified <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following nine<br />
skill <strong>and</strong> knowledge domains: communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> academic performance skills; self-determinati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
interpers<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ship skills; integrated<br />
community participati<strong>on</strong> skills;<br />
health <strong>and</strong> fitness skills; independent/ interdependent<br />
daily living skills; leisure <strong>and</strong> rec-<br />
reati<strong>on</strong> skills; employment skills; <strong>and</strong> fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> training skills.<br />
Transiti<strong>on</strong> strives to prepare students for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> wide variety of adult roles <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y may assume.<br />
Therefore, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> goal or outcome of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
process of transiti<strong>on</strong> should be a high quality<br />
of life (Halpern, 1993). This l<strong>on</strong>g-term planning<br />
process brings toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student, family,<br />
school, outside agencies, <strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs to<br />
plan for <strong>and</strong> to prepare students for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> variety<br />
of roles <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y may assume as adults, including<br />
such roles as worker, student, parent,<br />
friend, <strong>and</strong> citizen.<br />
Within this broad focus <strong>on</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re<br />
are many issues to c<strong>on</strong>sider. In terms of assuming<br />
adult roles, it is important for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student<br />
to be prepared to accept <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities<br />
that come with adulthood. These resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities<br />
include <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<strong>and</strong>s up<strong>on</strong> individuals to<br />
act aut<strong>on</strong>omously <strong>and</strong> to self-advocate, as well<br />
as to assume <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal rights that are given at<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority.<br />
Self-Determinati<strong>on</strong><br />
8 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
In recent years <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re has been a major focus<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cept of self-determinati<strong>on</strong> for all<br />
young adults with disabilities, but particularly<br />
individuals with developmental disabilities.<br />
The term “self-determinati<strong>on</strong>” attempts to encompass<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mes of choice, c<strong>on</strong>trol, <strong>and</strong><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>ally meaningful success for individuals<br />
with disabilities (Field, Martin, Miller, Ward,<br />
& Wehmeyer, 1998b). For students to transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
successfully, it is critical for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to develop<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills c<strong>on</strong>sidered under <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cept<br />
of self-determinati<strong>on</strong>. However, studies focusing<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-determinati<strong>on</strong> of individuals<br />
with disabilities indicate that adults with disabilities,<br />
particularly those with developmental<br />
disabilities, have low levels of self-determinati<strong>on</strong><br />
(Wehmeyer & Metzler, 1995).<br />
Many authors have defined self-determinati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, <strong>and</strong> Wehmeyer<br />
(1998a) summarized <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se definiti<strong>on</strong>s as<br />
follows:<br />
Self-determinati<strong>on</strong> is a combinati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
skills, knowledge, <strong>and</strong> beliefs that enable a<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> to engage in goal directed, self-regulated,<br />
aut<strong>on</strong>omous behavior. An underst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
of <strong>on</strong>e’s strength <strong>and</strong> limitati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r with a belief in <strong>on</strong>eself as capable
<strong>and</strong> effective are essential to self-determinati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
When acting based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se skills <strong>and</strong><br />
attitudes, individuals have greater ability to<br />
take c<strong>on</strong>trol of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir lives <strong>and</strong> assume <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
role of successful adults. (p. 2)<br />
Research is steadily mounting suggesting that<br />
enhanced self-determinati<strong>on</strong> may play a role<br />
in improving adult outcomes for students with<br />
disabilities, including employment status (Wehmeyer<br />
& Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer &<br />
Schwartz, 1997) <strong>and</strong> participati<strong>on</strong> in postsec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> (Field, Sarver, & Shaw,<br />
2003). As a result, promoting students’ selfdeterminati<strong>on</strong><br />
is now an important comp<strong>on</strong>ent<br />
of recommended practices in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
of youth with disabilities to adult life<br />
(Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children, 2003;<br />
Field & Hoffman, 2002; Field et al., 1998b).<br />
Models act to guide <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> development of<br />
curricula <strong>and</strong> instructi<strong>on</strong>al strategies, thus acting<br />
as an overarching framework for more<br />
c<strong>on</strong>crete instructi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> facilitati<strong>on</strong> of selfdeterminati<strong>on</strong><br />
(Field, 1996). Several professi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
have developed models outlining instructi<strong>on</strong><br />
in self-determinati<strong>on</strong> (Abery, 1994;<br />
Field & Hoffman, 1994; 1996; Halpern, Herr,<br />
Doren, & Wolf, 2000; Wehmeyer, 1992; 1997;<br />
Wehmeyer, Palmer, Agran, Mithaug, & Martin,<br />
2000). Most recently, Test, Fowler, Wood,<br />
Brewer, <strong>and</strong> Eddy (2005) developed a c<strong>on</strong>ceptual<br />
framework of self-advocacy, a c<strong>on</strong>cept<br />
closely associated with self-determinati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
This framework, based up<strong>on</strong> a comprehensive<br />
review of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature, included <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
of knowledge of self, knowledge of<br />
rights, communicati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> leadership.<br />
Wehmeyer <strong>and</strong> Schalock (2001) also offered<br />
what <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y termed “essential characteristics”<br />
of self-determined behavior: (a) choicemaking<br />
skills; (b) decisi<strong>on</strong>-making skills; (c)<br />
problem-solving skills; (d) goal-setting <strong>and</strong> attainment<br />
skills; (e) independence, risk-taking,<br />
<strong>and</strong> safety skills; (f) self-observati<strong>on</strong>, evaluati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> reinforcement skills; (g) self-instructi<strong>on</strong><br />
skills; (h) self-advocacy <strong>and</strong> leadership<br />
skills; (i) internal locus of c<strong>on</strong>trol; (j) positive<br />
attributi<strong>on</strong>s of efficacy <strong>and</strong> outcome expectancy;<br />
(k) self-awareness; <strong>and</strong> (l) self-knowledge.<br />
We will refer to self-determinati<strong>on</strong> as an<br />
individual’s aut<strong>on</strong>omy <strong>and</strong> voice. While this<br />
may indeed simplify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cept when com-<br />
pared to o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r authors’ definiti<strong>on</strong>s, it clarifies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> meaning <strong>and</strong> allows for discussi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
need for self-determinati<strong>on</strong> for all people, including<br />
those with developmental disabilities.<br />
As transiti<strong>on</strong> planning occurs, it is necessary<br />
to attempt to develop <strong>and</strong> nurture an individual’s<br />
level of self-determinati<strong>on</strong> so that he/she<br />
is able to fulfill adult roles, exercising <strong>on</strong>e’s<br />
aut<strong>on</strong>omy <strong>and</strong> voicing <strong>on</strong>e’s opini<strong>on</strong>s. Students<br />
must be taught <strong>and</strong> given <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> opportunity<br />
to exercise skills related to self-determinati<strong>on</strong><br />
(Wehmeyer & Schalock, 2001). This<br />
preparati<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assumpti<strong>on</strong> of adult roles<br />
must be planned for through <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
process. Within this process, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transfer of<br />
rights at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority, as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
related need to act in a self-determining way,<br />
need to be addressed.<br />
Age of Majority <strong>and</strong> Transfer of Rights<br />
The term age of majority refers to “<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age at<br />
which an individual is no l<strong>on</strong>ger c<strong>on</strong>sidered a<br />
minor <strong>and</strong>, as such, becomes legally able to<br />
exercise rights accorded to adults in that state<br />
or province” (Lindsey, Wehmeyer, Guy, &<br />
Martin, 2001, p. 3). The legal rights attained<br />
at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority would allow individuals,<br />
including those with developmental disabilities,<br />
to express <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir voice, to have power with<br />
that voice, <strong>and</strong> to have aut<strong>on</strong>omy. In essence,<br />
this transfer of rights is a necessary part of<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> planning as youth assume adult<br />
roles <strong>and</strong> act in a self-determining way.<br />
Thirty-three of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> forty states that resp<strong>on</strong>ded<br />
to a survey c<strong>on</strong>ducted by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> of State Directors of Special<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> (NASDE, 1999) indicated that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
age of majority in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir state, which is when<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transfer of rights occurs, was 18. IDEA<br />
2004 requires that students with disabilities<br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir parents are made aware of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transfer<br />
of rights at least a year before <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student<br />
reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority. Individuals who<br />
have reached <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority, regardless of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir disability label, are c<strong>on</strong>sidered to have<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> rights accorded to an adult in that state,<br />
unless <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual has been declared legally<br />
incompetent (Lindsey et al., 2001).<br />
In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir positi<strong>on</strong> statement <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of<br />
majority <strong>and</strong> individuals with mental disabilities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Council of Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children’s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Develop-<br />
Guardianship / 9
ment Disabilities cited <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir c<strong>on</strong>cern that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> regarding age of majority required<br />
by IDEA may “lead to a circumstance where<br />
parents <strong>and</strong> family members will feel compelled<br />
to obtain guardianship or o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r legal<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>-making status over <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir s<strong>on</strong> or<br />
daughter when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y might not o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rwise do<br />
so” (Lindsey et al., 2001, p. 13). They also<br />
clarified that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> way in which <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school h<strong>and</strong>les<br />
this notificati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transfer of rights<br />
will affect this possibility.<br />
The legal basis for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al choice <strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol emphasized within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cept of selfdeterminati<strong>on</strong><br />
comes through <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transfer of<br />
rights that occurs at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority.<br />
“Transfer of rights” refers to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> shift of resp<strong>on</strong>sibility<br />
from parent to child up<strong>on</strong> attaining<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority. This transfer of rights<br />
occurs for young adults with disabilities just as<br />
it occurs for those without disabilities. Up<strong>on</strong><br />
attaining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual is<br />
viewed in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> eyes of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> law as an adult,<br />
capable of making <strong>and</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sible for his/<br />
her own decisi<strong>on</strong>s (Lindsey et al., 2001).<br />
Transiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Guardianship<br />
To assure that students are prepared to assume<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> diverse duties of adulthood, careful<br />
<strong>and</strong> thorough transiti<strong>on</strong> planning, with a<br />
broad-based focus, is essential. For students<br />
with disabilities, this transiti<strong>on</strong> planning is<br />
m<strong>and</strong>ated. Guardianship, which may be<br />
abused, can work against <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> goals of transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
planning. In attempting to underst<strong>and</strong><br />
how guardianship <strong>and</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong> are related,<br />
it is important to underst<strong>and</strong> that, for students<br />
with disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> planning process<br />
undergirds <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> movement from school to<br />
adult life. A seminal time or moment in this<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> is at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
transfer of rights occurs. It is essential that<br />
<strong>on</strong>going transiti<strong>on</strong> planning has led up to this<br />
moment. Part of this transiti<strong>on</strong> process is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
development of such life-l<strong>on</strong>g skills as selfdeterminati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
which provides students with<br />
voice <strong>and</strong> aut<strong>on</strong>omy. As m<strong>and</strong>ated by IDEA<br />
2004, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> planning process must be<br />
based up<strong>on</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong> assessment.<br />
A major part of this transiti<strong>on</strong> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> development<br />
of needed supports to allow students<br />
to act as self-determining adults. These supports<br />
will be individual to each student, <strong>and</strong>,<br />
for some, might include a form of guardianship<br />
or an alternative to guardianship. It is<br />
here that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s between guardianship<br />
<strong>and</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong> are established. Each individual<br />
student will have a variety of needs<br />
up<strong>on</strong> entering <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> adult world.<br />
The supports in place to meet <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se needs<br />
may include natural supports, those available<br />
to all in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> adult world, or may be more<br />
formal <strong>and</strong> planned by those involved in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> process. Regardless of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> type of<br />
actual support, those that are planned should<br />
be as n<strong>on</strong>-intrusive as possible, allowing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
individual with a disability to retain as much<br />
independence <strong>and</strong> aut<strong>on</strong>omy as possible (Wehman,<br />
Revell, & Brooke, 2003). For some individuals<br />
with developmental disabilities, guardianship<br />
may be seen as a necessary support.<br />
However, before opting to declare a young<br />
adult legally incompetent <strong>and</strong> removing certain<br />
rights, all o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r opti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> alternatives<br />
should first be c<strong>on</strong>sidered.<br />
Purpose of Study<br />
Very little research could be found <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
issue of guardianship for young adults with<br />
disabilities, particularly as it relates to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> process<br />
of planning for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> to adult life.<br />
In particular, no studies could be located that<br />
focused <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> values, perspectives, <strong>and</strong> sociological<br />
frameworks of those directly involved<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship process - individuals with<br />
disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir families, teachers, support<br />
staff from intermediate units, <strong>and</strong> lawyers.<br />
The purpose of this study was to explore: (a)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> underlying beliefs of those involved in<br />
determining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for guardianship for<br />
<strong>on</strong>e young adult with mental disabilities, (b)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> overarching frameworks or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ories that<br />
might explain some of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> more predominate<br />
beliefs, <strong>and</strong> (c) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ship of transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
assessment, transiti<strong>on</strong> planning, self-determinati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> age of majority to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship<br />
process.<br />
Method<br />
10 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
In order to underst<strong>and</strong> guardianship, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> beliefs<br />
of those involved in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> process <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship of this process to planning for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> to adult life, we undertook a qualitative<br />
study, focusing <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> beliefs of those
involved in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship process for <strong>on</strong>e<br />
young man.<br />
Selecti<strong>on</strong> of Qualitative Methodology<br />
We chose to explore guardianship using a<br />
qualitative methodology, because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are so<br />
many complex issues imbedded within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
topic. Often, related to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se complex issues<br />
are resp<strong>on</strong>ses that would be c<strong>on</strong>sidered optimal<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir social acceptability. In exploring<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> topic, we wanted to reach bey<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<br />
more socially acceptable resp<strong>on</strong>ses in an attempt<br />
to underst<strong>and</strong> what ideas <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ings<br />
inform <strong>and</strong> motivate people who<br />
are involved in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship process. We<br />
wanted to underst<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> way a small group of<br />
inter-related people view <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> complex issue of<br />
guardianship.<br />
The letter <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> spirit of a law often differ<br />
somewhat from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> actual practice of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> law;<br />
we attempted to delve into this issue as well.<br />
The spirit of laws pertaining to guardianship<br />
attempt to limit guardianship orders as much<br />
as possible <strong>and</strong> offer <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged ward a voice;<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> letter of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> law indicates that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged<br />
ward is to have his/her own council <strong>and</strong> receive<br />
notificati<strong>on</strong> of all legal acti<strong>on</strong> being<br />
taken. It was important to underst<strong>and</strong> how<br />
people negotiate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> difference between how<br />
a law is put into practice <strong>and</strong> what <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> spirit of<br />
a law intends.<br />
Participants<br />
Purposeful sampling (Glesne, 1999) was employed<br />
to obtain informati<strong>on</strong> from individuals<br />
who had been involved in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship<br />
process in some way or ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r. The guardianship<br />
process is likely to include some or all<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following individuals: those with disabilities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir families, teachers, intermediate educati<strong>on</strong><br />
unit staff (if applicable), <strong>and</strong> lawyers<br />
who have worked with individuals with developmental<br />
disabilities. The intermediate educati<strong>on</strong><br />
unit staff member who is head of a<br />
parent educati<strong>on</strong> project located a family, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Smiths (a pseud<strong>on</strong>ym), who had recently<br />
g<strong>on</strong>e through <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship process with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir s<strong>on</strong>, Evan, who has a developmental disability.<br />
From <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Smiths we branched out,<br />
speaking with a current teacher, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intermediate<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> unit staff who were involved in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s educati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lawyer who<br />
was employed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> family.<br />
Evan <strong>and</strong> his family. The Smiths, a family<br />
of four, live in a rural area of a midwestern<br />
state. Larry (Evan’s fa<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r) works at a tractor<br />
implement factory in a city about 40 minutes<br />
from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir home; C<strong>on</strong>nie (Evan’s mo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r)<br />
works in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same city’s county courthouse.<br />
Katie, 22, <strong>and</strong> Evan, 20, both live at home with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir parents.<br />
Important to this study <strong>on</strong> guardianship,<br />
<strong>and</strong> something that will certainly be asked, is<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong>, “Can Evan make it <strong>on</strong> his own?”<br />
This questi<strong>on</strong>, which is asked about many individuals,<br />
with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities, is difficult<br />
to answer. Evan does indeed have significant<br />
problems in all academic areas. He reads<br />
<strong>and</strong> writes poorly. He has well-developed social<br />
skills <strong>and</strong> excellent manners. Though his<br />
opportunities to practice his decisi<strong>on</strong>-making<br />
skills have been limited, both by his young age<br />
<strong>and</strong> by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> protective blanket that surrounds<br />
him, he is aware of his likes <strong>and</strong> dislikes <strong>and</strong><br />
makes choices regarding his day-to-day life<br />
with much success. It is our opini<strong>on</strong> that Evan<br />
will need various supports throughout his life.<br />
What <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se supports should c<strong>on</strong>sist of, however,<br />
should be determined by Evan, his family,<br />
<strong>and</strong> those who support him, based up<strong>on</strong><br />
his future educati<strong>on</strong>, opportunities for<br />
growth, <strong>and</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>al freedom.<br />
The school <strong>and</strong> intermediate educati<strong>on</strong> unit staff.<br />
Evan’s current teacher <strong>and</strong> two intermediate<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> unit staff, both of whom work primarily<br />
at Evan’s school, Lakewood, acted as<br />
participants. Evan’s teacher, Laura Jens<strong>on</strong>, is<br />
in her third year of teaching; she has taught<br />
Evan for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> past two years. Before teaching,<br />
she worked in a group home setting <strong>and</strong> currently<br />
works part time for ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r adult service<br />
provider supervising employees with disabilities.<br />
B<strong>on</strong>nie Potter has been a social<br />
worker for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intermediate educati<strong>on</strong> unit<br />
for 27 years; she has spent <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> last 15-16 years<br />
at Lakewood. John Pitts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intermediate educati<strong>on</strong><br />
unit school psychologist, has been a<br />
school psychologist at Lakewood his entire<br />
career, for 24 years. Before working at Lakewood,<br />
he worked with individuals with severe<br />
<strong>and</strong> profound disabilities in an instituti<strong>on</strong> setting.<br />
Lakewood is a school run by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intermediate<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> unit for students with disabili-<br />
Guardianship / 11
ties. Typically, individuals served at Lakewood<br />
tend to have more significant developmental<br />
disabilities. The school <strong>and</strong> its grounds house<br />
all needed facilities, including a cafeteria, a<br />
gym, a swimming pool, accessible bathrooms,<br />
a “life skills” area, <strong>and</strong> classrooms. Many opportunities<br />
are provided for experiences in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> community, including explorati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
training experiences in community businesses.<br />
The school populati<strong>on</strong> is low, allowing for<br />
classrooms of 5-8 students. Students range in<br />
age from 2-21 years <strong>and</strong> are typically grouped<br />
in classrooms by age <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perceived severity<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir disability. It is not atypical for a<br />
student to spend his/her entire educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
career at Lakewood. Almost all school staff<br />
know each student <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir family members<br />
by name; <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> resulting envir<strong>on</strong>ment is warm<br />
<strong>and</strong> protective. Families of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students placed<br />
at Lakewood are very loyal <strong>and</strong> have lobbied<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school’s c<strong>on</strong>tinued existence. From<br />
casual discussi<strong>on</strong> with family members, it appears<br />
that families of students feel <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school<br />
offers <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir students a safe, protected envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students are am<strong>on</strong>g o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
individuals with developmental disabilities.<br />
The lawyer. Geoff Ryder acted as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Smiths’ lawyer for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship proceedings.<br />
He has been in practice for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> past 25<br />
years, <strong>and</strong> while he has received no specific<br />
training <strong>on</strong> working with individuals with disabilities,<br />
he estimated that he has been involved<br />
in two to three guardianship proceedings<br />
a year since he began his career.<br />
Data Collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Data collecti<strong>on</strong> focused <strong>on</strong> three sources of<br />
informati<strong>on</strong>: interviews, archival records, <strong>and</strong><br />
field observati<strong>on</strong>s. All data were collected by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lead author. Interviews took place with all<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants identified in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> previous<br />
secti<strong>on</strong>. A primary interview was scheduled at<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>venience of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participant. Follow-up<br />
interviews to clarify statements or request additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
data were used as necessary. Archival<br />
data collecti<strong>on</strong> focused mainly <strong>on</strong> court documents<br />
<strong>and</strong> material used by intermediate educati<strong>on</strong><br />
unit staff; field observati<strong>on</strong>s were also<br />
used to gain a clearer picture.<br />
Interviews. The semi-structured interviews<br />
included both close-ended <strong>and</strong> open-ended<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s. The close-ended questi<strong>on</strong>s provided<br />
a general overview of participants’ opini<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
while <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> open-ended questi<strong>on</strong>s allowed<br />
a better underst<strong>and</strong>ing of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants’<br />
attitudes, beliefs, <strong>and</strong> sociological frameworks.<br />
Interview questi<strong>on</strong>s focused <strong>on</strong> several areas,<br />
including general background, familiarity<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship process, <strong>and</strong> beliefs.<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants’ general background<br />
focused <strong>on</strong> demographic informati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> interacti<strong>on</strong>s with young adults with disabilities<br />
<strong>and</strong> young adults with disabilities who<br />
have guardians. Questi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants’<br />
involvement with guardianship focused<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir role in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship process <strong>and</strong><br />
awareness of <strong>and</strong> attitudes toward <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> scope of<br />
guardianship powers available. Questi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants’ beliefs focused <strong>on</strong> beliefs<br />
about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> type of young adult with a disability<br />
who might need a guardian; beliefs <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
role of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority in precipitating <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
guardianship process; <strong>and</strong> attitudes toward<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cept of self-determinati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
All interviews took place at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>venience<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participant <strong>and</strong> each was tape-recorded<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participant’s permissi<strong>on</strong>. Each interview<br />
was transcribed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lead author. All<br />
interviews were coded to identify emergent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mes throughout. Memos <strong>and</strong> notes were<br />
written while coding, to help clarify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mes<br />
<strong>and</strong> issues identified by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants.<br />
Archival data <strong>and</strong> field observati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Through c<strong>on</strong>tact with participants, we were<br />
able to identify o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r individuals who had obtained<br />
guardianship of a young adult with a<br />
disability <strong>and</strong> who were willing to allow for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
review of court documents of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship<br />
proceedings. In additi<strong>on</strong> to court documents,<br />
we were given o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r archival data in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> form of informal h<strong>and</strong>outs received by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
participants from school <strong>and</strong> intermediate educati<strong>on</strong><br />
unit staff. The main observati<strong>on</strong>s focused<br />
<strong>on</strong> Evan as he interacted with his family<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir home.<br />
Self as Researcher<br />
12 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Because of our interest in this topic, experiences,<br />
<strong>and</strong> past reading in this area, we<br />
brought to this study some pre-<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>oretical dispositi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
We were c<strong>on</strong>cerned that not<br />
enough questi<strong>on</strong>s were being asked as people<br />
labeled as having a disability were having per-
s<strong>on</strong>al rights removed through guardianship.<br />
Removal of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se rights appeared to occur<br />
with relative ease. As a result, we entered <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
study with some skepticism <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cern regarding<br />
guardianship. We attempted, deliberately,<br />
to challenge our beliefs <strong>and</strong> our cognizance.<br />
Identificati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se c<strong>on</strong>cerns<br />
allowed us to c<strong>on</strong>stantly evaluate <strong>and</strong> re-evaluate<br />
our interpretati<strong>on</strong> of data, as well as alert<br />
readers to our dispositi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The Smiths’ Story<br />
We first met <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Smith family at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir home;<br />
C<strong>on</strong>nie opened <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> door, explaining that<br />
Larry was still out working in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> garage but<br />
would drop in shortly. Katie <strong>and</strong> Evan were<br />
sitting in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> living room. Katie worked diligently,<br />
preparing materials for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> day care by<br />
which she is employed. Evan <strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>nie had<br />
been watching <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> news in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> living room.<br />
Evan joined us as C<strong>on</strong>nie detailed his history.<br />
Evan was born <strong>on</strong> November 2 nd , five weeks<br />
early, <strong>and</strong> with serious complicati<strong>on</strong>s. He was<br />
moved from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> small, local hospital to a large<br />
university-affiliated hospital an hour away.<br />
There he was diagnosed with Pierre Robin<br />
Syndrome, which is characterized by such features<br />
as a large t<strong>on</strong>gue, cleft pallet, <strong>and</strong> a small<br />
jaw. Evan underwent many surgeries, had a<br />
tracheotomy, <strong>and</strong> had a feeding tube inserted.<br />
When he finally was sent home almost a year<br />
later, he began early interventi<strong>on</strong> with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
local intermediate educati<strong>on</strong> unit, which provides<br />
support services. The staff members provided<br />
physical <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rapy for Evan <strong>and</strong> instructi<strong>on</strong><br />
for his parents. At <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of 2 1/2 he<br />
started preschool at Lakewood, a specialized<br />
school for children with disabilities administered<br />
through <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intermediate educati<strong>on</strong><br />
unit.<br />
Shortly before Evan’s 18 th birthday, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Smiths c<strong>on</strong>tacted a lawyer in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir county of<br />
residence <strong>and</strong> obtained guardianship <strong>and</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>servatorship over Evan. Lakewood recommends,<br />
even stresses, that all parents obtain<br />
guardianship <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>servatorship over <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
s<strong>on</strong>s/daughters with disabilities, so <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Smiths<br />
opted to do so. Lakewood staff has <strong>on</strong> h<strong>and</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> names of two lawyers in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> county who<br />
routinely file guardianship papers, but as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Smiths live in a different county, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y located<br />
a lawyer <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own. The lawyer <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y c<strong>on</strong>-<br />
tacted recommended that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> family apply for<br />
full guardianship <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>servatorship of Evan<br />
so that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re would be no additi<strong>on</strong>al costs to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y decided <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y needed more power<br />
over aspects of his life. The $150 fee was paid<br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> papers were filed. Then, because this<br />
lawyer <strong>and</strong> county choose to waive <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> court<br />
hearing in cases where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> parents of a “special<br />
needs child” are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> petiti<strong>on</strong>ers <strong>and</strong> proposed<br />
guardians/c<strong>on</strong>servators for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir s<strong>on</strong>/<br />
daughter, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> papers allowing Evan’s parents<br />
to become his legal guardian were signed by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> judge with no fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r discussi<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
Smiths now file annually a brief form <strong>on</strong><br />
Evan’s whereabouts <strong>and</strong> well being to maintain<br />
guardianship, as well as a more detailed<br />
form accounting all his funds to maintain c<strong>on</strong>servatorship.<br />
Beliefs, Perspectives, <strong>and</strong> Sociological<br />
Frameworks of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Participants<br />
After an initial interview with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Smiths, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
lead author interviewed Evan’s teacher, intermediate<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> unit staff at Lakewood, <strong>and</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Smiths’ lawyer; she <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n returned for several<br />
interviews with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> family. After speaking<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se individuals, transcribing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interviews,<br />
making notes, <strong>and</strong> reading <strong>and</strong> re-reading<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transcripti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> notes, we were able<br />
to identify several important <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mes recurrent<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data. First <strong>and</strong> foremost, as a whole,<br />
participants dem<strong>on</strong>strated few reservati<strong>on</strong>s or<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d thoughts when c<strong>on</strong>cluding that Evan<br />
<strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r students at Lakewood needed<br />
guardianship. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, participants felt <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
need to protect Evan <strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r students <strong>and</strong><br />
believed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> way to do this was by pursuing<br />
guardianship. Third, participants lacked<br />
knowledge regarding alternatives to guardianship.<br />
Finally, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> process in place for guardianship<br />
planning was separate from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students’<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> planning. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following<br />
secti<strong>on</strong>s, we elaborate <strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> substantiate this<br />
assessment.<br />
Preemptive C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> of Need for Guardianship<br />
A declarati<strong>on</strong> of incompetence is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first major<br />
step in determining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for a guardian.<br />
An implicit statement is made regarding a<br />
student’s competency by advocating for or<br />
stating that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is a need for guardianship. It<br />
Guardianship / 13
is very important to look at how <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> determinati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for guardianship, or a student’s<br />
competency, are made.<br />
Evan’s placement at a segregated school for<br />
students with disabilities <strong>and</strong> his status as an<br />
individual with a disability undoubtedly c<strong>on</strong>tributed<br />
to his being viewed as “incompetent”<br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore in need of guardianship. John<br />
Pitts <strong>and</strong> B<strong>on</strong>nie Potter felt that Evan’s attendance<br />
at Lakewood, a segregated school for<br />
individuals with disabilities, was indicative of<br />
his lack of or level of competence.<br />
If school staff, educated in working with<br />
students with disabilities, feel that placement<br />
in a certain school is enough to determine<br />
competence or need for guardianship, it is<br />
not surprising that o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r adults, with less training<br />
in working with students with disabilities,<br />
might draw similar c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s. Geoff Ryder,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Smiths’ lawyer, also c<strong>on</strong>cluded Evan was in<br />
need of guardianship. When asked how he<br />
had determined this, he resp<strong>on</strong>ded, “Now this<br />
is when we have a special needs child – I rely<br />
more up<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> parents. That’s because normally<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y aren’t going to go to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> cost <strong>and</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> expense of this unless necessary.” So, if a<br />
parent went to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time <strong>and</strong> expense to request<br />
guardianship for a “special needs” child,<br />
Ryder indicated that he would assume <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
young adult was incompetent <strong>and</strong> proceed<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship.<br />
Troublingly, Ryder also noted that in o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
guardianship cases, he may be called up<strong>on</strong> to<br />
act as a guardian ad litem for an alleged ward.<br />
In this case, he would determine competency<br />
<strong>and</strong> identify what acti<strong>on</strong>s he believed to be in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> best interest of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged ward. In doing<br />
so, he stated that he would c<strong>on</strong>tact <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleged<br />
ward, meet <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m, <strong>and</strong> have a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. “A<br />
lot of times,” he said, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y aren’t able to<br />
communicate.” In this statement, he was referring<br />
to an alleged ward’s ability to communicate<br />
in a traditi<strong>on</strong>al sense, specifically, orally.<br />
He tied great importance to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ability to<br />
communicate orally. In referring to a particular<br />
case, he noted that, even though staff doctors<br />
at a state mental health instituti<strong>on</strong> had<br />
labeled a woman incompetent, he, from talking<br />
with her, knew that she “had a certain level<br />
of underst<strong>and</strong>ing” <strong>and</strong> judged her competent.<br />
These assumpti<strong>on</strong>s about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for<br />
guardianship or incompetence appeared to<br />
be based <strong>on</strong> percepti<strong>on</strong>s of disability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
14 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
meaning of a school program placement, <strong>and</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> label of “special needs.” No individual<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>ed specific capabilities of Evan or of<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r students. Related to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se assumpti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of incompetence is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need to protect individuals<br />
viewed in this way.<br />
Paternalism <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Related Push for<br />
Guardianship<br />
The Smiths have c<strong>on</strong>cerns for Evan, as all<br />
parents might for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir child. They w<strong>on</strong>der<br />
what he will do when he grows up, when he<br />
will leave <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> house, <strong>and</strong> if he will be able to<br />
maintain <strong>and</strong> prosper <strong>on</strong> his own. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r c<strong>on</strong>cerns related to Evan’s<br />
perceived ability to care for himself. C<strong>on</strong>nie,<br />
his mom, admits, though, “it’s going to be, I<br />
think, a bigger leap for me” to adjust to his<br />
growing up <strong>and</strong> leaving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> house. The<br />
school, though, seems to have used <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se natural<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerns of parents to str<strong>on</strong>gly encourage<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Smiths to obtain guardianship.<br />
When asked why she had pursued guardianship,<br />
C<strong>on</strong>nie cited Lakewood’s emphasis <strong>on</strong><br />
acquiring it <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y had<br />
placed <strong>on</strong> it. She added that she did have<br />
some fears for Evan. When asked to elaborate,<br />
she said she was c<strong>on</strong>cerned he might be<br />
“taken advantage of.” These vague suggesti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of what might occur to a young adult with a<br />
disability, if left without a guardian, were<br />
noted in several o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r interviews. Laura Jens<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Evan’s teacher, stated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following in<br />
regards to what she might tell a parent during<br />
an IEP meeting:<br />
A lot of parents ask, “Why would I want to<br />
be my student’s or my child’s guardian?” We<br />
just make suggesti<strong>on</strong>s, “If you do want to be<br />
your s<strong>on</strong>’s guardian a good reas<strong>on</strong> would be<br />
so some<strong>on</strong>e couldn’t come al<strong>on</strong>g <strong>and</strong> take<br />
advantage of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir m<strong>on</strong>ey,” which is a certain<br />
possibility. . .<br />
Al<strong>on</strong>g similar lines, Potter, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school social<br />
worker, provided some c<strong>on</strong>cerns regarding a<br />
student’s ability to protect or care for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mselves.<br />
Really, our kids are very gullible <strong>and</strong> can be<br />
taken advantage of easily <strong>and</strong> that’s where<br />
we come from with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> parents. Our kids<br />
can be talked into something very easily.<br />
Unfortunately <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are people out <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re
who are not trustworthy, <strong>and</strong> when our kids<br />
leave here (Lakewood) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y go to o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
programs, you know, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y go to group<br />
homes, or into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> workforce <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y can<br />
be talked into something that is illegal or<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y can be taken advantage of <strong>and</strong> if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own guardians, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y can sign papers<br />
or get involved with something <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
d<strong>on</strong>’t underst<strong>and</strong> if somebody talks <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m<br />
into it <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are resp<strong>on</strong>sible for it if<br />
it’s some illegal activity.<br />
Each participant stressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need to protect<br />
<strong>and</strong> look after Evan <strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r young adults<br />
with developmental disabilities. Evan <strong>and</strong><br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r students at Lakewood were c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
unable to make decisi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong>/or choices or, if<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were allowed to do so, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se decisi<strong>on</strong>s or<br />
choices would result in negative c<strong>on</strong>sequences<br />
due to poor decisi<strong>on</strong>-making capacity. To protect<br />
Evan from this, guardianship was needed.<br />
While <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> paternalistic desire to protect <strong>and</strong><br />
keep safe may stem from love <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cern for<br />
Evan <strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r young adults with disabilities,<br />
it acts to hinder his development as an adult.<br />
He is not seen as an adult, but as an eternal<br />
child, forever to be looked after.<br />
Lack of Knowledge Regarding Alternatives to<br />
Guardianship<br />
No o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r alternatives to guardianship were<br />
discussed with parents. Staff had no knowledge<br />
of or was reticent to discuss <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal<br />
process behind guardianship or of any alternatives<br />
to guardianship. Initially in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interview<br />
with Jens<strong>on</strong>, Evan’s teacher, she was very<br />
anxious <strong>and</strong> kept repeating that she was unsure<br />
she would be able to help us, as she knew<br />
very little about guardianship. Her role in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
process at Lakewood is to refer students <strong>on</strong> to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intermediate educati<strong>on</strong> unit staff, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
school psychologist, Pitts, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school social<br />
worker, Potter. Jens<strong>on</strong> said she had no knowledge<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal process that guardianship<br />
takes <strong>and</strong> that she relied <strong>on</strong> Pitts <strong>and</strong> Potter to<br />
provide informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> resources to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> parents<br />
of students at Lakewood.<br />
When speaking with Potter, though, she admitted<br />
that she also had no knowledge of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
legal process. Pitts also knew little; when asked<br />
if he had any idea of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> process, he replied<br />
with a shrug <strong>and</strong> a shake of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> head, “Not<br />
really.” So while Lakewood staff was unfamiliar<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal process surrounding guardianship,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y recommended it without discussing<br />
or exploring with parents possible<br />
alternatives to full guardianship. Though numerous<br />
<strong>and</strong> substantive, no alternatives were<br />
discussed by staff at Lakewood. It seems that<br />
any alternatives to full guardianship, even limited<br />
guardianship, were not discussed. These<br />
opti<strong>on</strong>s could have been provided as part of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> planning process.<br />
Separati<strong>on</strong> of Planning for Guardianship from<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Transiti<strong>on</strong> Planning Process<br />
Transiti<strong>on</strong> planning should be <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> driving<br />
force behind <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> movement from sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
school to adult roles. Without adequate transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
planning, students leave school unprepared,<br />
<strong>and</strong> parents are left in even more uncertainty<br />
<strong>and</strong> worry about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir child’s future.<br />
At Lakewood, planning for guardianship has<br />
been separated from transiti<strong>on</strong> planning. The<br />
result is a push for guardianship for all students<br />
without c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r aspects<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir adult life. The resulting situati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
problematic <strong>and</strong> includes <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of a blanket<br />
policy towards <strong>on</strong>e particular opti<strong>on</strong> (in this<br />
case, guardianship), <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> notificati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transfer of rights as a warning to<br />
parents, <strong>and</strong> a lack of emphasis <strong>on</strong> or belief in<br />
self-determinati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first interview with staff working at<br />
Lakewood, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lead author spoke with Laura<br />
Jens<strong>on</strong>, Evan’s classroom teacher. When asked<br />
if it is assumed that guardianship is appropriate<br />
for all <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students at Lakewood, she resp<strong>on</strong>ded,<br />
“Well, we leave that up to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> parents<br />
to chose. We just, we just simply ask if<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y’ve started <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> process <strong>and</strong> recommend<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y do if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y want to.” As you can see,<br />
Jens<strong>on</strong> states that this decisi<strong>on</strong> should be<br />
made by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> family, but does note that Lakewood<br />
takes a more aggressive path, by recommending<br />
guardianship. The intermediate educati<strong>on</strong><br />
unit staff were much more certain of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> role that Lakewood should play, advocating<br />
clearly for any family with a student at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
school to obtain guardianship. B<strong>on</strong>nie Potter,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school social worker, made numerous<br />
statements to this effect, including “We feel<br />
guardianship is a real necessity for our kids<br />
here in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> building.” The school psycholo-<br />
Guardianship / 15
gist, John Pitts, felt similarly. “I would encourage,”<br />
he said, “all parents that have students<br />
here (at Lakewood) to pursue this, to obtain<br />
guardianship so that, so that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y d<strong>on</strong>’t run<br />
into any difficulties or problems <strong>on</strong> down <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
road if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y d<strong>on</strong>’t.”<br />
The first dilemma is that while Lakewood<br />
staff, in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir interviews, used words like “recommend”<br />
<strong>and</strong> “encourage,” it appears that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> role <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y play in this decisi<strong>on</strong> is much<br />
str<strong>on</strong>ger than recommending <strong>and</strong> encouraging.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>nie Smith, Evan’s mom, went through<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> process. She said that different members<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school staff menti<strong>on</strong>ed guardianship at<br />
every meeting she had with school staff for<br />
almost two years prior to Evan’s 18 th birthday,<br />
including parent-teacher c<strong>on</strong>ferences, annual<br />
reviews, three-year re-evaluati<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> meetings<br />
about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> work experience program.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>nie noted that even after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> family had<br />
obtained guardianship, school staff still verified<br />
that she had completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> process.<br />
Lakewood staff also discussed, with Evan’s<br />
family <strong>and</strong> with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lead author, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir emphasis<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transfer of rights at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of<br />
majority. This tenet was used by staff as a<br />
major push for guardianship. The age of 18,<br />
which is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority in our state, became<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> deadline for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> completi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
guardianship process. As Laura Jens<strong>on</strong>, Evan’s<br />
teacher, stated, “18 years old is when we recommend<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y have it d<strong>on</strong>e, because when<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y turn 18, if it’s not d<strong>on</strong>e by 18, that student<br />
is automatically in charge or is guardian<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir finances <strong>and</strong> situati<strong>on</strong>s. . .” B<strong>on</strong>nie<br />
Potter, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school social worker, discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>cept in much <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same way, saying things<br />
like, “Parents d<strong>on</strong>’t realize what it means<br />
when kids turn 18.” Pitts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school psychologist,<br />
also shared stories with parents about<br />
things that could happen if a student did not<br />
have a guardian at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of 18, such as how<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y could buy a car or could move into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
own apartment. The transfer of rights became<br />
a major reas<strong>on</strong> why parents were encouraged<br />
to pursue guardianship. The transfer of rights<br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> powers that came with that were discussed<br />
in a way that highlighted <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> negatives<br />
of this transfer, leaving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Smiths with<br />
a sense of alarm <strong>and</strong> dread. In essence, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
notificati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transfer of rights was used<br />
as a warning <strong>and</strong> a fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r reminder of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
need for guardianship.<br />
16 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
The blanket policy towards guardianship<br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong>able use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transfer of<br />
rights tenet, when coupled with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> aforementi<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>me of lack of knowledge of alternatives,<br />
leads to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential abuse of trust by<br />
Lakewood staff. Families often have l<strong>on</strong>gst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school <strong>and</strong><br />
trust <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> input <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y receive from school staff.<br />
Evan’s family, who have interacted with Lakewood<br />
staff since he was 2 1/2 years, are<br />
pleased with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school. C<strong>on</strong>nie felt, in developing<br />
Evan’s IEPs, that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school staff knew<br />
best. She stated, “Because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y’ve worked with<br />
so many kids in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same category as him that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y can say, ‘well, you know, maybe this<br />
would be best for Evan.’” C<strong>on</strong>nie <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
family have been happy with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
made by Lakewood staff <strong>and</strong> feel that it is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
best place for Evan. She trusts what staff at<br />
Lakewood think <strong>and</strong> relies <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> staff for<br />
support <strong>and</strong> input in working with her s<strong>on</strong>. If<br />
Lakewood staff is not representing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> wide<br />
array of opti<strong>on</strong>s available <strong>and</strong> are advocating<br />
for <strong>on</strong>e decisi<strong>on</strong>, guardianship, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
possibility for an abuse of trust to occur.<br />
An underlying problem is that staff at Lakewood<br />
is unable to see <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir students as being<br />
or becoming self-determined individuals. As a<br />
result, with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship discussi<strong>on</strong> separated<br />
from transiti<strong>on</strong> planning <strong>and</strong> self-determinati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
we see <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se decisi<strong>on</strong>s being made<br />
for students <strong>and</strong> families, with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir care <strong>and</strong><br />
protecti<strong>on</strong> in mind, as opposed to with students<br />
<strong>and</strong> families.<br />
Many of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se problems stem from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> issue of guardianship has been removed<br />
from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cept of self-determinati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> process, which brings toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student, family, school, adult service<br />
providers, <strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs involved with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
student. Instead, it is a blanket policy, covering<br />
all students at Lakewood. Alternatives are<br />
not discussed <strong>and</strong> are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore not made<br />
available to parents. The wide variety of adult<br />
roles that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student may assume is not fully<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered al<strong>on</strong>gside <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> issue of guardianship.<br />
A c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of self-determinati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assumpti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> rights that are<br />
transferred at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of majority are not<br />
present in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong> regarding guardianship.
Discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Lakewood’s preemptive c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> regarding<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for guardianship for all students is<br />
problematic. The root of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> problems surrounding<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> issue of guardianship at Lakewood<br />
is that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> planning for guardianship is<br />
separated from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> process. The<br />
result is that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student, family, school, adult<br />
service providers, <strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs are not making a<br />
fully-informed, well-planned group decisi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual student’s<br />
strengths, needs, preferences, <strong>and</strong> interests in<br />
relati<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship process has not<br />
occurred. Alternatives <strong>and</strong> opti<strong>on</strong>s that may<br />
work for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student have not been discussed.<br />
Guardianship has not been c<strong>on</strong>sidered in c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong><br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assumpti<strong>on</strong> of o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r adult<br />
roles. Full guardianship becomes a set path<br />
for every student, as opposed to a process,<br />
such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> process that is individualized<br />
for each student <strong>and</strong> family according<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir needs <strong>and</strong> desires<br />
Based up<strong>on</strong> our observati<strong>on</strong>s, we make <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
following recommendati<strong>on</strong>s related to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
role of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guardianship process within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> planning process. First, both <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> planning <strong>and</strong> guardianship processes<br />
should be based up<strong>on</strong> an <strong>on</strong>going assessment<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s strengths, needs,<br />
preferences, <strong>and</strong> interests. This is a required<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> planning process<br />
(IDEA 2004). The transiti<strong>on</strong> assessment process<br />
is an ideal vehicle to identify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
strengths, needs, preferences, <strong>and</strong> interests of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual. The IEP team can <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n identify<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> supports <strong>and</strong> accommodati<strong>on</strong>s needed by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual to transiti<strong>on</strong> to adult life. The<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> for Pers<strong>on</strong>s with Severe H<strong>and</strong>icaps<br />
(TASH; 2003) in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> TASH Resoluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
Alternatives to Guardianship urged “<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> development<br />
<strong>and</strong> promoti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of accommodati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> supports people need to make<br />
choices <strong>and</strong> decisi<strong>on</strong>s, to have <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir preferences<br />
recognized <strong>and</strong> h<strong>on</strong>ored, <strong>and</strong> to have<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir rights to self-determinati<strong>on</strong> protected.”<br />
In this same resoluti<strong>on</strong> TASH committed to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> promoti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> use of alternatives to<br />
guardianship.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d, schools must recognize students as<br />
emerging young adults, <strong>and</strong> prepare <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to<br />
assume a variety of adult roles. Third, schools<br />
should prepare students for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assumpti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se adult roles by helping students develop<br />
<strong>and</strong> practice self-determinati<strong>on</strong> skills. Developing<br />
students’ aut<strong>on</strong>omy <strong>and</strong> voice will allow<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to participate in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir transiti<strong>on</strong> planning<br />
to a greater degree <strong>and</strong> will allow <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to<br />
advocate for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mselves in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> future.<br />
Fourth, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transfer of rights at age of majority<br />
should be seen as a key point in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> process, ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than a warning, or<br />
perhaps even a threat. Lindsey et al. (2001)<br />
addressed this c<strong>on</strong>cern, offering a reminder<br />
that schools cannot make judgments <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
competency of students <strong>and</strong> voicing a c<strong>on</strong>cern<br />
that notificati<strong>on</strong> of this transfer could lead<br />
parents towards guardianship. As <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y stated,<br />
if schools “adopt a philosophy of supporting<br />
students to become more self-determined <strong>and</strong><br />
to become meaningful participants in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
planning process” (p. 13), <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n notificati<strong>on</strong><br />
will not act as a threat. They also noted that<br />
how schools address this will greatly affect parents’<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerns. Millar <strong>and</strong> Renzaglia (2002)<br />
recommended that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> IEP team could even<br />
tailor <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> IEP goals <strong>and</strong> objectives with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
aim of preventing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> impositi<strong>on</strong> of guardianship.<br />
Fifth, in working to prepare students for<br />
adult life, instructi<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> support staff need<br />
to be aware of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> wide variety of alternatives<br />
to <strong>and</strong> opti<strong>on</strong>s within guardianship. Knowledge<br />
of guardianship is necessary for all<br />
school officials, but especially if schools have a<br />
str<strong>on</strong>g relati<strong>on</strong>ship with parents, <strong>and</strong> parents<br />
trust <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> input of school officials, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y do at<br />
Lakewood. School staff should be familiar<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal proceedings <strong>and</strong> should educate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mselves <strong>and</strong> families regarding possible<br />
alternatives; o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rwise, full guardianship<br />
becomes <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly opti<strong>on</strong> presented to families.<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, those outside <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
arena who interact with individuals with<br />
disabilities (i.e., lawyers) need educati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se same areas.<br />
Finally, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> discussi<strong>on</strong> regarding guardianship<br />
must be intertwined with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
process, as this will help ensure that students,<br />
families, school staff, adult service providers,<br />
<strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs are c<strong>on</strong>sidering all adult roles <strong>and</strong><br />
all opti<strong>on</strong>s to help <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual succeed<br />
within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se varied adult roles. It seems logical<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> determinati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for guardianship<br />
should be made based up<strong>on</strong> an <strong>on</strong>going<br />
assessment of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s strengths,<br />
Guardianship / 17
needs, preferences, <strong>and</strong> interests, as part of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> planning process. Identifying<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> supports needed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student as he/she<br />
makes <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> to adulthood should be<br />
incorporated into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> planning process,<br />
so that less intrusive alternatives to guardianship<br />
may be possible. Training in self-determinati<strong>on</strong><br />
should also provide skills that will<br />
assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual in taking c<strong>on</strong>trol of his/<br />
her adult life, <strong>and</strong> advocate for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se supports.<br />
The transfer of rights at age of majority is an<br />
ideal time for decisi<strong>on</strong>s regarding guardianship<br />
to be made.<br />
References<br />
Abery, B. (1994). A c<strong>on</strong>ceptual framework for enhancing<br />
self-determinati<strong>on</strong>. In M. F. Hayden &<br />
B. H. Abery (Eds.), Challenges for a service system in<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> (pp. 345–380). Baltimore: Brookes.<br />
The Associati<strong>on</strong> for Pers<strong>on</strong>s with Severe H<strong>and</strong>icaps<br />
(TASH). (March, 2003). TASH resoluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> alternatives<br />
to guardianship. Retrieved March 28,<br />
2006, from http://www.tash.org/resoluti<strong>on</strong>s/<br />
res02altguardianship.htm<br />
Bulcroft, K., Kielkopf, M. R., & Tripp, K. (1991).<br />
Elderly wards <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir legal guardians: Analysis<br />
of county probate records in Ohio <strong>and</strong> Washingt<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The Ger<strong>on</strong>tologist, 31, 156–164.<br />
Butterworth, J., Hagner, D., Kiernan, W., & Schalock,<br />
R. (1996). Natural supports in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> workplace:<br />
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Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children. (2003). What every<br />
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Endicott, O. (1988). Decisi<strong>on</strong>-making time <strong>on</strong><br />
guardianship. Entourage, 3(4), 15–18, 47.<br />
Field, S. (1996). Self-determinati<strong>on</strong> instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
strategies for youth with learning disabilities. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
of Learning Disabilities, 29, 40–52.<br />
Field, S., & Hoffman, A. (1994). Development of a<br />
model for self-determinati<strong>on</strong>. Career Development<br />
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Field, S., & Hoffman, A. (1996). Steps to self-determinati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
A curriculum to help adolescents achieve <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
goals. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.<br />
Field, S., & Hoffman, A., (2002). Preparing youth to<br />
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school envir<strong>on</strong>ments that promote <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> acquisiti<strong>on</strong><br />
of knowledge, skills, <strong>and</strong> beliefs related to<br />
self-determinati<strong>on</strong>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g> of Disability Policy Studies,<br />
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Received: 23 August 2006<br />
Initial Acceptance: 13 October 2006<br />
Final Acceptance: 15 February 2007<br />
Guardianship / 19
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2008, 43(1), 20–36<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities<br />
Inclusive High School Service Learning Programs: Methods<br />
for <strong>and</strong> Barriers to Including Students with Disabilities<br />
Stacy K. Dym<strong>on</strong>d, Adelle Renzaglia, <strong>and</strong> Eul Jung Chun<br />
University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign<br />
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine methods for <strong>and</strong> barriers to including students with<br />
disabilities in high school service learning programs (HSSLPs) with n<strong>on</strong>-disabled peers. Focus groups were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted with adult stakeholders at five schools nominated as having exemplary inclusive HSSLPs <strong>and</strong> at<br />
least 3 years experience implementing such programs. Methods for including students with disabilities addressed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> categories of activity selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> structure, collaborati<strong>on</strong>, expectati<strong>on</strong>s, encouragement, grouping, <strong>and</strong><br />
modificati<strong>on</strong>s. Barriers clustered around <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas of teacher attributes <strong>and</strong> experience, organizati<strong>on</strong>al structure,<br />
planning, resources, <strong>and</strong> student characteristics. Implicati<strong>on</strong>s for inclusive educati<strong>on</strong>, universal design for<br />
learning, access to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> general curriculum, Individualized Educati<strong>on</strong> Programs (IEPs), <strong>and</strong> instructi<strong>on</strong> are<br />
discussed.<br />
Service learning is a form of pedagogy that<br />
enables students to meet <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
goals while providing service to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> community<br />
(Fertman, 1994). It offers h<strong>and</strong>s-<strong>on</strong>, problem-based<br />
learning that is focused <strong>on</strong> meeting<br />
community needs <strong>and</strong> enhancing school-community<br />
collaborati<strong>on</strong> (Fager, 1996; Perkins &<br />
Miller, 1994). Service learning offers a departure<br />
from traditi<strong>on</strong>al pedagogy by linking academic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tent, st<strong>and</strong>ards, <strong>and</strong> vocati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
goals addressed in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom setting with<br />
h<strong>and</strong>s-<strong>on</strong> service activities that meet au<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ntic<br />
needs in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s community (Gent &<br />
Gurecka, 1998; Hamilt<strong>on</strong> & Hamilt<strong>on</strong>, 1997).<br />
Almost half of all high schools nati<strong>on</strong>ally are<br />
reported to have service learning programs<br />
(Skinner & Chapman, 1999).<br />
A service learning project typically includes<br />
four comp<strong>on</strong>ents: 1) learning (i.e., preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> activity), 2) service (i.e., performing<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> actual service), 3) reflecti<strong>on</strong> (i.e., processing<br />
what was learned), <strong>and</strong> 4) celebrati<strong>on</strong><br />
(i.e., of accomplishments) (Fertman, 1994;<br />
Gent & Gurecka, 1998). For example, students<br />
might initially learn about homelessness<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cerning this article should<br />
be addressed to Stacy Dym<strong>on</strong>d, University of Illinois,<br />
Department of Special Educati<strong>on</strong>, 288 Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
Building, MC-708, 1310 S. Sixth Street, Champaign,<br />
IL 61820. Email: sdym<strong>on</strong>d@uiuc.edu<br />
20 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
in class <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n engage in service activities at<br />
a local homeless shelter or soup kitchen. After<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities, students reflect <strong>on</strong> what <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
have learned. Educati<strong>on</strong>al goals (e.g., math,<br />
social studies, literacy, social skills) are embedded<br />
across classroom <strong>and</strong> community activities.<br />
Some of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> benefits that have been attributed<br />
to service learning include an<br />
increased appreciati<strong>on</strong> for diversity, heightened<br />
self-esteem <strong>and</strong> motivati<strong>on</strong>, access to relevant<br />
learning c<strong>on</strong>texts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> development of<br />
citizenship skills, an underst<strong>and</strong>ing of how to<br />
work collaboratively with o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> establishment<br />
of c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> community<br />
(Allen, 2003; Billig, 2000; Briscoe, Pitofshy,<br />
Willie, & Regelbrugge, 1996; Eisler, Budin, &<br />
Mei, 1994; Fager, 1996; Nels<strong>on</strong> & McFadden,<br />
1995).<br />
Service learning is increasingly being employed<br />
with students with disabilities. As a<br />
form of pedagogy, it supports many of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
widely accepted tenants of effective curriculum<br />
<strong>and</strong> instructi<strong>on</strong> in sec<strong>on</strong>dary special educati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
For example, it addresses academic,<br />
social, vocati<strong>on</strong>al, <strong>and</strong> life skills curriculum<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tent in settings where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills can be<br />
applied (Brill, 1994; Burns, Storey, & Certo,<br />
1999; Everingt<strong>on</strong> & Stevens<strong>on</strong>, 1994; Yoder &<br />
Retish, 1994). Because service learning frequently<br />
occurs in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> community, students<br />
receive instructi<strong>on</strong> in inclusive settings with
people who do not have disabilities (Burns et<br />
al.). This in turn increases <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir visibility as<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributing members of society (Everingt<strong>on</strong><br />
& Stevens<strong>on</strong>; Kleinert et al., 2004) <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> noti<strong>on</strong> of “community-based instructi<strong>on</strong>”<br />
to include volunteer work (Burns et<br />
al; Dym<strong>on</strong>d, 2004). It also provides a vehicle<br />
for c<strong>on</strong>necting students to socially significant<br />
projects where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y can make a difference in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir school <strong>and</strong> community (Gent &<br />
Gurecka, 1998; Muscott, 2001). All of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<br />
practices have <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential to assist students<br />
to generalize skills from school to real-life applicati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
build competence across skill areas<br />
(e.g., social, academic, behavioral, life skills),<br />
develop career awareness, <strong>and</strong> prepare for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> to adulthood (Brill; Burns et al.;<br />
Dym<strong>on</strong>d; Everingt<strong>on</strong> & Stevens<strong>on</strong>; Kleinert et<br />
al.; Carty & Hazelcorn, 2001; Muscott; Yoder<br />
& Retish).<br />
Descripti<strong>on</strong>s of service learning programs<br />
that include high school students with disabilities<br />
have profiled segregated <strong>and</strong> inclusive<br />
programs. In segregated programs, service<br />
projects are completed solely by students with<br />
disabilities. Typically <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se projects involve<br />
students from <strong>on</strong>e particular disability group<br />
(e.g., emoti<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> behavioral disorders, severe<br />
disabilities, learning disabilities) <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
service project is completed by an entire special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> class. Examples of segregated<br />
service learning programs are widely available<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature (see Abernathy & Obenchain,<br />
2001; Everingt<strong>on</strong> & Stevens<strong>on</strong>, 1994; Frey,<br />
2003; Jacks<strong>on</strong>, 1996; Krajewski & Callahan,<br />
1998; Carty & Hazelkorn, 2001; Muscott,<br />
2001).<br />
In inclusive service learning programs, students<br />
with disabilities work al<strong>on</strong>gside <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
peers without disabilities to complete service<br />
projects. They may participate in service learning<br />
as part of an inclusive class in which <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
are enrolled (see Gent & Gurecka, 1998; Yoder<br />
& Retish, 1994) or as part of an extracurricular<br />
school club (see Kleinert et al., 2004).<br />
While <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> instructi<strong>on</strong>al goals <strong>and</strong> type of participati<strong>on</strong><br />
may vary am<strong>on</strong>g students, inclusive<br />
programs focus <strong>on</strong> group effort <strong>and</strong> include<br />
all students in planning, implementing, <strong>and</strong><br />
evaluating <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> project (Brill, 1994; Gent &<br />
Gurecka; Kleinert et al.).<br />
C<strong>on</strong>ceptualizing service learning within an<br />
inclusive paradigm appears to be an emerging<br />
trend within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> field of sec<strong>on</strong>dary special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>. This is not surprising given <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinued movement within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> field toward<br />
inclusive educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> increasing emphasis<br />
placed <strong>on</strong> access to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> general curriculum<br />
(Dym<strong>on</strong>d & Orelove, 2001; IDEIA,<br />
2004). Gent <strong>and</strong> Gurecka (1998) provide a<br />
particularly compelling justificati<strong>on</strong> for inclusive<br />
service learning. They argue that such<br />
programs meet <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs of all students because<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y easily blend academic <strong>and</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
skills, <strong>and</strong> promote critical thinking. As<br />
a result, it is possible for students with very<br />
diverse abilities to actively participate in meaningful<br />
ways. For students with disabilities who<br />
need community-based instructi<strong>on</strong>, service<br />
learning allows <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to receive such instructi<strong>on</strong><br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir same-age peers within a meaningful<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text. Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rmore, performing<br />
service activities al<strong>on</strong>gside peers without disabilities<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> community enables students<br />
with disabilities to be seen as competent,<br />
equally c<strong>on</strong>tributing members of society.<br />
Methods for including students with disabilities<br />
in inclusive high school service learning<br />
programs (HSSLPs) are not clearly defined or<br />
understood. In our review of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ERIC,<br />
PsychInfo, <strong>and</strong> Nati<strong>on</strong>al Service Learning<br />
Clearinghouse databases from 1990-2005, we<br />
found eight peer reviewed articles that addressed<br />
inclusive HSSLPs, <strong>on</strong>ly two of which<br />
reported empirical data. Although n<strong>on</strong>e of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se articles specifically investigated methods<br />
for including students with disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
do provide some directi<strong>on</strong> for practiti<strong>on</strong>ers<br />
regarding promising practices. Methods for<br />
including students in inclusive HSSLPs c<strong>on</strong>sist<br />
of matching students’ skills with service activities<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are capable of successfully completing<br />
(Yoder & Retish, 1994), pairing students<br />
with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities to carry out<br />
projects (Gent & Gurecka, 1998; Kleinert et<br />
al., 2004; Yoder & Retish), actively engaging<br />
students with disabilities in planning service<br />
projects (Kleinert et al.), modifying materials<br />
(Gent & Gurecka), <strong>and</strong> having students with<br />
disabilities teach students without disabilities<br />
how to perform tasks (Brill, 1994). In inclusive<br />
HSSLPs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Individualized Educati<strong>on</strong> Program<br />
(IEP) goals <strong>and</strong> objectives for students<br />
with disabilities should be linked to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> service<br />
learning experiences (Brill; Gent & Gurecka;<br />
Kleinert et al.). This enables students to pur-<br />
Inclusive High School Service Learning Programs / 21
sue <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> general curriculum as well as individualized<br />
goals.<br />
Barriers to including students with disabilities<br />
in inclusive HSSLPS were visibly absent<br />
from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature. Yoder <strong>and</strong> Retish (1994)<br />
identified lack of time for engaging in service<br />
learning as <strong>on</strong>e barrier. Students engaged in<br />
service learning expressed interest in volunteering<br />
for l<strong>on</strong>ger periods of time or <strong>on</strong> a<br />
more frequent basis than was possible. Given<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> relatively few articles addressing inclusive<br />
HSSLPs, it is surprising that little informati<strong>on</strong><br />
is known about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> barriers schools face in<br />
including students with disabilities.<br />
Inclusive service learning appears to be a<br />
promising practice for assisting students with<br />
disabilities to access <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> general curriculum<br />
<strong>and</strong> address o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r important curriculum<br />
goals. It also incorporates a number of tenants<br />
of effective practices for educating students<br />
with disabilities. In order to underst<strong>and</strong> how<br />
inclusive service learning is an effective pedagogy<br />
at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>dary level, more informati<strong>on</strong><br />
is needed about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods for <strong>and</strong> barriers<br />
to including students with disabilities. Hence,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> purpose of this study was to explore <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
percepti<strong>on</strong>s of stakeholders from inclusive<br />
HSSLPS about effective methods for including<br />
students with disabilities <strong>and</strong> barriers that<br />
limit or prevent <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir participati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Method<br />
One focus group was c<strong>on</strong>ducted with adult<br />
stakeholders in each of five inclusive HSSLPs<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> state of Illinois. An “inclusive service<br />
learning program” was defined as <strong>on</strong>e in<br />
which students with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities<br />
participated al<strong>on</strong>gside each o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r to complete<br />
a service learning project. Students with disabilities<br />
were <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> providers of service, not <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
recipients or beneficiaries of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> service.<br />
Participants<br />
A combinati<strong>on</strong> of criteri<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> snowball sampling<br />
procedures (Patt<strong>on</strong>, 2002) were employed<br />
to select five Illinois high schools for<br />
participati<strong>on</strong>. Criteri<strong>on</strong> sampling allowed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
selecti<strong>on</strong> of schools that met a pre-determined<br />
criteri<strong>on</strong> of excellence while snowball sampling<br />
narrowed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of schools to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
most informati<strong>on</strong> rich cases. Exemplary<br />
22 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
schools were initially identified as those receiving<br />
distincti<strong>on</strong> within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> last five years as a<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al Service Learning Leader School<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or a Prairie State Service Learning<br />
Leader School. The former designati<strong>on</strong> involves<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al recogniti<strong>on</strong> by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Corporati<strong>on</strong><br />
for Nati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>and</strong> Community Service<br />
(http://www.leaderschools.org/) <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> latter<br />
involves recogniti<strong>on</strong> by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Illinois State<br />
Board of Educati<strong>on</strong> (http://www.isbe.net/<br />
learnserve/). Sixteen schools met this criteri<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Officials from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Illinois Learn <strong>and</strong><br />
Serve program, service learning coordinators<br />
from high school Leader Schools, <strong>and</strong> administrators<br />
from regi<strong>on</strong>al superintendents’ offices<br />
were also c<strong>on</strong>tacted by teleph<strong>on</strong>e to obtain<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s of exemplary inclusive<br />
HSSLPs. This resulted in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> identificati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
eight schools, four of which were duplicative<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> list of leader schools.<br />
To purposefully select a wide range of<br />
schools with different experiences, informati<strong>on</strong><br />
was ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>red from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Interactive Illinois<br />
Report Card (http://iirc.niu.edu/) about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
geographic locati<strong>on</strong>, size, socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic status,<br />
<strong>and</strong> ethnicity of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools. Each of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
four schools that were both nominated as exemplary<br />
<strong>and</strong> identified as a leader school<br />
proved to be different al<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se dimensi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> thus were c<strong>on</strong>tacted first. Service learning<br />
coordinators from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> nominated programs<br />
were interviewed individually by teleph<strong>on</strong>e to<br />
obtain more informati<strong>on</strong> about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> program<br />
(participants, inclusi<strong>on</strong> of students with disabilities,<br />
courses using service learning, examples<br />
of service learning projects, program’s<br />
history).<br />
Decisi<strong>on</strong>s about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> inclusi<strong>on</strong> of schools in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study were made collaboratively by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
authors based <strong>on</strong> findings from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teleph<strong>on</strong>e<br />
interview. In additi<strong>on</strong> to being identified as<br />
exemplary, criteria for inclusi<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study<br />
included having at least three years of experience<br />
implementing an inclusive service learning<br />
program. All four schools nominated as<br />
exemplary <strong>and</strong> recognized as leader schools<br />
met <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> criteria <strong>and</strong> agreed to participate.<br />
Two additi<strong>on</strong>al schools found to complement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> demographics (i.e., geographic locati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
size, socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic status, <strong>and</strong> ethnicity) of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> selected schools were <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>tacted for<br />
interviews. Although both schools met <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> criteria<br />
for participati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>on</strong>e school lacked suf-
TABLE 1<br />
School Demographics<br />
Demographics School A School B School C School D School E<br />
Number of students 144 362 1,984 595 2,193<br />
Percent with disabilities a<br />
18 14.5 16 13 11.8<br />
Average class size 17.5 20 25.7 7.4 15<br />
Teacher to student ratio<br />
across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school<br />
district<br />
1:13 1:16 1:21 1:19 1:19.3<br />
Percent low income 19 15 3.4 40.3 31.5<br />
Geographic locati<strong>on</strong><br />
Percent by ethnicity<br />
rural rural suburban urban suburban<br />
White 100 99 89 23 41.6<br />
Black 0 .3 1 62 11.2<br />
Hispanic 0 0 5 14.5 40.3<br />
Asian 0 .6 4.5 .7 5.8<br />
Native American 0 0 .5 .2 0<br />
Disability level of SL<br />
Mild Mild,<br />
Mild Mild,<br />
Mild,<br />
participants<br />
Moderate,<br />
Moderate, Moderate<br />
Severe<br />
Severe<br />
Note. SL service learning<br />
a Includes students with an IEP, 504 plan, <strong>and</strong> those receiving speech <strong>and</strong> language services<br />
ficient people to participate due to recent staff<br />
turnover, thus <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r school was selected.<br />
We would have included both schools in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
study had each agreed to participate.<br />
The five schools selected for participati<strong>on</strong><br />
served grades nine to 12 <strong>and</strong> had five to 12<br />
(M 8.6) years of experience including students<br />
with disabilities in service learning.<br />
These schools were purposefully diverse with<br />
regards to geographic locati<strong>on</strong>, school size,<br />
socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic status, <strong>and</strong> ethnicity (see Table<br />
1). All of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools included students<br />
with mild disabilities. Three schools included<br />
students with moderate disabilities <strong>and</strong> two<br />
included students with severe disabilities. One<br />
to two individuals coordinated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> service<br />
learning program at each school. These coordinators<br />
simultaneously assumed o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities<br />
at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school including teaching<br />
(social studies, foreign language, physical educati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
special educati<strong>on</strong>) or guidance counseling.<br />
One focus group was c<strong>on</strong>ducted at each<br />
school. Each focus group was composed of<br />
adult stakeholders who were knowledgeable<br />
about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> service learning program <strong>and</strong> its<br />
inclusi<strong>on</strong> of students with disabilities. Views<br />
from at least three stakeholder groups (e.g.,<br />
administrators, service learning coordinators,<br />
general educati<strong>on</strong> teachers, special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teachers, related services pers<strong>on</strong>nel, paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>als,<br />
parents, <strong>and</strong> community members)<br />
were included in all of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> focus groups. Participants<br />
were chosen by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> service learning<br />
coordinator at each school in c<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong><br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> focus group moderator. Two of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
focus groups included parents <strong>and</strong>/or community<br />
members while three were composed<br />
exclusively of school pers<strong>on</strong>nel. Focus groups<br />
ranged in size from three to six participants<br />
(M 5) <strong>and</strong> all participants received a small<br />
m<strong>on</strong>etary stipend for participati<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> twohour<br />
interview.<br />
Data Collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
The procedures selected for moderating <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
focus groups adhered to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines provided<br />
by Krueger <strong>and</strong> Casey (2000). One researcher<br />
served as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> moderator. She asked<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pre-identified questi<strong>on</strong>s, probed for more<br />
informati<strong>on</strong>, summarized resp<strong>on</strong>ses, <strong>and</strong> ensured<br />
all participants had equal opportunity<br />
to participate. A sec<strong>on</strong>d researcher participated<br />
as an assistant moderator. She recorded<br />
notes <strong>on</strong> a flip chart <strong>and</strong> led <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> post-sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
Inclusive High School Service Learning Programs / 23
debriefing following data collecti<strong>on</strong>. Although<br />
a digital voice recorder was utilized to record<br />
each sessi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> flipchart notes allowed participants<br />
to see <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ideas that had been generated<br />
previously <strong>and</strong> enabled <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> moderator<br />
to summarize <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> group’s resp<strong>on</strong>ses prior to<br />
moving <strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next questi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Each focus group was held at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants’<br />
school in a room that was free from<br />
distracti<strong>on</strong>s. The moderator began each interview<br />
by facilitating participant introducti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
clarifying <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> roles of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> moderators <strong>and</strong> participants,<br />
explaining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> purpose of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> focus<br />
group, discussing c<strong>on</strong>fidentiality <strong>and</strong> how <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
results would be used, <strong>and</strong> reviewing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> focus<br />
group questi<strong>on</strong>s. The moderator <strong>and</strong> assistant<br />
moderator c<strong>on</strong>vened following each focus<br />
group to discuss, clarify, <strong>and</strong> summarize <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
main points of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Five structured questi<strong>on</strong>s were asked within<br />
each focus group interview. The first three<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>red data <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants’<br />
service learning program <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir beliefs<br />
about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> key elements of inclusive HSSLPs<br />
(see Dym<strong>on</strong>d, Renzaglia, & Chun, 2007). The<br />
fourth questi<strong>on</strong> requested participants to describe<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y found most effective<br />
for including students with disabilities in service<br />
learning. The final questi<strong>on</strong> required<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to identify what, if any, barriers <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
experienced in including students with disabilities<br />
in service learning. Findings from<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se last two questi<strong>on</strong>s are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> basis for this<br />
article.<br />
Data Analysis<br />
Data were analyzed in two stages (Patt<strong>on</strong>,<br />
2002). The first stage involved a qualitative<br />
analysis. This method was chosen because it<br />
allowed a list of specific methods <strong>and</strong> barriers<br />
to emerge from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of inductive<br />
analysis to determine categories that<br />
cut across schools. The sec<strong>on</strong>d stage involved<br />
determining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of schools that identified<br />
each method <strong>and</strong> barrier. This analysis<br />
was performed to clarify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> extent to which<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods <strong>and</strong> barriers were prevalent<br />
across schools.<br />
Coding. The digital recording of each focus<br />
group sessi<strong>on</strong> was transcribed verbatim.<br />
Utilizing a c<strong>on</strong>tent analysis procedure (Patt<strong>on</strong>,<br />
2002), each transcript was read several<br />
24 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
times in order to develop a list of codes to<br />
describe each method for <strong>and</strong> barrier to including<br />
students with disabilities in service<br />
learning. Once <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> codes were finalized, transcripts<br />
were re-read <strong>and</strong> a code was assigned to<br />
each method or barrier. A sec<strong>on</strong>d researcher<br />
independently reviewed all coded data to verify<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriateness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assigned codes<br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sistency used in applying <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
codes. Where differences of opini<strong>on</strong> existed,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two researchers discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> coding until<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y arrived at agreement. The final codes are<br />
listed as methods in Table 2 <strong>and</strong> barriers in<br />
Table 3.<br />
Data reducti<strong>on</strong>. Using an inductive approach,<br />
methods across all five schools were<br />
examined <strong>and</strong> grouped into categories. Methods<br />
that were similar were included in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
same category if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were complementary in<br />
meaning <strong>and</strong> helped to define <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> category.<br />
Each method was assigned to <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e category.<br />
This process was repeated for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> list of<br />
barriers. As with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> initial coding, a sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
researcher independently reviewed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> codes<br />
assigned to each category to c<strong>on</strong>firm <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
appropriateness. Differences of opini<strong>on</strong> were<br />
discussed between <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two researchers until<br />
agreement was obtained about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> codes included<br />
in each category. The final categories<br />
are defined in Tables 2 <strong>and</strong> 3.<br />
Following <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> qualitative analysis, a frequency<br />
count was performed to determine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
number of schools that identified each<br />
method <strong>and</strong> barrier. This allowed for comparis<strong>on</strong>s<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> magnitude of resp<strong>on</strong>ses <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
level of agreement am<strong>on</strong>g schools. All methods<br />
<strong>and</strong> barriers, regardless of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of<br />
participants or schools that identified <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m,<br />
were included in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> analysis. We anticipated<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods <strong>and</strong> barriers identified by<br />
each school might vary due to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> nature of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school (i.e., geographic locati<strong>on</strong>, size, ethnicity,<br />
percent low income, type of students<br />
with disabilities served) so we purposefully selected<br />
schools that were diverse across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<br />
dimensi<strong>on</strong>s. The decisi<strong>on</strong> to retain all data was<br />
made because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary purpose of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
study was to capture <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> range of practiti<strong>on</strong>er<br />
experiences <strong>and</strong> beliefs about methods <strong>and</strong><br />
barriers. Deleting ideas menti<strong>on</strong>ed by <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
<strong>on</strong>e pers<strong>on</strong> or school would have diminished<br />
our underst<strong>and</strong>ing of practices advocated by<br />
stakeholders in diverse, inclusive HSSLPs.
TABLE 2<br />
Methods for Including Students with Disabilities in Inclusive HSSLPs (N 5)<br />
Category Methods # of Schools<br />
Activity selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Give students choices 4<br />
structure (n 5) Place students in situati<strong>on</strong>s where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y will be successful 4<br />
Choose activities depending <strong>on</strong> students’ ability level 3<br />
Include more h<strong>and</strong>s-<strong>on</strong> activities 2<br />
Offer a variety of activities 2<br />
Assess students to determine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir capabilities 2<br />
Start with smaller, teacher initiated projects 1<br />
Collaborati<strong>on</strong> (n 5) Collaborate with general <strong>and</strong>/or special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teachers<br />
3<br />
Obtain support for service learning from all staff<br />
involved with students<br />
2<br />
Provide enough staff 2<br />
Obtain informati<strong>on</strong> about students’ abilities 2<br />
Obtain informati<strong>on</strong> about methods for ensuring<br />
students’ success<br />
1<br />
Provide teachers with informati<strong>on</strong> about students’<br />
disabilities<br />
1<br />
Discuss service learning opportunities during IEP<br />
meetings, 504 meetings, or transiti<strong>on</strong> meetings<br />
1<br />
Expectati<strong>on</strong>s (n 5) Have <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same expectati<strong>on</strong>s for students with <strong>and</strong><br />
without disabilities<br />
3<br />
Treat students with disabilities like every<strong>on</strong>e else 3<br />
Expect students to participate 2<br />
Allow students to fail 1<br />
Encouragement (n 4) Allow student ownership of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> project 3<br />
Get to know <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students with disabilities 3<br />
Ask students how <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y would like to be involved in<br />
service learning<br />
2<br />
Allow students to have an active role in decisi<strong>on</strong>-making 1<br />
Grouping (n 4) Pair students with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities to complete<br />
projects<br />
4<br />
Include normal proporti<strong>on</strong>s of students with <strong>and</strong><br />
without disabilities<br />
2<br />
Modificati<strong>on</strong>s (n 3) Provide additi<strong>on</strong>al instructi<strong>on</strong> 2<br />
Provide supplementary instructi<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> classroom<br />
1<br />
Modify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> rules when needed 1<br />
Modify grading practices 1<br />
Note. HSSLPs high school service learning programs; n number of schools c<strong>on</strong>tributing methods to each<br />
category<br />
Trustworthiness. Guba <strong>and</strong> Lincoln (1989)<br />
indicated that rigorous qualitative analyses<br />
use procedures that support “trustworthiness”<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data. In this study, trustworthiness<br />
was ensured by a) analyzing data transcribed<br />
verbatim from a high quality digital<br />
voice recorder, b) using a two-step process<br />
to underst<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data, <strong>and</strong> c) verifying<br />
interpretati<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data between two<br />
researchers.<br />
Results<br />
Data from this study are organized around: a)<br />
methods for including students with disabilities<br />
in inclusive HSSLPs <strong>and</strong> b) barriers to<br />
Inclusive High School Service Learning Programs / 25
TABLE 3<br />
Barriers to Including Students with Disabilities in Inclusive HSSLPs (N 5)<br />
Category Barriers # of Schools<br />
Resources (n 5) Not enough transportati<strong>on</strong> 3<br />
Lack of m<strong>on</strong>ey 2<br />
Too much effort required to coordinate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> inclusi<strong>on</strong> 2<br />
Lack of administrative support 1<br />
Not enough people/staff 1<br />
Staff turnover 1<br />
Lack of proper equipment (e.g., washroom, chairs) in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
community<br />
1<br />
Not enough time to work with students with disabilities 1<br />
Teacher attributes <strong>and</strong> Lack of knowledge about students’ disabilities 3<br />
experience (n 4) Negative attitudes toward students with disabilities 2<br />
Low expectati<strong>on</strong>s of students with disabilities 1<br />
Lack of experience with students with disabilities 1<br />
Need for staff development <strong>and</strong> training 1<br />
Teachers d<strong>on</strong>’t have <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> patience to work with students<br />
with disabilities<br />
1<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>al structure Schedules of students with disabilities are not flexible 3<br />
(n 4) Students with disabilities have a shortened school day 2<br />
Too many students with disabilities in service learning<br />
classes<br />
1<br />
Students with disabilities need to be more visible in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
school<br />
1<br />
Planning (n 3) Lack of communicati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g staff about students with<br />
disabilities<br />
3<br />
Not enough time to co-plan 2<br />
Student characteristics<br />
(n 2)<br />
including students with disabilities in inclusive<br />
HSSLPs. Tables 2 <strong>and</strong> 3 provide a list of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
methods <strong>and</strong> barriers that emerged <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
number of schools that identified methods<br />
<strong>and</strong> barriers within each category.<br />
Methods for Including Students with Disabilities<br />
Methods clustered within six categories: a)<br />
activity selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> structure, b) collaborati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
c) expectati<strong>on</strong>s, d) encouragement, e)<br />
grouping, <strong>and</strong> f) modificati<strong>on</strong>s (see Table 2).<br />
Participants provided varying levels of detail<br />
regarding <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y employed. In fact,<br />
many initially struggled to identify specific<br />
strategies for including students with disabilities.<br />
A comm<strong>on</strong> remark am<strong>on</strong>g participants<br />
was that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y employed were<br />
Students with disabilities are afraid of participating in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
service activities<br />
Note. HSSLPs high school service learning programs; n number of schools c<strong>on</strong>tributing methods to each<br />
category<br />
26 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
<strong>on</strong>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y found to be effective with all students,<br />
regardless of whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y had an identified<br />
disability.<br />
Activity selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> structure. Participants<br />
across all five schools emphasized <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> importance<br />
of selecting appropriate service learning<br />
activities for students with disabilities. Activities<br />
should be selected that are “at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir level”<br />
<strong>and</strong> will enable <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to be “successful” <strong>and</strong><br />
“feel safe” with engaging in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> project. Two<br />
methods were suggested for ensuring student<br />
success. One is to informally assess students to<br />
determine activities that match students’<br />
strengths <strong>and</strong> promote active participati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Underst<strong>and</strong>ing students’ skills prevents teachers<br />
from assigning students to activities that<br />
extend bey<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir abilities. A sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
method is to invite students with disabilities to<br />
2
participate in service learning projects initiated<br />
<strong>and</strong> planned by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher. As students<br />
with disabilities become more comfortable,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y can be encouraged to design <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own<br />
service learning projects.<br />
Participants also spoke about methods for<br />
structuring activities to promote <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong><br />
of students with diverse abilities. Providing<br />
“choices” <strong>and</strong> “opti<strong>on</strong>s” was viewed as a<br />
key method for encouraging reluctant students<br />
to participate <strong>and</strong> creating student ownership<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> service project. O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r methods<br />
include offering a variety of tasks <strong>and</strong> incorporating<br />
h<strong>and</strong>s-<strong>on</strong> activities. The more<br />
h<strong>and</strong>s-<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> activity <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> more choices<br />
<strong>and</strong> types of tasks available, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> more likely all<br />
students will be able to participate in some<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> activity. As <strong>on</strong>e participant<br />
commented, when activities are structured<br />
this way, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir disabilities aren’t so noticeable.”<br />
Collaborati<strong>on</strong>. All five schools deemed collaborati<strong>on</strong><br />
essential. Discussi<strong>on</strong>s across focus<br />
groups focused primarily <strong>on</strong> collaborati<strong>on</strong><br />
am<strong>on</strong>g school pers<strong>on</strong>nel. To effectively include<br />
students with disabilities, general <strong>and</strong><br />
special educati<strong>on</strong> teachers need to meet regularly,<br />
collaborate to develop curriculum,<br />
share informati<strong>on</strong> about each student’s<br />
strengths <strong>and</strong> needs, <strong>and</strong> provide support to<br />
each o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r. In <strong>on</strong>e school, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teacher provided general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teachers with a list of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> strengths <strong>and</strong> weaknesses<br />
of each student included in his/her<br />
class. This informati<strong>on</strong> helps <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educator<br />
underst<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s disability, adaptati<strong>on</strong><br />
requirements, <strong>and</strong> instructi<strong>on</strong>al support<br />
needs. Participants at ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r school<br />
discussed student participati<strong>on</strong> in service<br />
learning more formally during IEP, transiti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or 504 plan meetings. During <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<br />
meetings, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student <strong>and</strong> his/her team review<br />
service learning requirements, determine<br />
how <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student might benefit from this form<br />
of instructi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> identify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> supports <strong>and</strong><br />
accommodati<strong>on</strong>s necessary for participati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Teaching assistants <strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r support staff<br />
are c<strong>on</strong>sidered essential collaborators in programs<br />
that include students with severe disabilities<br />
or a large number of students with<br />
mild disabilities. These individuals provide instructi<strong>on</strong><br />
to students <strong>and</strong> help those with<br />
wheelchairs move to various locati<strong>on</strong>s during<br />
activities. One participant noted that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re<br />
needs to be “support staff specifically geared<br />
towards those students” because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y need<br />
more “<strong>on</strong>e-<strong>on</strong>-<strong>on</strong>e <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s-<strong>on</strong>” than o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
students. Ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r commented that having sufficient<br />
staff “facilitates <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> inclusi<strong>on</strong>.” In additi<strong>on</strong><br />
to working directly with students with<br />
disabilities, participants recommended including<br />
support staff in meetings pertaining<br />
to student participati<strong>on</strong> in service learning.<br />
Collaborati<strong>on</strong> was also defined as having<br />
support from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school faculty for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> program.<br />
As <strong>on</strong>e participant noted, “I think that<br />
you gotta have all <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers involved <strong>and</strong><br />
buy into it for it to work.” At ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r school,<br />
faculty buy-in was viewed as having teachers at<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school who were flexible about letting<br />
students out of classes to participate in service<br />
learning. Even though those teachers were<br />
not leading <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> service learning activity as part<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir class, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y allowed students to participate<br />
in service learning as l<strong>on</strong>g as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y made<br />
up <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> work <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y missed <strong>and</strong> maintained good<br />
grades.<br />
Expectati<strong>on</strong>s. Participants’ expectati<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
students with disabilities were uniformly high<br />
across all schools. Those who spoke about expectati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were adamant that teachers have<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same expectati<strong>on</strong>s for students with <strong>and</strong><br />
without disabilities, <strong>and</strong> treat students with<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same way <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y treat students<br />
without disabilities. For <strong>on</strong>e participant, providing<br />
equal treatment included allowing students<br />
to fail. “Everybody fails at something<br />
<strong>and</strong> a pers<strong>on</strong> with a disability has <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> right to<br />
fail just as much as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next pers<strong>on</strong>.” Although<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r participants did not echo this positi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
it dem<strong>on</strong>strates <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> extent to which this individual<br />
viewed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> importance of providing equitable<br />
experiences for all children.<br />
A few participants felt <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y treated students<br />
with disabilities differently from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir n<strong>on</strong>-disabled<br />
peers. For example, <strong>on</strong>e participant admitted:<br />
I think subc<strong>on</strong>sciously, I’m g<strong>on</strong>na make it<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sciously, even a lot of time, we tend to<br />
treat those kids a little differently. I d<strong>on</strong>’t<br />
know that it has anything to do with service<br />
learning, but I think sometimes we may<br />
tend to accept some of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir behaviors a<br />
little more readily for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m than we might<br />
from some o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r kids.<br />
Inclusive High School Service Learning Programs / 27
Ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r participant commented that she<br />
wasn’t always sure about students’ capabilities<br />
<strong>and</strong> would feel bad if her expectati<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
too low. Although <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se types of comments<br />
were voiced somewhat reluctantly, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y underscore<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> issue inherent in determining appropriate<br />
expectati<strong>on</strong>s for students with disabilities.<br />
Two rati<strong>on</strong>ales for having high expectati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were provided. One rati<strong>on</strong>ale emphasized <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
impact high expectati<strong>on</strong>s have <strong>on</strong> students<br />
without disabilities. When teachers have high<br />
expectati<strong>on</strong>s for students with disabilities <strong>and</strong><br />
treat <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m like all o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r students, students<br />
without disabilities are more likely to interact<br />
with <strong>and</strong> accept students with disabilities as<br />
equal members of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> class. The o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, more<br />
comm<strong>on</strong>, rati<strong>on</strong>ale voiced suggests that service<br />
learning activities do not limit <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong><br />
of any student <strong>and</strong>, thus, should not<br />
impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> expectati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong>e has for students<br />
with disabilities. One participant summed this<br />
point up succinctly. “There’s no distincti<strong>on</strong> if<br />
a kid has a disability or not. It (service learning)<br />
crosses every barrier <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is. I d<strong>on</strong>’t care<br />
what your limitati<strong>on</strong> to learning is.” Ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
participant was emphatic in denying <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need<br />
for students with disabilities to have special<br />
treatment. She stated, “The LD kids, it’s like, I<br />
ain’t given you a break cuz you have a learning<br />
disability. Just go <strong>and</strong> do it. What’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> problem?”<br />
Across schools, participants’ focused <strong>on</strong> an<br />
expectati<strong>on</strong> for active participati<strong>on</strong> in activities.<br />
Because choices are available within activities,<br />
students are able to self-select out of<br />
completing tasks that are difficult for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m or<br />
accentuate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir weaknesses. For example, if a<br />
student experiences difficulty with writing, he<br />
would likely choose a different part of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
service learning activity to complete that allows<br />
him to use his strengths. High expectati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for participati<strong>on</strong> were not necessarily<br />
tied to high expectati<strong>on</strong>s to perform at grade<br />
level in c<strong>on</strong>tent area subjects.<br />
Encouragement. Participants across four of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools agreed that it is important for<br />
teachers to encourage students with disabilities<br />
to participate in service learning activities.<br />
They do this by “asking” students to participate,<br />
inquiring how <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y would like to be involved,<br />
<strong>and</strong> negotiating <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> role <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y want to<br />
assume. One participant explained it this way:<br />
28 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
We just need to encourage <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m more. I<br />
think some of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> kids with needs or disabilities<br />
sometimes sit back <strong>and</strong> d<strong>on</strong>’t want to<br />
be involved because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y d<strong>on</strong>’t think <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
can or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y d<strong>on</strong>’t think <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y should, <strong>and</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y d<strong>on</strong>’t want anybody to know.<br />
In three of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools, participants advocated<br />
spending time getting to know students in<br />
order to make <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m feel comfortable with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teacher, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r students, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities.<br />
Teacher encouragement was viewed as a<br />
method to help build students’ c<strong>on</strong>fidence.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to encouraging students to participate,<br />
students with disabilities also need to<br />
be encouraged to assume an active role in<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>-making. One service learning coordinator<br />
was adamant about dem<strong>and</strong>ing student<br />
involvement as evidenced by this statement:<br />
Involve <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> kids from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> get go. Ask <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
opini<strong>on</strong>s. Seek <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m out. Ask <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m. If <strong>on</strong>e<br />
thing is repeated more <strong>and</strong> more than anything<br />
else over <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> last ten years to me is<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y always say how do you get all <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se kids<br />
to do all <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se things? And <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> simple answer<br />
is you ask <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m. Seriously, if you stop<br />
<strong>and</strong> think about it, almost anybody would<br />
do anything for you.<br />
When students are encouraged to provide input<br />
into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> design of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y gain<br />
increased ownership for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> project <strong>and</strong> its<br />
success. As <strong>on</strong>e participant noted, without this<br />
type of ownership, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> service is not going to<br />
fly.”<br />
Grouping. Participants at four of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
schools described str<strong>on</strong>g rati<strong>on</strong>ales <strong>and</strong> strategies<br />
for pairing students with <strong>and</strong> without<br />
disabilities to perform service learning. When<br />
thinking about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> benefits of diverse grouping,<br />
<strong>on</strong>e participant commented, “We had a<br />
strength here, <strong>and</strong> a strength here, <strong>and</strong> a<br />
strength here. As a group <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y’ll work<br />
toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, but if individually, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y had to do<br />
all three (tasks), <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y’d struggle.” Teachers<br />
group students so that each pers<strong>on</strong> can c<strong>on</strong>tribute<br />
a different, yet complementary,<br />
strength to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> group’s project.<br />
Some participants carefully pair students to<br />
work toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <strong>and</strong> some allow partners to<br />
emerge <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own. At <strong>on</strong>e school, students<br />
with disabilities are paired with individuals
who are “more experienced” in service learning<br />
than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student with a disability. Experienced<br />
students were described as individuals<br />
who are “more mature” or “advanced” (e.g., a<br />
student taking Advanced Placement courses).<br />
In ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r school, students with disabilities<br />
are paired with students who can serve as “role<br />
models.” For example, students with behavior<br />
problems are often paired with students who<br />
do not have behavior problems.<br />
An alternative strategy to grouping is to<br />
have students select <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own partners. Participants<br />
at <strong>on</strong>e school indicated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y do not<br />
purposefully group students. They believe that<br />
having students work with partners is important<br />
<strong>and</strong> that students need to choose <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
own partners. When partners do not work well<br />
toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> adults ask ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r student to<br />
“help out.” They do not force students to work<br />
toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r. Students always have choice about<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir partners. In order for this strategy to<br />
work, teachers need to be observant <strong>and</strong> sensitive<br />
to student interacti<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> be prepared<br />
to “step in” when problems arise.<br />
Although participants elaborated <strong>on</strong> strategies<br />
for grouping students with <strong>and</strong> without<br />
disabilities to work toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y also stated<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> class as a whole (i.e., <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> large group)<br />
needs to include a normal proporti<strong>on</strong> of students<br />
with disabilities. Over-representati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
students with disabilities inhibits <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ability of all students<br />
to adequately learn <strong>and</strong> participate. If<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trols are not put <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of students<br />
with disabilities enrolled, it is easy for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se classes to become a “dumping ground.”<br />
Modificati<strong>on</strong>s. Modificati<strong>on</strong>s that facilitate<br />
inclusi<strong>on</strong> of students with disabilities in service<br />
learning include providing additi<strong>on</strong>al instructi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itoring students with disabilities<br />
more frequently than students without<br />
disabilities, providing supplementary instructi<strong>on</strong><br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong> classroom (e.g.,<br />
pre-teaching behavior expectati<strong>on</strong>s, providing<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences for misbehavior in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> community),<br />
<strong>and</strong> modifying <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> rules <strong>and</strong> grading<br />
practices. Instructi<strong>on</strong>al modificati<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly discussed within three schools <strong>and</strong> no<br />
participants provided specific examples (bey<strong>on</strong>d<br />
those listed above) of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> types of modificati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y employ.<br />
Barriers to Including Students with Disabilities<br />
Five categories of barriers emerged. These categories<br />
include a) resources, b) teacher attributes<br />
<strong>and</strong> experience, c) organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
structure, d) planning, <strong>and</strong> e) student characteristics<br />
(see Table 3). Although all five<br />
schools c<strong>on</strong>tributed to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> list of barriers, participants<br />
at two of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools indicated that<br />
no barriers currently exist to including students<br />
with disabilities in service learning. They<br />
admitted that barriers might exist if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were<br />
asked to serve more students with disabilities,<br />
or students with more severe disabilities or<br />
behavior problems.<br />
Resources. Participants across all five schools<br />
identified resources that were needed to improve<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> inclusi<strong>on</strong> of students with disabilities.<br />
The two primary resource barriers cited<br />
were m<strong>on</strong>ey <strong>and</strong> transportati<strong>on</strong>. Limited<br />
funding for materials needed to complete<br />
projects can curtail <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number <strong>and</strong> type of<br />
service learning projects available. Funding is<br />
also needed for specialized buses to accommodate<br />
students who use wheelchairs. Since<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se students cannot ride <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> regular school<br />
bus, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is an increased cost for an extra bus<br />
each time a student with a wheelchair performs<br />
service in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> community. Lack of transportati<strong>on</strong><br />
for service learning activities that<br />
occur after school or <strong>on</strong> weekends was also<br />
cited as a barrier.<br />
One school experienced difficulty finding<br />
appropriate equipment in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> community.<br />
Students with disabilities need accessible<br />
washrooms <strong>and</strong> specialized chairs that may<br />
not be available in all community settings.<br />
This impacts students’ access to some service<br />
learning activities.<br />
Staffing was viewed as ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r barrier to<br />
including students with disabilities. At <strong>on</strong>e<br />
school participants commented that students<br />
with disabilities would be more successful if<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> staff had more time to work with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m.<br />
There needs to be a peer mentor, ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
service learning student, or a staff pers<strong>on</strong><br />
available to provide support when needed. At<br />
ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r school, staff turnover was viewed as a<br />
barrier to maintaining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> program in general.<br />
Positi<strong>on</strong> cuts at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school eliminated<br />
many teachers who had been implementing<br />
service learning within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir curriculum. Although<br />
pockets of people exist to champi<strong>on</strong><br />
Inclusive High School Service Learning Programs / 29
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> program, time is needed to attract <strong>and</strong><br />
train new teachers to incorporate service<br />
learning in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir courses.<br />
A c<strong>on</strong>cern was articulated about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
amount of effort required to coordinate service<br />
learning programs <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact that<br />
adding students with disabilities might have<br />
<strong>on</strong> a program. It could be very overwhelming<br />
to a service learning coordinator if he or she<br />
was expected to include all students with disabilities<br />
at <strong>on</strong>ce, particularly if that program<br />
had not included those students previously.<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>al staff support would be necessary to<br />
include large numbers of students with disabilities,<br />
particularly if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students have severe<br />
disabilities.<br />
Finally, lack of administrative support was<br />
viewed as problematic (ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r currently or in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> past). Some felt that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> administrati<strong>on</strong><br />
was not supportive of service learning in general<br />
<strong>and</strong> had difficulty seeing how it “fit” with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> general curriculum <strong>and</strong> overall academic<br />
program. This barrier was not specific to including<br />
students with disabilities. O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs<br />
thought <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir administrati<strong>on</strong> was not knowledgeable<br />
about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs of students with<br />
disabilities <strong>and</strong> offered minimal support to<br />
advance <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir participati<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> community.<br />
Teacher attributes <strong>and</strong> experience. Participants<br />
from four schools viewed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own lack<br />
of knowledge <strong>and</strong> experience with students<br />
with disabilities as a potential barrier to including<br />
students with disabilities. Teachers<br />
<strong>and</strong> community members need more informati<strong>on</strong><br />
about students’ disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> “problems”<br />
associated with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> disability, <strong>and</strong> how<br />
to adapt <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum to meet student<br />
needs. All school faculty need to become<br />
more competent in working with students<br />
with disabilities.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to lack of training, ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r barrier<br />
is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> negative attitudes toward students<br />
with disabilities possessed by some adults. At<br />
<strong>on</strong>e school, where students with severe disabilities<br />
are just beginning to participate in service<br />
learning projects, a participant noted, “I d<strong>on</strong>’t<br />
think people know what to expect of students<br />
who have more moderate to severe disabilities.<br />
I think <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re’s fear out <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re.” At o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
schools, participants admitted that some<br />
teachers have low expectati<strong>on</strong>s for students<br />
with disabilities <strong>and</strong> lack <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> patience needed<br />
to work with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m. One general educator/<br />
30 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
service learning coordinator eloquently commented<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> attitude he aspired all teachers<br />
to embrace.<br />
It’s a pers<strong>on</strong> with a disability. It’s not a<br />
disability <strong>on</strong> a pers<strong>on</strong>. We need to think<br />
bey<strong>on</strong>d what we think <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y may or may not<br />
be capable of. We d<strong>on</strong>’t allow those barriers<br />
to be put in fr<strong>on</strong>t of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child without a<br />
disability.<br />
This participant stressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for more<br />
adults to “think outside <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> box” when determining<br />
how to include students with disabilities.<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>al structure. Three barriers<br />
emerged related to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> organizati<strong>on</strong>al structure<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school. First, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> schedules of students<br />
with disabilities prevent or limit <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
participati<strong>on</strong> in service learning. Some students<br />
are <strong>on</strong> a shortened school day or leave<br />
early to go to work. O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs participate in community-based<br />
instructi<strong>on</strong> at times that overlap<br />
with service learning activities.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d, classes that offer service learning<br />
need to be m<strong>on</strong>itored so <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y do not become<br />
a “dumping ground” for students with disabilities.<br />
Over-representati<strong>on</strong> of students with disabilities<br />
makes <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom dynamics difficult<br />
to manage. Participants suggested putting<br />
a “cap” <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of students with disabilities<br />
in each class so that all students are<br />
able to sufficiently benefit from service learning.<br />
Third, students with disabilities need to be<br />
more visible throughout <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school building<br />
<strong>and</strong> “more integrated into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> populati<strong>on</strong>.”<br />
When students with disabilities are served primarily<br />
through self-c<strong>on</strong>tained special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
classrooms, it is important for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir classrooms<br />
to be integrated into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> general<br />
classroom areas ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than placed in a separate<br />
part of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> building. These students also<br />
need to be served in more general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
classes in order to facilitate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir inclusi<strong>on</strong> in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> service learning program <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school.<br />
Planning. Four schools identified planning<br />
as a barrier to including students with<br />
disabilities. Insufficient time exists for staff to<br />
discuss <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs of students with disabilities,<br />
collaboratively plan activities, or coordinate<br />
activities <strong>and</strong> staff efforts across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school.<br />
For example, several participants voiced c<strong>on</strong>-
cern that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were not always aware of which<br />
students in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir classes had disabilities. One<br />
participant noted, “When I get some of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<br />
kids, I d<strong>on</strong>’t know what is wr<strong>on</strong>g. I d<strong>on</strong>’t know<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re’s a problem. I d<strong>on</strong>’t know anything<br />
about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se kids.” Communicati<strong>on</strong> breaks<br />
down <strong>and</strong> teachers are not informed of students’<br />
disabilities, IEP objectives, <strong>and</strong> accommodati<strong>on</strong><br />
needs. In additi<strong>on</strong>, some participants<br />
were not sure if all students with<br />
disabilities at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir school participated in service<br />
learning. This was particularly true when<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school housed full-time self-c<strong>on</strong>tained<br />
classrooms.<br />
Student characteristics. Some students with<br />
disabilities have low self-esteem <strong>and</strong> do not<br />
want to be placed in a situati<strong>on</strong> where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
face potential embarrassment. They lack c<strong>on</strong>fidence<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir abilities <strong>and</strong> are fearful of<br />
participating in service activities. Participants<br />
viewed student characteristics as a barrier at<br />
two of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools. They also acknowledged<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-esteem <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>fidence issues<br />
faced by students with disabilities are also<br />
prevalent am<strong>on</strong>g some students without disabilities.<br />
These student characteristics, more<br />
than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> presence of disability, negatively impact<br />
students’ willingness <strong>and</strong> ability to participate<br />
in service learning.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Findings from this study provide a preliminary<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods for <strong>and</strong> barriers<br />
to including students with disabilities in HSS-<br />
LPs al<strong>on</strong>gside <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir peers without disabilities.<br />
Methods emerged in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> categories of activity<br />
selecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> structure, collaborati<strong>on</strong>, expectati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
encouragement, grouping, <strong>and</strong> modificati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Barriers clustered around <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> categories<br />
of resources, teacher attributes <strong>and</strong><br />
experience, organizati<strong>on</strong>al structure, planning,<br />
<strong>and</strong> student characteristics. These methods<br />
<strong>and</strong> barriers support <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong> those<br />
identified previously in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature <strong>on</strong> inclusive<br />
HSSLPs.<br />
There are several limitati<strong>on</strong>s that should be<br />
acknowledged prior to discussing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> findings.<br />
First, we did not observe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> service<br />
learning programs at each school, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore it<br />
is unclear <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> extent to which <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods<br />
<strong>and</strong> barriers identified by each school were<br />
actually present. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, since stakeholders<br />
from five schools generated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data for this<br />
study, it is possible that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> findings are not<br />
representative of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> range of methods <strong>and</strong><br />
barriers experienced by all inclusive HSSLPs.<br />
Third, school stakeholders (i.e., general educators,<br />
special educators, paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>als,<br />
principals) were <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> dominant group present<br />
within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> focus groups. Additi<strong>on</strong>al methods<br />
<strong>and</strong> barriers might have been identified if<br />
representati<strong>on</strong> from parents <strong>and</strong> community<br />
members was higher within each focus group.<br />
Fourth, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data do not take into c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspectives of students with <strong>and</strong><br />
without disabilities. Their views may be very<br />
different than those of adults. Finally, a limitati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> focus group methodology is that<br />
it did not allow participants across schools to<br />
interact <strong>and</strong> comment <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods <strong>and</strong><br />
barriers identified by each school. As a result,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of schools indicating each<br />
method <strong>and</strong> barrier (as reflected in Tables 2<br />
<strong>and</strong> 3) may underestimate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> actual number<br />
of schools where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods <strong>and</strong> barriers<br />
were present.<br />
A Philosophy of Inclusi<strong>on</strong>: The Unspoken Method<br />
Within each school <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re appeared to be an<br />
overall shared commitment for inclusive service<br />
learning. Each stakeholder, regardless of<br />
his or her role, c<strong>on</strong>veyed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> importance of<br />
including students with disabilities in service<br />
learning <strong>and</strong> spoke positively about his or her<br />
experiences. At each school, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was never<br />
an instance of service learning being champi<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
by <strong>on</strong>ly a single pers<strong>on</strong>. Nor was inclusi<strong>on</strong><br />
an idea that was “owned” or “advocated”<br />
exclusively by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong> staff. Participants<br />
were united in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir belief that all<br />
students, regardless of ability, could <strong>and</strong><br />
should participate in service learning.<br />
While no <strong>on</strong>e specifically discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> importance<br />
of having a philosophy of inclusi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>on</strong>e must w<strong>on</strong>der whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r an unspoken <strong>and</strong><br />
unacknowledged method for including students<br />
with disabilities in service learning is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
presence of a group that philosophically supports<br />
inclusive educati<strong>on</strong>. Participants across<br />
schools were able to identify barriers that limit<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> inclusi<strong>on</strong> of students with disabilities in<br />
service learning, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y also spoke openly<br />
about changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y would like to see to improve<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> overall inclusi<strong>on</strong> of students with<br />
Inclusive High School Service Learning Programs / 31
disabilities at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir school. For example, some<br />
participants felt <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classrooms for students<br />
with disabilities should be located al<strong>on</strong>gside<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r general educati<strong>on</strong> classrooms ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
than in a n<strong>on</strong>-classroom wing of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> building.<br />
O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs indicated that students with disabilities<br />
should be included in more general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
classes. They stated that improving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
visibility <strong>and</strong> inclusi<strong>on</strong> of students with disabilities<br />
across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school day would enhance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir inclusi<strong>on</strong> in service learning projects because<br />
students <strong>and</strong> teachers would “already<br />
know <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m.”<br />
Barriers to Inclusi<strong>on</strong> or Inclusive Service<br />
Learning?<br />
Barriers to inclusive service learning identified<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants are c<strong>on</strong>sistent, in many<br />
ways, with barriers to inclusive educati<strong>on</strong> cited<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature. Issues related to resources,<br />
staff knowledge <strong>and</strong> expertise, planning time,<br />
<strong>and</strong> program organizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> logistics are<br />
widely acknowledged as c<strong>on</strong>straints <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of effective inclusive educati<strong>on</strong><br />
(Janney, Snell, Beers, & Raynes, 1995; Mastropieri<br />
et al., 2005; Pearman, Huang, & Mellblom,<br />
1997; Pivik, McComas, & Laflamme,<br />
2002; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996; Werts,<br />
Wolery, Snyder, & Caldwell, 1996). Although<br />
two schools indicated that no barriers currently<br />
existed to including students with disabilities<br />
in service learning, participants were<br />
quick to point out that adding more students<br />
with disabilities or students with more severe<br />
disabilities or behavior problems could be<br />
problematic unless additi<strong>on</strong>al resources <strong>and</strong><br />
training were available. They were able to envisi<strong>on</strong><br />
events (e.g., reduced funding, changes<br />
in administrati<strong>on</strong>, teacher attriti<strong>on</strong>) that<br />
could create barriers to including students<br />
with disabilities in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> future.<br />
Given <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> similarity between barriers identified<br />
in this study <strong>and</strong> those cited in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> inclusive<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> literature, it seems plausible<br />
to infer that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> barriers may be more characteristic<br />
of an inclusive practice as opposed to a<br />
phenomena specific to inclusive service learning.<br />
We suggest that it is not <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
pedagogy of service learning, per se, that<br />
causes or creates <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> barriers. It is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> difficulty<br />
with implementing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice of inclusive<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> (that transcends curriculum<br />
32 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
<strong>and</strong> pedagogy) that creates <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> barrier. Methods<br />
for overcoming barriers to inclusive educati<strong>on</strong><br />
may well prove effective in addressing<br />
some of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> barriers encountered by inclusive<br />
HSSLPs. It remains unclear which barriers, if<br />
any, are specific to inclusive service learning.<br />
The Goal: Participati<strong>on</strong> vs. Skill Acquisiti<strong>on</strong>?<br />
For <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools in this study, inclusi<strong>on</strong> was<br />
defined almost syn<strong>on</strong>ymously with participati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Implicit in this definiti<strong>on</strong>, as articulated<br />
through numerous examples, was an emphasis<br />
<strong>on</strong> active engagement <strong>and</strong> ensuring that all<br />
students made a c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> service<br />
project. Whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student completed a task<br />
in whole or in part, with help or not, did not<br />
diminish <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> value of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong>. In<br />
fact, partial participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> collaborati<strong>on</strong><br />
with peers was clearly valued, as evidenced by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> many descripti<strong>on</strong>s provided of how teachers<br />
grouped students with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities<br />
to complete projects. Participati<strong>on</strong> was a<br />
key term reiterated across schools <strong>and</strong><br />
throughout each interview.<br />
We found <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> emphasis placed <strong>on</strong> students’<br />
active participati<strong>on</strong> to be both refreshing <strong>and</strong><br />
noteworthy. At <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same time, we questi<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods discussed for including<br />
students with disabilities extended appropriately<br />
far enough to ensure <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir access to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
general curriculum <strong>and</strong> attenti<strong>on</strong> to individualized<br />
IEP objectives. In previous discussi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants (see Dym<strong>on</strong>d et al.,<br />
2007), we found str<strong>on</strong>g support for c<strong>on</strong>necting<br />
service learning to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum. Participants<br />
were adamant that inclusive HSSLPs<br />
should link to both <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> academic curriculum<br />
<strong>and</strong> to a functi<strong>on</strong>al life skills curriculum. We<br />
were, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore, intrigued when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se same<br />
participants failed to menti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong><br />
between service learning <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum<br />
as a method for including students with disabilities.<br />
Only <strong>on</strong>e school’s participants suggested<br />
talking about service learning as part of<br />
an IEP, 504 plan, or transiti<strong>on</strong> plan, but no<br />
menti<strong>on</strong> was made of how decisi<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
made about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum to be addressed<br />
through service learning.<br />
Across focus groups, stakeholders discussed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> importance of allowing students to choose<br />
activities <strong>and</strong> to select activities that matched<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir skills. Yet, it seemed that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> focus of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>
service learning activity for students with disabilities<br />
was more highly focused <strong>on</strong> participati<strong>on</strong><br />
than it was <strong>on</strong> learning new skills. Students<br />
were channeled into activities that<br />
matched <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir skills <strong>and</strong> preferences ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
than working <strong>on</strong> new skills or applying emerging<br />
skills. If students perceived an activity as<br />
too difficult, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were allowed to self-select<br />
out of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> activity <strong>and</strong> choose a different <strong>on</strong>e.<br />
The role of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher in directing student<br />
learning <strong>and</strong> teaching new skills was visibly<br />
absent from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> list of methods for including<br />
students with disabilities. One might argue<br />
that this is appropriate since an important<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent of service learning is student participati<strong>on</strong><br />
in designing service projects. In our<br />
opini<strong>on</strong>, if service learning is to be linked to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re needs to be a careful<br />
balance between allowing students to assume<br />
ownership <strong>and</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for projects <strong>and</strong><br />
teacher oversight regarding <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> acquisiti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> applicati<strong>on</strong> of new skills. C<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
need to be made that illustrate not <strong>on</strong>ly that<br />
students with disabilities can be successfully<br />
included (i.e., participate), but that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y can<br />
also achieve <strong>and</strong> learn as a result. It was not<br />
clear from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> focus groups whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intent<br />
of service learning for students with disabilities<br />
was to assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m in learning <strong>and</strong><br />
practicing new skills, or whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r it was to allow<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to apply skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y had already mastered<br />
to new situati<strong>on</strong>s. We believe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re should be<br />
a balance.<br />
Are High Expectati<strong>on</strong>s Enough?<br />
A truly admirable trait of participants was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
emphasis <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y placed <strong>on</strong> having high expectati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for students with disabilities. They c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
students with disabilities capable. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y believed that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> structure of<br />
service learning activities (e.g., h<strong>and</strong>s-<strong>on</strong><br />
learning, activity-based projects, student<br />
choice, variety of tasks) was what allowed students<br />
with very diverse abilities to participate.<br />
Service learning, as a form of pedagogy, eliminated<br />
potential barriers to including students<br />
with disabilities, thus increasing teachers’ expectati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for students to be successful.<br />
In essence, participants viewed service<br />
learning as a form of universal design for<br />
learning (UDL). The premise of UDL is that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum should be designed with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
needs of all students in mind from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> start. If<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum is designed appropriately, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
need for modificati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> adaptati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
should be greatly diminished or n<strong>on</strong>-existent<br />
(CEC, 1998; Hitchcock, Meyer, Rose, & Jacks<strong>on</strong>,<br />
2002). In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> present study, many participants<br />
initially expressed difficulty with identifying<br />
methods for including students with<br />
disabilities in service learning. They indicated<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y used were no different<br />
than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y used with students without<br />
disabilities. Some even stated that service<br />
learning was “<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> method” for including students<br />
with disabilities al<strong>on</strong>gside <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir peers.<br />
Perhaps <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> service learning experiences at<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se schools embodied <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> principles of UDL<br />
such that specialized adaptati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> modificati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were rarely necessary.<br />
Although numerous methods for including<br />
students with disabilities in service learning<br />
were ultimately identified, we were surprised<br />
to find limited menti<strong>on</strong> of teaching methods.<br />
It is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> absence of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se methods that brings<br />
to questi<strong>on</strong> whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> expectati<strong>on</strong>s participants<br />
had for students with disabilities were<br />
sufficiently high. That is, did <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants<br />
have adequate knowledge <strong>and</strong> expertise in<br />
working with students with disabilities to<br />
clearly identify reas<strong>on</strong>able goals <strong>and</strong> effective<br />
teaching strategies for helping students learn?<br />
The nature of service learning may indeed<br />
make it a UDL strategy, but UDL does not<br />
preclude <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for teaching. UDL should<br />
make <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum accessible. An accessible<br />
curriculum is not equivalent to an easier or<br />
less dem<strong>and</strong>ing curriculum (CEC, 1998; Orkwis,<br />
1999; Rose & Meyer, 2000).<br />
Participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mselves seemed unclear<br />
about how <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir expectati<strong>on</strong>s for students with<br />
disabilities could or should be any different<br />
than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y would be for students without disabilities.<br />
While <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y expressed support for<br />
holding students with disabilities to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same<br />
high st<strong>and</strong>ards as students without disabilities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were not always sure what was reas<strong>on</strong>able<br />
or what <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students were truly capable of<br />
accomplishing. This was evident by some of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> barriers <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y identified, including lack of<br />
knowledge about students’ disabilities <strong>and</strong> accommodati<strong>on</strong><br />
requirements, a need for more<br />
experience <strong>and</strong> training in working with students<br />
with disabilities, <strong>and</strong> a desire for better<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> collaborati<strong>on</strong> between<br />
Inclusive High School Service Learning Programs / 33
general <strong>and</strong> special educators. If informati<strong>on</strong><br />
about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs of students with disabilities is<br />
not regularly shared <strong>and</strong> discussed, it becomes<br />
less surprising that strategies for teaching students<br />
with disabilities failed to emerge<br />
str<strong>on</strong>gly in our list of methods.<br />
Implicati<strong>on</strong>s for Research <strong>and</strong> Practice<br />
The methods <strong>and</strong> barriers identified by participants<br />
in this study offer practical directi<strong>on</strong><br />
for high school pers<strong>on</strong>nel seeking to include<br />
students with disabilities in service learning.<br />
Their words <strong>and</strong> examples offer insights that<br />
can <strong>on</strong>ly be gained from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir experiences<br />
with implementing an inclusive program.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> collective findings across<br />
schools, we believe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are several points<br />
that warrant additi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> by<br />
school <strong>and</strong> community stakeholders.<br />
● An inclusive HSSLP is bound toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r by a<br />
group of adult stakeholders from diverse<br />
disciplines that embody a philosophy of inclusi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The philosophy of this group needs<br />
to extend bey<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> day-to-day operati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> service learning program to include<br />
goals toward increasing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> overall inclusiveness<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school itself. The presence of<br />
an inclusive school philosophy will support<br />
<strong>and</strong> enhance implementati<strong>on</strong> of an inclusive<br />
HSSLP.<br />
● All students, regardless of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir ability, are<br />
capable of participating in service learning.<br />
“Participati<strong>on</strong>” is important <strong>and</strong> each student<br />
with a disability needs to be actively<br />
engaged, at his or her own level, to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are capable.<br />
● There is a need to move bey<strong>on</strong>d defining<br />
inclusi<strong>on</strong> as participati<strong>on</strong>. Teachers <strong>and</strong><br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r adults who support students in learning<br />
need to create a balance between allowing<br />
students to apply skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y have already<br />
mastered <strong>and</strong> assisting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to learn new<br />
skills <strong>and</strong> practice emerging <strong>on</strong>es. Although<br />
service learning can be c<strong>on</strong>ceptualized as a<br />
UDL strategy, it does not preclude <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need<br />
for specialized instructi<strong>on</strong>al strategies.<br />
● Greater attenti<strong>on</strong> needs to be devoted to<br />
ensuring that methods for including students<br />
with disabilities in service learning<br />
take into c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum<br />
needs of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students. IEP objectives should<br />
34 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
be infused into service learning projects<br />
where appropriate.<br />
● In light of IDEIA (2004) <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> No Child<br />
Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2002) measurable<br />
data must be ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>red <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> performance<br />
outcomes of students with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities<br />
who participate in service learning.<br />
These outcomes need to address curriculum<br />
linked to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> state st<strong>and</strong>ards as well as<br />
performance <strong>on</strong> IEP objectives that address<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r curriculum areas such as life skills.<br />
● School <strong>and</strong> community members need additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
training in how to teach students<br />
with disabilities. They need to be informed<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> unique needs of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students with<br />
disabilities for whom <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are resp<strong>on</strong>sible.<br />
Time for teachers to collaborate <strong>and</strong> share<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> is essential to c<strong>on</strong>sistently meet<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs of students with disabilities across<br />
high school classes.<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>al research <strong>on</strong> inclusive HSSLPs<br />
should focus <strong>on</strong> validating <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods <strong>and</strong><br />
barriers identified through this study. This<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> could provide useful informati<strong>on</strong><br />
about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> extent to which <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> findings from<br />
this study are representative of o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r inclusive<br />
HSSLPs <strong>and</strong> may help to extend <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> list of<br />
methods <strong>and</strong> barriers identified. Research<br />
should also seek to identify effective methods<br />
for overcoming barriers that prevent or limit<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong> of students with disabilities<br />
in HSSLPs.<br />
A more thorough examinati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> methods<br />
used to include students with disabilities<br />
in HSSLPs is also needed. Observati<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
inclusive HSSLPs should be c<strong>on</strong>ducted to determine<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> extent to which <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices advocated<br />
by schools are present <strong>and</strong> result in<br />
desired student outcomes. The impact of students’<br />
disability level (i.e., mild, moderate,<br />
severe), teacher to student ratio, general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teacher experience in working with students<br />
with disabilities, <strong>and</strong> role of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> teacher should also be investigated<br />
in relati<strong>on</strong>ship to methods employed. Finally,<br />
we believe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is a need to define effective<br />
methods for linking <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> general curriculum<br />
<strong>and</strong> IEP to service learning activities. Additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
work is needed to investigate how students<br />
with disabilities can address challenging<br />
curriculum c<strong>on</strong>tent within HSSLPs <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>
supports school pers<strong>on</strong>nel need to help students<br />
reach <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir potential.<br />
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Received: 14 June 2006<br />
Initial Acceptance: 28 July 2006<br />
Final Acceptance: 10 October 2006
Using Pivotal Resp<strong>on</strong>se Training with Peers in Special<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> to Facilitate Play in Two Children with <strong>Autism</strong><br />
Laura R. Kuhn, Amy E. Bodkin, S<strong>and</strong>ra D. Devlin <strong>and</strong> R. Anth<strong>on</strong>y Doggett<br />
Mississippi State University<br />
Abstract: This study evaluated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ability of peers in special educati<strong>on</strong> to implement pivotal resp<strong>on</strong>se training<br />
(PRT) with two students with autism in order to increase social interacti<strong>on</strong>s. Peers were taught <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies<br />
using modeling, role-playing, <strong>and</strong> feedback. After training, peers implemented PRT strategies with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
with autism. Picture prompts were provided to assist peers in recalling <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies, but were completely faded<br />
until peers could implement <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedures with no instructi<strong>on</strong> from observers. Increases in opportunities to<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>d were observed, as well as resp<strong>on</strong>ses <strong>and</strong> initiati<strong>on</strong>s of social interacti<strong>on</strong> by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children with autism.<br />
In his original descripti<strong>on</strong> of autism in 1943,<br />
Leo Kanner described problems related to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
development of social relati<strong>on</strong>ships as inherent<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> disorder (McC<strong>on</strong>nell, 2002). Since<br />
this finding in 1943, researchers have thoroughly<br />
explored this characteristic, suggesting<br />
multiple forms of interventi<strong>on</strong>s to enhance<br />
social interacti<strong>on</strong>s am<strong>on</strong>g children with autism.<br />
A significant body of research has focused<br />
<strong>on</strong> peer-mediated interventi<strong>on</strong>s (Goldstein,<br />
Kacamarek, Penningt<strong>on</strong>, & Shafer, 1992; Stahmer,<br />
1999; Goldstein & Ferrell, 1987; Garris<strong>on</strong>-Harrell,<br />
Kamps, & Kravits, 1997). Peermediated<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>s involve teaching peers<br />
specific strategies to direct, resp<strong>on</strong>d, <strong>and</strong> reinforce<br />
children with autism (Goldstein et al.,<br />
1992). These strategies enhance <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicative<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g children with autism,<br />
while minimizing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for adult implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> prompting. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers learn appropriate social behavior<br />
while assisting o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r peers in developing a<br />
communicative repertoire. However, many<br />
peer-mediated interventi<strong>on</strong>s include specific<br />
scripts <strong>and</strong> limited toys or activities, which<br />
make generalizati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se skills to new settings<br />
difficult.<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cerning this article should<br />
be addressed to S<strong>and</strong>ra D. Devlin, Department of<br />
Counselor Educati<strong>on</strong>, Educati<strong>on</strong>al Psychology, <strong>and</strong><br />
Special Educati<strong>on</strong>, Mississippi State University, Box<br />
9727, Mississippi State, MS 39759.<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2008, 43(1), 37–45<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities<br />
A specific peer-mediated strategy developed<br />
by Koegel, Schreibman, Good, Cerniglia, Murphy,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Koegel (1989) has been effective in<br />
increasing play behaviors in children with autism<br />
(Pierce & Schreibman, 1995; Thorp,<br />
Stahmer, & Schreibman, 1995). Pivotal resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
training provides a more naturalistic<br />
approach to peer-mediated interventi<strong>on</strong> (Mc-<br />
C<strong>on</strong>nell, 2002). This strategy does not include<br />
specific scripts with limited toys or activities.<br />
Ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, it promotes a variati<strong>on</strong> of peer<br />
prompts to elicit a larger range of resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
from children with autism, thus promoting<br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> maintenance of interacti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Children with autism often engage in<br />
repetitive behaviors with toys ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
toy’s comm<strong>on</strong> uses (Terpstra, Higgins, &<br />
Pierce, 2002), but with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
PRT children possess little opportunity to isolate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mselves <strong>and</strong> engage in repetitive behaviors.<br />
Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rmore, initiating play is a behavior<br />
not often observed am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<br />
children <strong>and</strong> research has dem<strong>on</strong>strated that<br />
PRT increases initiating behaviors (Pierce,<br />
1993).<br />
Pierce <strong>and</strong> Schreibman (1995) suggest that<br />
PRT is effective in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhancement of social<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s am<strong>on</strong>g children with autism<br />
when implemented in a school setting by typical<br />
peers. However, without an interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
in place with adult supervisi<strong>on</strong>, typical peers<br />
are most likely to select o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r typical peers as<br />
playmates (Goldstein et al., 1992). Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rmore,<br />
due to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for a c<strong>on</strong>tinuum of<br />
Pivotal Resp<strong>on</strong>se Training in Special Educati<strong>on</strong> / 37
placements for students with disabilities, some<br />
children with autism are included in a typical<br />
classroom for part of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> day <strong>and</strong> spend <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
remainder of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> day in a special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
setting, while o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs may spend <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bulk of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
day in a special educati<strong>on</strong> classroom.<br />
The purpose of this study was to evaluate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ability of peers in special educati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
implement PRT in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong> setting.<br />
Across-<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>-day interventi<strong>on</strong>s implemented<br />
by typical peers are promising (Strain<br />
& Hoys<strong>on</strong>, 2000). Thus, if PRT is implemented<br />
in both <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> regular <strong>and</strong> special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
classrooms, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student(s) with autism<br />
will have opportunities to engage in social<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s in both classes throughout <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
entire day.<br />
Method<br />
Participants<br />
Participants were Colin, an 8-year-old Caucasian<br />
male, diagnosed with autism, <strong>and</strong> Wils<strong>on</strong>,<br />
a 7-year-old Caucasian male diagnosed<br />
with autism, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> treatment agents: five<br />
peers in special educati<strong>on</strong> (two in group<br />
<strong>on</strong>e, three in group two). As pre-determined<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Battelle Developmental Inventory<br />
(BDI), Colin obtained a total st<strong>and</strong>ard score<br />
of 65 <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> domain, indicating<br />
deficits in both receptive <strong>and</strong> expressive<br />
language skills. These results were obtained<br />
when Colin was age 3 years, 4<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths. More current test results were unavailable.<br />
Colin’s educati<strong>on</strong>al placement was<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong> classroom for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> majority<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school day.<br />
As determined by Project Memphis, a criteri<strong>on</strong>-referenced<br />
instrument that assesses a<br />
child’s level of development in several areas<br />
including language, Wils<strong>on</strong>’s expressive language<br />
skills were <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> equivalent of a child of<br />
14 m<strong>on</strong>ths when in fact he was at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of<br />
four. On <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> BDI, Wils<strong>on</strong> obtained a st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
score of 65 <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> domain,<br />
equivalent to a child aged 13 m<strong>on</strong>ths.<br />
More current test results were unavailable.<br />
Wils<strong>on</strong> also attended special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
classes all day.<br />
Of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers chosen to participate in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
study, <strong>on</strong>e peer had an educati<strong>on</strong>al diagnosis<br />
of mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, three had diag-<br />
TABLE 1<br />
Peer characteristics<br />
noses of specific learning disabilities, <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e<br />
had a diagnosis of developmentally delayed<br />
(see Table 1). Four of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers chosen attended<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same special educati<strong>on</strong> class as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
two children with autism. Three spent <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
bulk of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> day in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> setting, while <strong>on</strong>e peer<br />
attended <strong>on</strong>ly morning classes in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same<br />
special educati<strong>on</strong> classroom.<br />
The research took place in an empty classroom<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children’s school in a rural sou<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>astern<br />
town. The special educati<strong>on</strong> teacher<br />
reported that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two students with autism<br />
engage in some self-stimulati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> repetitive<br />
behaviors if not under direct supervisi<strong>on</strong>, but<br />
engage in little to no social interacti<strong>on</strong>s unless<br />
prompted by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher or o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r peers.<br />
Materials<br />
Training materials included a variety of toys<br />
with which a small group of children could<br />
play. Toys included Legos ® , cars <strong>and</strong> trucks,<br />
airplanes, blocks, <strong>and</strong> dinosaurs. These toys<br />
were used during baseline <strong>and</strong> treatment sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Six picture prompts were used to teach<br />
peers <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies. Rewards (i.e., sticker<br />
chart <strong>and</strong> c<strong>and</strong>y) were used when peers were<br />
cooperative in learning <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies <strong>and</strong> successful<br />
at implementing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies during<br />
treatment. A video camera was used to tape all<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Dependent Measures<br />
38 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Child Age Race Gender ED 1 TISEC 2<br />
A1 7 African-American M MMR 3 All day<br />
A2 8 African-American M SLD 4 2 hours<br />
B1 6 African-American M DD 5 All day<br />
B2 8 African-American F SLD All day<br />
B3 7 African-American M SLD All day<br />
1 Educati<strong>on</strong>al Diagnosis<br />
2 Time in Special Educati<strong>on</strong> Classroom<br />
3 Mild Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
4 Specific Learning Disability<br />
5 Developmental Delay<br />
Interacti<strong>on</strong> opportunities. Opportunities to<br />
interact, or peer prompts, were provided by
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> trained peers during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Number<br />
of prompts provided were observed <strong>and</strong> recorded.<br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>ses. The target children’s resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
to peer prompts were observed <strong>and</strong> recorded.<br />
A resp<strong>on</strong>se was defined as a verbal, gestural, or<br />
physical indicati<strong>on</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child understood<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or answered <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer (e.g., answered a<br />
peer’s questi<strong>on</strong>, made eye c<strong>on</strong>tact when<br />
prompted by peer, nodded to answer a peer’s<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>, etc.).<br />
Rate of resp<strong>on</strong>ses to prompts. Rate of resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
to prompts was defined as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number<br />
of resp<strong>on</strong>ses divided by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of<br />
prompts presented.<br />
Initiati<strong>on</strong>s. Initiati<strong>on</strong>s were defined as beginning<br />
a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> with a peer without a<br />
prompt, or approaching a peer to play with a<br />
peer without a prompt (e.g., h<strong>and</strong>ing a peer a<br />
toy, helping a peer with an activity, etc.).<br />
Data Collecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Experimental Design<br />
Data collecti<strong>on</strong> was completed individually for<br />
Wils<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Colin by reviewing video-taped<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Protocols included opportunities to<br />
record target children behaviors (verbal <strong>and</strong><br />
physical resp<strong>on</strong>ses, initiati<strong>on</strong>s) <strong>and</strong> whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
or not prompts were provided by peers.<br />
A multiple baseline design across peer<br />
groups was implemented. This design was<br />
used to c<strong>on</strong>trol for reactivity, such that target<br />
children’s behavior did not change as a result<br />
of an increased number of play sessi<strong>on</strong>s during<br />
baseline. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, differences in behavior<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g peer groups can be analyzed<br />
using this design.<br />
Data Collectors<br />
Two investigators were present at all sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Both were graduate students supervised by a<br />
faculty member. The faculty member reviewed<br />
all video-taped sessi<strong>on</strong>s for inter-rater<br />
agreement. All investigators were trained in<br />
pivotal resp<strong>on</strong>se training, data collecti<strong>on</strong> procedures,<br />
<strong>and</strong> procedures for collecting treatment<br />
integrity <strong>and</strong> inter-rater agreement.<br />
Inter-rater Agreement <strong>and</strong> Treatment Integrity<br />
Inter-rater agreement was calculated for 100%<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intervals. Reliability was calculated by<br />
percent of agreement <strong>on</strong> each event (total<br />
number of agreements divided by total number<br />
of agreements plus disagreements). Video-tapes<br />
of sessi<strong>on</strong>s were reviewed by all investigators<br />
for reliability. Percentage agreement<br />
for all intervals of each behavior was 92%.<br />
Treatment integrity was assessed using a<br />
checklist of each step in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> treatment (e.g.,<br />
prompts were provided by observers, prompts<br />
were faded, reinforcement was provided by<br />
observers c<strong>on</strong>tingent up<strong>on</strong> each peer<br />
prompt). Treatment integrity was assessed <strong>on</strong><br />
33% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sessi<strong>on</strong>s by reviewing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> videotapes.<br />
Treatment was implemented with 98%<br />
integrity.<br />
Procedure<br />
The pivotal resp<strong>on</strong>se techniques that were implemented<br />
by peers of children with autism in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong> classroom were derived<br />
<strong>and</strong> defined from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sets of procedures developed<br />
by Pierce <strong>and</strong> Schreibman (1995) <strong>and</strong><br />
Koegel et al. (1989). The strategies were modified<br />
to facilitate comprehensi<strong>on</strong> by all students<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study. Prior to training, peers to<br />
be included in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study were chosen based <strong>on</strong><br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing level <strong>and</strong> compliance.<br />
During baseline, all toys were placed in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
middle of an empty classroom in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children’s<br />
school. Several different rooms were<br />
used, dependent up<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school’s schedule<br />
of activities. The rooms did not have desks;<br />
thus play space was blocked off in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> center<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> rooms with c<strong>on</strong>es or with a large rug.<br />
Students (two children with autism <strong>and</strong><br />
groups of two or three peers) were told to play<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> toys. O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> boundaries of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> play space, no o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r instructi<strong>on</strong>s or<br />
prompts were delivered during baseline. Baseline<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s lasted for ten minutes. At <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> end<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> probe, students were instructed to help<br />
put <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> toys away before <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y returned to class.<br />
Peer Training<br />
For <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next several weeks, peers of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
with autism participated in 20-minute<br />
intensive training sessi<strong>on</strong>s, two to three days<br />
per week. Training ended when observers<br />
noted mastery of strategies am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children,<br />
or dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong> of skills correctly 80%<br />
of time. The following behaviors <strong>and</strong> modified<br />
Pivotal Resp<strong>on</strong>se Training in Special Educati<strong>on</strong> / 39
definiti<strong>on</strong>s were selected by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> authors from<br />
Pierce <strong>and</strong> Schreibman (1995) to teach <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
peers to implement:<br />
1. Paying attenti<strong>on</strong>. Ensure that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target<br />
child is attending before delivering a<br />
prompt (i.e., “Wils<strong>on</strong>, look at me.”).<br />
2. Child’s choice. Offer an opti<strong>on</strong> of different<br />
activities to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child in order to maintain<br />
his interest (i.e., “Would you like to play<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> airplane or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> dinosaur?”).<br />
3. Reinforce attempts. Verbally reinforce <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
child after attempts at play or social interacti<strong>on</strong><br />
(i.e., “I like <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> way you’re playing<br />
with that car”).<br />
4. Extend c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. Ask questi<strong>on</strong>s or talk<br />
about topics related to play (i.e., “Do you<br />
have Legos ® at home?”).<br />
5. Turn taking. Model appropriate play <strong>and</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n offer <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child a turn (i.e., “This is<br />
how you play with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> car. Now, it’s your<br />
turn.”).<br />
6. Narrative play. Provide descripti<strong>on</strong>s of play<br />
acti<strong>on</strong>s (i.e., “I’m flying this airplane to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
airport.”).<br />
The observer(s) held a picture prompt in<br />
fr<strong>on</strong>t of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers dem<strong>on</strong>strating each acti<strong>on</strong><br />
prior to modeling <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior. After <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
peers observed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompt <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y practiced. Feedback was provided by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
observers until students dem<strong>on</strong>strated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior<br />
correctly. They role-played with each<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <strong>and</strong> took turns playing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer who was<br />
to initiate an interacti<strong>on</strong> with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child with<br />
autism. During each training sessi<strong>on</strong>, strategies<br />
were reviewed until <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers could look<br />
at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompt <strong>and</strong> explain what he was supposed<br />
to do. Training lasted for eight 20minute<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. One peer moved to a different<br />
school <strong>and</strong> was replaced with ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r peer<br />
in Group A. Thus, Peer 1 of Group A received<br />
twice <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> training that Peer 2 <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers in<br />
Group B received.<br />
Implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
Peers <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n began to generalize strategies to a<br />
play setting for treatment implementati<strong>on</strong>. As<br />
in baseline, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> group was told to play toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same toys. Observers<br />
prompted peers with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture prompts<br />
from training when needed. Ten prompts<br />
were delivered during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first sessi<strong>on</strong>. Then<br />
prompts were gradually faded until peers<br />
could implement strategies independently by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> final treatment sessi<strong>on</strong>s. C<strong>on</strong>tingent up<strong>on</strong><br />
each occurrence in which a peer engaged in<br />
an interacti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or delivered a prompt to a<br />
child with autism, he received a sticker <strong>on</strong> a<br />
chart. At <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> end of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sessi<strong>on</strong> peers received<br />
a prize for earning ten stickers, which is an<br />
average of <strong>on</strong>e interacti<strong>on</strong> per minute. Treatment<br />
steps were identical for group two, except<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re were three peers in Group B instead<br />
of two. As in baseline, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sessi<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
ten minutes in length <strong>and</strong> were videotaped.<br />
Results<br />
40 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Results of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study indicate improved social<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong> for target students <strong>and</strong> peers. Positive<br />
changes were noted for number of opportunities<br />
for interacti<strong>on</strong>s, resp<strong>on</strong>ses to peer<br />
prompts, <strong>and</strong> initiati<strong>on</strong>s of c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
play.<br />
Results of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of peer prompts, or<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong> opportunities, presented to Wils<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> Colin during baseline <strong>and</strong> treatment<br />
with Groups 1 <strong>and</strong> 2 are presented in Figure 1.<br />
For Wils<strong>on</strong>, opportunities to interact occurred<br />
an average of less than <strong>on</strong>e time per sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
during baseline with Group A. During treatment,<br />
peers offered prompts for social interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
an average of 16 times per sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Group B offered an average of less than <strong>on</strong>e<br />
opportunity for interacti<strong>on</strong> per sessi<strong>on</strong> during<br />
baseline, even though baseline was extended<br />
for Group B. During treatment, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> group<br />
increased prompts to approximately four per<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>. Opportunities to interact, or peer<br />
prompts, were exhibited to Colin an average<br />
of two to three times per sessi<strong>on</strong> in baseline<br />
<strong>and</strong> 18 times during treatment with Group A.<br />
Group B offered approximately two prompts<br />
per sessi<strong>on</strong> in baseline, <strong>and</strong> increased prompts<br />
to over three per sessi<strong>on</strong> during treatment.<br />
Results of Wils<strong>on</strong>’s <strong>and</strong> Colin’s resp<strong>on</strong>ses to<br />
peer prompts are exhibited in Figure 2. With<br />
Group A, Wils<strong>on</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>ded to peers <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
<strong>on</strong>ce during baseline. During treatment, Wils<strong>on</strong><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ded an average of 13 times per<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>. Colin resp<strong>on</strong>ded to prompts from<br />
Group A less than <strong>on</strong>ce per sessi<strong>on</strong> during<br />
baseline <strong>and</strong> over 13 times per sessi<strong>on</strong> during<br />
treatment. He resp<strong>on</strong>ded to prompts from
Group B between <strong>on</strong>e <strong>and</strong> two times per sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
during baseline, <strong>and</strong> two to three times<br />
during treatment.<br />
Figure 1. Total number of prompts.<br />
Wils<strong>on</strong>’s <strong>and</strong> Colin’s rates of resp<strong>on</strong>ses to<br />
prompts appear in Figure 3. Wils<strong>on</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>ded<br />
to peers an average of 20% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pivotal Resp<strong>on</strong>se Training in Special Educati<strong>on</strong> / 41
time prompts were presented during baseline<br />
with Group A. The rest of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompts were<br />
ignored by Wils<strong>on</strong>. During treatment, Wils<strong>on</strong><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ded to prompts an average of 84.16%<br />
Figure 2. Total number of resp<strong>on</strong>ses to prompts.<br />
42 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time prompts were presented. Colin<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ded to prompts 18.7% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
were presented during baseline with Group A,<br />
<strong>and</strong> 73.8% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time during treatment. Dur-
ing play sessi<strong>on</strong>s with Group B, Colin resp<strong>on</strong>ded<br />
to 41.3% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompts during baseline<br />
<strong>and</strong> 70% during treatment.<br />
Figure 3. Total number of resp<strong>on</strong>ses.<br />
Initiati<strong>on</strong>s of interacti<strong>on</strong>s exhibited by Wils<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> Colin are presented in Table 2. Wils<strong>on</strong><br />
exhibited <strong>on</strong>ly two total initiati<strong>on</strong>s across<br />
Pivotal Resp<strong>on</strong>se Training in Special Educati<strong>on</strong> / 43
TABLE 2<br />
Initiati<strong>on</strong>s of Play<br />
Child<br />
five sessi<strong>on</strong>s during baseline of Group A. During<br />
treatment, he exhibited a total of five initiati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
across <strong>on</strong>ly three sessi<strong>on</strong>s. With Group<br />
B, an increase of initiati<strong>on</strong>s was not exhibited.<br />
During baseline, Wils<strong>on</strong> initiated an interacti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>ce across seven sessi<strong>on</strong>s. He did<br />
not initiate play at all during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> three treatment<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Colin initiated <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e interacti<strong>on</strong><br />
during baseline of Group A, <strong>and</strong> increased<br />
to eight initiati<strong>on</strong>s during treatment.<br />
Colin displayed an increase in initiati<strong>on</strong>s after<br />
PRT implementati<strong>on</strong> of Group B by an average<br />
of <strong>on</strong>e initiati<strong>on</strong> more per sessi<strong>on</strong>. During<br />
baseline, Colin initiated interacti<strong>on</strong>s an average<br />
of two times per sessi<strong>on</strong>. During treatment,<br />
he exhibited an average of 3.25 initiati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
per sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
BL 1<br />
Group A<br />
Average initiati<strong>on</strong>s per sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
Tx 2<br />
Group A<br />
BL<br />
Group B<br />
Tx<br />
Group B<br />
Wils<strong>on</strong> 0.4 1.7 .14 0<br />
Colin 0.2 2.0 2.14 3.25<br />
1 Baseline<br />
2 Treatment<br />
Results indicate that some peers with disabilities<br />
can successfully implement pivotal resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
training with children with autism. Particularly<br />
with Group A, c<strong>on</strong>sisting of <strong>on</strong>e peer<br />
diagnosed with a specific learning disability<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, social<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s increased am<strong>on</strong>g target children<br />
<strong>and</strong> peers. The teacher described Group B<br />
peers as lower functi<strong>on</strong>ing <strong>and</strong> less cooperative<br />
than Group A peers. This factor may c<strong>on</strong>tribute<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> difference in results between<br />
Groups 1 <strong>and</strong> 2. Wils<strong>on</strong> experienced more<br />
significant gains with Group B than did Colin.<br />
This finding may be explained by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> difference<br />
between functi<strong>on</strong>ing levels of Wils<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Colin. Colin was described as more sociable<br />
<strong>and</strong> higher functi<strong>on</strong>ing than Wils<strong>on</strong>, possibly<br />
higher functi<strong>on</strong>ing than a couple of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers<br />
44 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
in Group B. Thus, <strong>on</strong>e explanati<strong>on</strong> for Colin’s<br />
lack of significant gains with Group B is that<br />
he possessed more social skills initially than<br />
<strong>on</strong>e or two of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers in Group B. Ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
explanati<strong>on</strong> may be that Group B c<strong>on</strong>tained<br />
<strong>on</strong>e more peer than did Group A. Perhaps <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
numbers of peers in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> groups influenced<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> social gains of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target children. Future<br />
research should examine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> differences in<br />
social interacti<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>tingent up<strong>on</strong> peer<br />
group size.<br />
A reas<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> increases in rates of resp<strong>on</strong>ding<br />
may be attributed to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that<br />
peers were taught to use different levels of<br />
prompts: verbal, gestural, <strong>and</strong> physical. Thus,<br />
if a target child did not resp<strong>on</strong>d to an opportunity<br />
during baseline, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer ceased to try<br />
to interact. However, during treatment if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
target child did not resp<strong>on</strong>d to a verbal<br />
prompt <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer c<strong>on</strong>tinued to prompt him by<br />
repeating <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompt, using a gesture, or<br />
physically helping <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target child to resp<strong>on</strong>d.<br />
These findings indicate that peers with disabilities<br />
can be successful at implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of pivotal resp<strong>on</strong>se training. Thus, children<br />
with autism who attend both regular <strong>and</strong> special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> classes can receive <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> training<br />
across a school day. Perhaps lower functi<strong>on</strong>ing<br />
peers selected to implement PRT need more<br />
intensive training <strong>and</strong> more programming for<br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> from training setting to play<br />
setting. Perhaps some peers would benefit<br />
from more learning trials during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> training<br />
of steps for implementati<strong>on</strong>. Research related<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> different methods of training for peers<br />
with different disabilities would c<strong>on</strong>tribute to<br />
present PRT research so that practiti<strong>on</strong>ers<br />
may individualize peer training sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
After training implementati<strong>on</strong> was terminated,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers were observed in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir classroom<br />
<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinued to implement PRT with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children with autism. A limitati<strong>on</strong> of this<br />
study is that more generalizati<strong>on</strong> data was not<br />
collected. Thus, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>on</strong>g-term effects of PRT<br />
are not available. Future research should evaluate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effects of PRT over time.<br />
Teacher training of PRT strategies may benefit<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers <strong>and</strong> children with autism in that<br />
booster sessi<strong>on</strong>s could be c<strong>on</strong>ducted to enhance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> maintenance of<br />
play <strong>and</strong> social skills. Peers <strong>and</strong> children with<br />
autism both benefited from PRT in that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y
learned to interact with o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs in order to<br />
enhance play <strong>and</strong> social skills.<br />
References<br />
Garris<strong>on</strong>-Harrell, L., Kamps, D., & Kravits, T.<br />
(1997). The effects of peer networks <strong>on</strong> socialcommunicative<br />
behaviors for students with autism.<br />
Focus <strong>on</strong> <strong>Autism</strong> & O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r Developmental Disabilities,<br />
12, 241–254.<br />
Goldstein, H., & Ferrell, D. (1987). Augmenting<br />
communicative interacti<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g children between<br />
h<strong>and</strong>icapped <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-h<strong>and</strong>icapped preschool<br />
children. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g> of Speech <strong>and</strong> Hearing Disorders,<br />
52, 200–211.<br />
Goldstein, H., Kaczmarek, L., Penningt<strong>on</strong>, R., &<br />
Shafer, K. (1992). Peer-mediated interventi<strong>on</strong>: Attending<br />
to, commenting <strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> acknowledging<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior of preschoolers with autism. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 289–305.<br />
Koegel, R. L., Schreibman, L., Good, A., Cerniglia,<br />
L., Murphy, C., & Koegel, L. (1989). How to teach<br />
pivotal behaviors to children with autism: A training<br />
manual. University of California, Santa Barbara.<br />
McC<strong>on</strong>nell, S. R. (2002). Interventi<strong>on</strong>s to facilitate<br />
social interacti<strong>on</strong> for young children with autism:<br />
Review of available research <strong>and</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for educati<strong>on</strong>al interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> future research.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g> of <strong>Autism</strong> <strong>and</strong> Developmental Disorders,<br />
22, 351–371.<br />
Pierce, K. (1993). Teaching an autistic child to resp<strong>on</strong>d<br />
to <strong>and</strong> instigate social initiati<strong>on</strong>s via pivotal<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se training. Unpublished data, University<br />
of California, San Diego. Pierce, K., & Schreibman,<br />
L. (1995). Increasing complex social behaviors<br />
in children with autism: Effects of peer-implemented<br />
pivotal resp<strong>on</strong>se training. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g> of<br />
Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 285–295.<br />
Stahmer, A. C. (1999). Using pivotal resp<strong>on</strong>se training<br />
to facilitate appropriate play in children with<br />
autistic spectrum disorders. Child Language Teaching<br />
& Therapy, 15(1), 29–40.<br />
Strain, P. S., & Hoys<strong>on</strong>, M. (2000). The need for<br />
l<strong>on</strong>gitudinal, intensive, social skill interventi<strong>on</strong>:<br />
LEAP follow-up outcomes for children with autism.<br />
Topics in Early Childhood Special Educati<strong>on</strong>, 20,<br />
116–122.<br />
Terpstra, J. E., Higgins, K., & Pierce, T. (2002). Can<br />
I play? Classroom-based interventi<strong>on</strong>s for teaching<br />
play skills to children with autism. Focus <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>Autism</strong> & O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r Developmental Disabilities, 17, 119–<br />
126.<br />
Thorp, D., Stahmer, A., & Schreibman, L. (1995).<br />
The effects of sociodramatic play training <strong>on</strong> children<br />
with autism. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g> of <strong>Autism</strong> <strong>and</strong> Developmental<br />
Disorders, 25, 265–282.<br />
Received: 14 June 2006<br />
Initial Acceptance: 25 August 2006<br />
Final Acceptance: 15 December 2006<br />
Pivotal Resp<strong>on</strong>se Training in Special Educati<strong>on</strong> / 45
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2008, 43(1), 46–60<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities<br />
Effects of Perspective Sentences in Social Stories TM <strong>on</strong><br />
Improving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Adaptive Behaviors of Students with <strong>Autism</strong><br />
Spectrum Disorders <strong>and</strong> Related Disabilities<br />
Shingo Okada, Yoshihisa Ohtake, <strong>and</strong> Masafumi Yanagihara<br />
University of Okayama<br />
Abstract: This study examined <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effects of adding perspective sentences to Social Stories TM <strong>on</strong> improving<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> adaptive behaviors of students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) <strong>and</strong> related disabilities. In Study<br />
1, two students with ASD read two different types of Social Stories: Social Story without perspective<br />
sentences (SS without PS) <strong>and</strong> Social Story with perspective sentences (SS with PS). ABC or ABCA designs<br />
were used, with an SS without PS presented in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> B phase <strong>and</strong> an SS with PS presented in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> C phase.<br />
A visual inspecti<strong>on</strong> revealed that Social Stories were likely to be effective in reducing inappropriate<br />
behaviors even without perspective sentences. In additi<strong>on</strong>, adding perspective sentences appeared to have<br />
no impact <strong>on</strong> fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r improving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behaviors. In Study 2, a perspective sentence was added,<br />
characterized as specific, valuable, <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tingent to a Social Story in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS with PS c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. An<br />
AA’BA’CA’ design was utilized, with a permanent visual step poster in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> A’ phase, an SS without PS<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> B phase, <strong>and</strong> an SS with PS in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> C phase for a student diagnosed with attenti<strong>on</strong> deficit<br />
hyperactivity disorder. A visual inspecti<strong>on</strong> revealed that adding a perspective sentence to a Social Story<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributed to fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r improvement of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behavior. Based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se findings comp<strong>on</strong>ent <strong>and</strong><br />
parametric analyses <strong>on</strong> Social Stories are recommended in future research.<br />
Social Stories TM is a highly appealing strategy<br />
for improving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> adaptive behaviors of students<br />
with autism spectrum disorders (ASD,<br />
Sansosti, Powell-Smith, & Kincaid, 2004). Social<br />
Stories use an individualized written short<br />
story with illustrati<strong>on</strong>s to help individuals underst<strong>and</strong><br />
social situati<strong>on</strong>s where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y often<br />
have difficulty due to failure to underst<strong>and</strong> or<br />
misunderst<strong>and</strong>ing important social cues<br />
(Gray, 2004).<br />
The underlying belief is that many problems<br />
exhibited by students with ASD in social<br />
This study is based <strong>on</strong> a <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis submitted by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
first author, under <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> supervisi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
<strong>and</strong> third authors, to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Faculty of Educati<strong>on</strong> at<br />
Okayama University for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> master’s degree. We<br />
thank Dr. Brenda Smith-Myles, at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> University of<br />
Kansas, for giving us useful resources <strong>and</strong> commenting<br />
an earlier versi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> manuscript. Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerning this article should be addressed<br />
to Yoshihisa Ohtake, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Faculty of Educati<strong>on</strong> at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
University of Okayama, 3-1-1 Tsushima-naka,<br />
Okayama-Shi, Okayama 700-8530, JAPAN. E-mail:<br />
ohtake@cc.okayama-u.ac.jp<br />
46 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s may be caused by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir deficits in<br />
reading <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> social script or o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs’ thoughts<br />
<strong>and</strong> feelings that are embedded in a given<br />
social situati<strong>on</strong>. Thus, if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> situati<strong>on</strong>s are described<br />
in ways that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y can underst<strong>and</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
problem behaviors are believed to decrease<br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir adaptive behaviors will increase<br />
(Myles, Trautman, & Schelvan, 2004; Sansosti<br />
et al., 2004). In o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r words, Social Stories are<br />
believed to serve as an interpreting bridge for<br />
students with ASD <strong>and</strong> related disabilities, delineating<br />
how people behave <strong>and</strong> people<br />
think, <strong>and</strong> what social cues should be attended<br />
to social situati<strong>on</strong>s where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y frequently<br />
have had or are likely to have (Gray,<br />
2004).<br />
To serve this interpreting functi<strong>on</strong>, a Social<br />
Story may include six types of sentences: descriptive,<br />
perspective, affirmative, directive,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol, <strong>and</strong> cooperative (Gray, 2004). Briefly,<br />
descriptive sentences provide informati<strong>on</strong> about<br />
social rules governing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target situati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
objective facts or events occurring <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re. Perspective<br />
sentences describe o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs’ thoughts or<br />
feelings associated with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target situati<strong>on</strong>.
Affirmative sentences emphasize a value underlying<br />
a particular fact. Directive sentences provide<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> about how to behave in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
target situati<strong>on</strong>. C<strong>on</strong>trol sentences c<strong>on</strong>sist of a<br />
descripti<strong>on</strong> developed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student to help<br />
retrieve important informati<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>. And finally, cooperative sentences describe<br />
who will help <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual <strong>and</strong> how to<br />
succeed in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In brief, Social Stories focus <strong>on</strong> describing<br />
social situati<strong>on</strong>s in which a target behavior<br />
occurs, but not <strong>on</strong> directing how to behave.<br />
This is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> essence that distinguishes Social<br />
Stories from o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r strategies such as direct<br />
instructi<strong>on</strong>, visual cue card, or role playing.<br />
Therefore, descriptive sentences, perspective<br />
sentences, or o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r sentences describing social<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s should be predominantly used<br />
in a Social Story (Gray, 2004).<br />
As <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of practiti<strong>on</strong>ers using Social<br />
Stories has increased, researchers have been<br />
prompted to determine if this strategy is truly<br />
effective. For example, Kuttler, Myles, <strong>and</strong><br />
Carls<strong>on</strong> (1999) successfully applied a Social<br />
Story interventi<strong>on</strong> to eliminate inappropriate<br />
vocalizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> dropping to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> floor by a<br />
child with ASD. In this study, an ABAB design<br />
was utilized to dem<strong>on</strong>strate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Story interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> improvement in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behavior.<br />
Similarly, Hagiwara <strong>and</strong> Myles (1999), employing<br />
a multiple baseline across settings,<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of a multimedia<br />
Social Story interventi<strong>on</strong> for three children<br />
with ASD in terms of improving h<strong>and</strong>washing<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>-task behaviors. Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r,<br />
employing an ABAB design, Lorimer, Simps<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Myles, <strong>and</strong> Ganz (2002) presented empirical<br />
evidence showing that a Social Story itself<br />
was resp<strong>on</strong>sible for reducing vocalizati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
which interrupted adult c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
was followed by tantrum, exhibited by a child<br />
with ASD.<br />
In yet ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r study, using a multiple baseline<br />
across subjects design, Scatt<strong>on</strong>e, Wilczynski,<br />
Edwards, <strong>and</strong> Rabian (2002) dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
that Social Stories <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mselves<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributed to decreasing chair tipping, staring<br />
girls, <strong>and</strong> shouting by two children <strong>and</strong> an<br />
adolescent with ASD. Finally, using an ABAB<br />
design, Bledsoe, Myles, <strong>and</strong> Simps<strong>on</strong> (2003)<br />
showed that a Social Story tailored for an adolescent<br />
who exhibited eating-related behav-<br />
iors appeared to be resp<strong>on</strong>sible for reducing<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se problem behaviors.<br />
More recently, research has started addressing<br />
which comp<strong>on</strong>ents of Social Stories are<br />
important for changing target behaviors. For<br />
example, Kuoch <strong>and</strong> Mirenda (2003) used an<br />
ACABA design, with a children’s storybook in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> C phase <strong>and</strong> a Social Story in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> B phase,<br />
to determine whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tent of Social<br />
Stories c<strong>on</strong>tributed improved social behaviors<br />
or increased adult attenti<strong>on</strong> following reading<br />
a Social Story with adults. Results suggested<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tent of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story, ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than increased<br />
adult attenti<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>tributed to improving<br />
children’s adaptive behaviors.<br />
Toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, previous studies have revealed<br />
that Social Stories <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mselves are effective in<br />
improving various types of adaptive behaviors<br />
of individuals with ASD. However, <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e<br />
study has thoroughly examined which comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
of a Social Story interventi<strong>on</strong> are resp<strong>on</strong>sible<br />
for improving adaptive behaviors.<br />
That is, no studies have addressed how each<br />
type of sentences (e.g., descriptive, perspective,<br />
affirmative, directive) c<strong>on</strong>tributes to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
improvement of adaptive behaviors, or<br />
whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r or not all comp<strong>on</strong>ents of Social Stories<br />
are necessary to achieve <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> goal.<br />
This study focused <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
perspective sentences. Typically, descriptive<br />
sentences are predominantly used in a Social<br />
Story to describe what happens in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> given<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>, when <strong>and</strong> how it happens, <strong>and</strong> why<br />
it happens. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, very a few sentences<br />
are used to describe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspectives of o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs.<br />
Therefore, it is unknown, for example, if<br />
adding a few sentences to a Social Story to<br />
describe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> thoughts or feelings of o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribute to reduce problem behaviors or<br />
increase desirable behaviors in individuals<br />
with ASD or related disabilities.<br />
The following two research questi<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
developed for this study:<br />
(a) Is a Social Story effective in improving<br />
adaptive behaviors even though <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story<br />
does not include any perspective sentences?<br />
(b) Does a perspective sentence c<strong>on</strong>tribute to<br />
improving adaptive behaviors?<br />
Effects of Perspective Sentences / 47
Study 1<br />
Method<br />
Participants<br />
Two students, both of whom were enrolled in<br />
a same special school for students with cognitive<br />
disabilities, participated in Study 1.<br />
Taro. Taro was a 12-year-old boy with<br />
moderate mental retardati<strong>on</strong>. Although he<br />
had no referrals to a licensed pediatrician<br />
about a diagnosis of autism, his score <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Childhood <strong>Autism</strong> Rating Scale (CARS) administered<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary investigator, was<br />
30.5, indicating a mild to moderate level of<br />
autism.<br />
According to his main special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teacher, Taro usually engaged in putting miniature<br />
cars in a line <strong>and</strong> singing a favorite<br />
phrase of a commercial s<strong>on</strong>g during free time.<br />
Although Taro made eye c<strong>on</strong>tact <strong>and</strong> initiated<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s with teachers, his teacher described<br />
that he always used <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same phrases<br />
in a n<strong>on</strong>-reciprocal manner. He used a verbal<br />
mode of communicati<strong>on</strong> to request <strong>and</strong> reject<br />
objects or social interacti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
According to his teacher, his reading <strong>and</strong><br />
writing levels were equivalent to first grade.<br />
However, he rarely utilized a daily schedule<br />
with written words, specifically developed to<br />
help him move to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next activity smoothly<br />
<strong>and</strong> independently. Social Stories had been<br />
used to reduce his aggressive behaviors <strong>and</strong> to<br />
stay calm in an auditorium when this study<br />
commenced. His teacher reported that his<br />
problem behaviors did not occur when this<br />
strategy was implemented.<br />
Kenji. Kenji was a 13-year-old boy with<br />
autism <strong>and</strong> moderate mental retardati<strong>on</strong>. According<br />
to a Japanese versi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Adaptive<br />
Maturity Scale (Asahide-gakuen-kyoiku-kenkyu-sho<br />
& Nipp<strong>on</strong>-shinri-tekisei-kenkyu-sho,<br />
1980), <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> level of his adaptive behavior was<br />
equivalent to 7 years old. According to his<br />
former teacher’s records, he often had trouble<br />
with his peers because he did not know<br />
how to resp<strong>on</strong>d to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir jokes. When he was<br />
not assigned a specific task, he tended to engage<br />
in repetitive behaviors such as h<strong>and</strong>-flapping<br />
<strong>and</strong> shoulder-patting. His main special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> teacher noted that he sometimes<br />
talked about his favorite topics such as local<br />
cable TV or sign language. According to his<br />
teacher, his reading level was equivalent to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fourth grade. He did not use his pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
schedule cards to regulate his behaviors. He<br />
took risperid<strong>on</strong>e <strong>and</strong> fluvoxamine when this<br />
study was c<strong>on</strong>ducted.<br />
Settings<br />
Observati<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two participants took<br />
place in each of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students’ classroom. Both<br />
classrooms were physically structured so as to<br />
provide an individual work area, a group work<br />
area, <strong>and</strong> a meeting area. Each classroom had<br />
two special educati<strong>on</strong> teachers, who were in<br />
charge of five to six students.<br />
Taro. The observati<strong>on</strong>al setting for Taro<br />
was an area surrounded by shelves <strong>on</strong> two<br />
sides <strong>and</strong> a wall <strong>and</strong> a closet for dressing <strong>on</strong><br />
each of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> remaining two sides. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> area,<br />
six desks with chairs for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students were<br />
arranged in a line. On <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t wall, a visual<br />
reminder was posted to notify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> “chair of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
day.” During <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> morning meeting time, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
chair of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> day stood in fr<strong>on</strong>t of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classmates<br />
asked <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to tell <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> date, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> day of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> week, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> wea<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> schedule, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
lunch menu. The remaining five students sat<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir chairs <strong>and</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>ded to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> directi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
or questi<strong>on</strong>s made by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair. One of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers was close to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair to provide<br />
necessary support. The o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r teacher sat behind<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> remaining students <strong>and</strong> helped <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m<br />
participate in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> meeting.<br />
Kenji. Kenji was observed during breaks<br />
when sitting in a sofa al<strong>on</strong>g a wall of his classroom.<br />
The sofa was 6 feet wide, so if <strong>on</strong>e<br />
student lay down, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was no space left for<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r students to sit. During <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> break, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
remaining five students typically engaged in<br />
independent work, changing clo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>s (They<br />
had two types of clo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>s; for commuting <strong>and</strong><br />
for studying) <strong>and</strong> free play. The two teachers<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom rarely interacted with students,<br />
but provided support necessary for students<br />
to complete <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own tasks.<br />
Target Behaviors<br />
48 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
The primary investigator c<strong>on</strong>tacted former<br />
<strong>and</strong> current teachers of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participating<br />
students to identify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors about<br />
which <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most c<strong>on</strong>cerned. After
identifying several important behaviors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
investigator c<strong>on</strong>ducted direct observati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
determine which behavior occurred most<br />
frequently am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> identified behaviors,<br />
<strong>and</strong> this, in turn, was selected as a target<br />
behavior for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> present study.<br />
Taro. For Taro, persistent <strong>and</strong> aggressive<br />
verbal behaviors were selected as a target behavior.<br />
A functi<strong>on</strong>al assessment revealed that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se behaviors were related to his eagerness<br />
to be in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair <strong>on</strong> Fridays. In his classroom,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> day was rotated am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> six<br />
students <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> five school days, M<strong>on</strong>day through<br />
Friday. Because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students<br />
was not five but six, he was not allowed to be<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair every Friday. Throughout <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> days of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> week when he was not allowed to be in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
chair <strong>on</strong> Friday, his persistent <strong>and</strong> aggressive<br />
verbal behaviors dramatically increased, especially<br />
before <strong>and</strong> during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> morning meeting.<br />
For example, he removed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classmate that was put up to indicate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
chair of Friday, instead putting his picture up.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, he repeatedly said to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classmate<br />
who was Friday’s chair, “I’ll never make<br />
you <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair;” “You should be in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair<br />
(<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> days o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than Friday).” Sometimes, this<br />
verbal behavior escalated, culminating in calling<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classmate’s name out loud <strong>and</strong> repeatedly<br />
saying, “You should not come to school,”<br />
or hitting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classmate.<br />
Preventing aggressive verbal behaviors related<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair <strong>on</strong> Friday was deemed effective<br />
in reducing hitting. Therefore, any of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
following behaviors were targeted to prevent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> escalated behaviors:<br />
● utterances related to his eagerness to be in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair <strong>on</strong> Friday (e.g., “I will be in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Friday’s chair,” “I will do it, I will do it, I will<br />
do it . . .”).<br />
● utterances related to negative attitudes toward<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classmate who was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair of<br />
Friday (e.g., “[student’s name] is Boo [Boo<br />
represents a sound of buzzer, meaning incorrect],<br />
” “I will never make you <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair,”<br />
“Get out of here”).<br />
Kenji. For Kenji, sitting neatly <strong>on</strong> a sofa<br />
was selected as a target behavior. He typically<br />
spent his free time sitting <strong>on</strong> a sofa. However,<br />
he tended to put his leg up <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sofa, to lie<br />
down <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re, or shake <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sofa hard, blocking<br />
his classmates from sitting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re. Although his<br />
teacher was not seriously c<strong>on</strong>cerned about this<br />
behavior, his mo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r had placed a high priority<br />
<strong>on</strong> working <strong>on</strong> changing this behavior.<br />
His target behavior was recorded as occurring<br />
when <strong>on</strong>e or more of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following behaviors<br />
were observed:<br />
● placing his shoulder below <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> top line of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> backrest <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sofa.<br />
● placing ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r leg <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sofa.<br />
● exhibiting repetitive behaviors such as locking<br />
or h<strong>and</strong>-flapping.<br />
Materials<br />
Two types of Social Stories were developed for<br />
each participant. One was a Social Story that<br />
did not include perspective sentences (hereafter<br />
referred to as SS without PS); <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
was a Social Story that included perspective<br />
sentences (hereafter referred to as SS with<br />
PS). Gray’s Social Story guidelines do not<br />
eliminate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> inclusi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cept of perspective<br />
sentences (Gray, 2004). However, Gray as well<br />
as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature has emphasized <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> importance<br />
of underst<strong>and</strong>ing of perspectives of o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs.<br />
This study, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore, used <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> term “perspective<br />
sentences” in ways that meant <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
thoughts <strong>and</strong> feelings of “o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs.”<br />
Specifically, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective sentence included<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS with PS for Taro was “When<br />
everybody complies with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn, everybody feels<br />
good because everybody can be fairly in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair.”<br />
For Kenji <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> statement “So many people in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
hotel thought I am cool. Many people around me<br />
watched me do something <strong>and</strong> think I am cool” was<br />
included in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS with PS. Both Social Stories<br />
were developed according to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines<br />
proposed by Gray (2004), which includes but<br />
are not limited to (a) use of positive expressi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
(b) a ratio of 2:1 or more between sentences<br />
describing social situati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> sentences<br />
directing how to behave, (c) use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
terms “usually” <strong>and</strong> “about” to describe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
target social situati<strong>on</strong> as accurately as possible,<br />
<strong>and</strong> (d) delineating of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target social situati<strong>on</strong><br />
according to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>al assessment<br />
results. The text of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Story used for<br />
each participant is included in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table 1.<br />
For Taro, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS without PS c<strong>on</strong>sisted of six<br />
panels, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS with PS c<strong>on</strong>sisted of seven<br />
panels. Each page included two panels; <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re-<br />
Effects of Perspective Sentences / 49
TABLE 1<br />
Social Stories<br />
The Social Story for Taro<br />
Who is in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair of Friday?<br />
I am Taro. I am a boy who loves Bob Sap. I am good at being in chair. I want to be in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair of Friday.<br />
But sometimes I am not always in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair of Friday because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair comes around in turn. When<br />
everybody complies with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn, everybody feels good because everybody can be fairly in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair. The chair of<br />
Friday this week is (student name). (student name) is good at being in chair, too. So, it is OK. I will<br />
comply with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn.<br />
The Social Story for Kenji<br />
Sitting in a cool way<br />
There are cool people <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-cool people in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> world. Whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> is cool or n<strong>on</strong>-cool depends<br />
<strong>on</strong> how <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> does something. I am <strong>on</strong>e of cool people because I write a lunch menu of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> day<br />
neatly <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> blackboard <strong>and</strong> I never take a break during morning exercise. When I ate lunch at a hotel,<br />
I did in a good manner. So, many people in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> hotel thought I am cool. Many people around me watch me do<br />
something <strong>and</strong> think I am cool. As for sitting, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are a cool way <strong>and</strong> a n<strong>on</strong>-cool way. Sitting in a cool way<br />
means placing hip all <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> way, making body upright, <strong>and</strong> putting heels near <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sofa. The points are<br />
shown in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following figure (line drawing is shown). I will take care of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> way of sitting.<br />
The Social Story for Tatsunori<br />
Why do I have to wash my h<strong>and</strong>s?<br />
I am Tatsunori, a boy who loves Giants. After toileting, people usually wash <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir h<strong>and</strong>s. There are germs in<br />
a bathroom. When people go to a bathroom, germs may be put <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir h<strong>and</strong>s. But, germs are invisible.<br />
If people wash <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir h<strong>and</strong>s, most of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> germs <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir h<strong>and</strong>s are g<strong>on</strong>e. So, people wash <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir h<strong>and</strong>s. I<br />
will wash my h<strong>and</strong>s with soap after toileting. Ms. (teacher’s name) thinks <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> is wise when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong><br />
washes h<strong>and</strong>s after toileting. Mr. (teacher’s name) thinks <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> is cool when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> washes h<strong>and</strong>s after<br />
toileting. Ms. (teacher’s name) thinks <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> is lovely when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> washes h<strong>and</strong>s after toileting.<br />
Note. The italic parts are perspective sentences that are withdrawn in SS without PS <strong>and</strong> not withdrawn in SS<br />
with PS.<br />
fore, <strong>on</strong>e Social Story c<strong>on</strong>sisted of three or<br />
four pages. One or two sentences <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e<br />
illustrati<strong>on</strong> were included in <strong>on</strong>e panel. For<br />
Kenji, all texts in both types of stories were<br />
printed <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e page, with three illustrati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
exhibiting a point of “cool sitting” for each.<br />
The story for Taro was written by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary<br />
investigator <strong>and</strong> modified based <strong>on</strong> feedback<br />
from his teachers <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d author,<br />
whereas <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story for Kenji was written by <strong>on</strong>e<br />
of his teachers <strong>and</strong> modified based <strong>on</strong> feedback<br />
from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary investigator <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d author. The teachers c<strong>on</strong>firmed that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> complexity <strong>and</strong> length of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> stories were<br />
appropriate for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two students.<br />
The text <strong>and</strong> illustrati<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Story<br />
were printed <strong>on</strong> A4 white paper, which was<br />
later laminated <strong>and</strong> bound by a metal ring <strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> upper left-h<strong>and</strong> side. The text, developed<br />
by PowerPoint 2002 TM for Taro <strong>and</strong> by Ichitaro<br />
2005 TM for Kenji, was placed <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> upper<br />
part of each panel. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> illustrati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
ic<strong>on</strong>s were developed by Hanako 2005 TM <strong>and</strong><br />
digital photographs were retrieved from free<br />
internet sites, with some modificati<strong>on</strong>s, using<br />
Photoshop 6.0 TM . The illustrati<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
placed <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lower part of each panel for<br />
Taro <strong>and</strong> of a page for Kenji.<br />
Data Collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
50 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Taro. For Taro, Voice Trek TM , an integrated<br />
circuit (IC) recorder, was utilized to<br />
record his persistent <strong>and</strong> aggressive verbal behaviors.<br />
The recorder was set by his teachers<br />
in a closet, which was invisible to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student<br />
but allowed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> recorder to catch c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
effectively. The recorder was activated<br />
so<strong>on</strong> after Taro entered his classroom each<br />
morning. A 6-minute block was r<strong>and</strong>omly selected<br />
from a 15-minute record in each sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
to be analyzed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary investigator,<br />
using a 10-sec<strong>on</strong>d partial interval<br />
recording procedure. This observati<strong>on</strong> was<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted during <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> weeks when Taro<br />
was not in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> chair <strong>on</strong> Friday.
Kenji. For Kenji, all observati<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were video-recorded. The camera was set in a<br />
basket <strong>on</strong> a teacher’s desk, which was invisible<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student but allowed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camera to view<br />
his behaviors effectively. The camera was activated<br />
immediately after Kenji sat <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sofa<br />
during a break. The video was reviewed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
first author, using a 10-sec<strong>on</strong>d partial interval<br />
recording procedure to determine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> level of<br />
inappropriate sitting behaviors. Each observati<strong>on</strong><br />
was c<strong>on</strong>ducted for 10 minutes, for 5 days<br />
a week, except when Kenji was absent from<br />
school.<br />
Inter-Rater Reliability<br />
The data recorded for Taro by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> IC recorder<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> baseline <strong>and</strong> Interventi<strong>on</strong> 1 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were accidentally deleted prior to a reliability<br />
test was implemented. Therefore, no interrater<br />
reliability was computed for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
A graduate student served as a sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
coder. The primary investigator explained <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
definiti<strong>on</strong> of each target behavior <strong>and</strong> showed<br />
examples <strong>and</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-examples of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behavior<br />
until <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d coder felt ready to<br />
code. After <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary investigator coded <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
data recorded by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> IC recorder <strong>and</strong> videotapes,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d coder independently coded<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data for 25.2% for Taro <strong>and</strong> 33.3% for<br />
Kenji of all sessi<strong>on</strong>s across c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
excepti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> baseline c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> 1 c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> of Taro, as menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
above. Percentages of inter-rater reliability<br />
were computed by dividing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number<br />
of agreements by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sum of agreements plus<br />
disagreements <strong>and</strong> multiplying by 100%. Reliabilities<br />
ranged from 83.3% to 97.2% for Taro<br />
(M 91.6%) <strong>and</strong> 93.3% to 100% for Kenji<br />
(M 97.8%) <strong>and</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore, were acceptable.<br />
Experimental Design<br />
An ABCA design was used for Taro, <strong>and</strong> an<br />
ABC for Kenji, with an SS without PS in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> B<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> an SS with PS in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> C c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Some studies suggest that Social Stories<br />
may result in irreversible learning (Kuoch &<br />
Mirenda, 2003; Scatt<strong>on</strong>e et al., 2002), which in<br />
turn prevents us from using a withdrawal<br />
phase to reverse data to a baseline level. Implementing<br />
C followed by B may not allow us<br />
to detect <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effect of including a perspective<br />
sentence in a Social Story because underst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
a social situati<strong>on</strong> described by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social<br />
Story that includes a perspective sentence may<br />
remain intact even after withdrawing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective<br />
sentence from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Story.<br />
Therefore, to be able to detect <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact of<br />
adding perspective sentence as clearly as possible,<br />
we decided to implement B followed by<br />
C. Due to time c<strong>on</strong>straints (i.e., <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school<br />
year ended), a withdrawal phase for Kenji was<br />
not implemented.<br />
Procedure<br />
The teachers for each participant were asked<br />
to deal with target behaviors as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y did prior<br />
to this study. Anecdotal records taken weekly<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary investigator about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers’<br />
behaviors indicated that both students’<br />
teachers behaved in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same ways c<strong>on</strong>tingent<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> occurrence of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behaviors regardless<br />
of c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. That is, Taro’s teachers<br />
provided verbal reprim<strong>and</strong>s when his verbal<br />
behavior escalated. Kenji’s teachers did not<br />
interact with him even when he exhibited inappropriate<br />
sitting. In additi<strong>on</strong>, both teachers<br />
implemented Social Story interventi<strong>on</strong>s as<br />
planned.<br />
Baseline. No instructi<strong>on</strong>s related to Social<br />
Stories were provided to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> 1. This c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was identical<br />
to baseline with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> excepti<strong>on</strong> that a Social<br />
Story was read. That is, an SS without PS was<br />
read by <strong>on</strong>e of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers for each participant.<br />
Before implementing Interventi<strong>on</strong> 1, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
primary investigator explained <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers,<br />
with modeling, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following four points related<br />
to effective use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Story: (a)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Story sessi<strong>on</strong>s should be implemented<br />
in a calm <strong>and</strong> safe atmosphere, (b) a<br />
teacher should sit side-by-side, but a little behind<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s shoulder, (c) when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
student asked a questi<strong>on</strong> about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teacher could answer <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong>, (d) according<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> progress of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s reading,<br />
prompts for reading should be faded out.<br />
The primary investigator <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n asked <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teachers to engage in Social Story instructi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to determine if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedure<br />
correctly. After making sure <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers<br />
correctly implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedure, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pri-<br />
Effects of Perspective Sentences / 51
Figure 1. Percentage of 10-s intervals with inappropriate verbal behaviors during baseline (A), Social Story<br />
without perspective sentences (B), Social Story with perspective sentences (C), <strong>and</strong> withdrawal (A)<br />
for Taro.<br />
mary investigator asked <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to initiate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
first sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> four sessi<strong>on</strong>s in Interventi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Taro’s teacher read <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS without PS for<br />
him. Taro, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n, took a turn to read <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social<br />
Story out loud. His teacher provided c<strong>on</strong>trolling<br />
prompt (i.e., modeling) when he read <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
story incorrectly. The teacher for Kenji read<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS without PS with giving examples <strong>and</strong><br />
explaining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> meaning of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> each sentence.<br />
Starting with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d sessi<strong>on</strong>, both students<br />
read <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS without PS out independently.<br />
A formal reading time for SS without<br />
PS was provided <strong>on</strong>ce each day, just prior to<br />
initiating observati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behavior.<br />
During <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> rest of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> day, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Story<br />
book was placed <strong>on</strong> a shelf to be accessible to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> 2. This c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was identical<br />
to Interventi<strong>on</strong> 1 with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> excepti<strong>on</strong> that<br />
perspective sentences were added to a story<br />
used in Interventi<strong>on</strong> 1. The teachers provided<br />
students an SS with PS <strong>and</strong> asked <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to read<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story. Because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tent of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS with<br />
PS was identical to that of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS without PS,<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> excepti<strong>on</strong> of a perspective sentence,<br />
Taro read <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story with a few prompts at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
beginning of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong> phase, followed<br />
by no prompts from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d sessi<strong>on</strong>. For<br />
Kenji, his teacher asked him to read <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS<br />
with PS, explaining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> meaning of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> added<br />
perspective sentence <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first sessi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> phase. He did not have any questi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
<strong>and</strong> he read <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story independently<br />
from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Baseline 2. Taro’s did not provide him any<br />
opportunities to access <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Story book<br />
(SS with PS) throughout <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> day. No Baseline<br />
2 was implemented for Kenji due to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> terminati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> semester.<br />
Results<br />
52 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Figure 1 shows <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> change of Taro’s persistent<br />
<strong>and</strong> aggressive verbal behaviors across Baseline,<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> 1, Interventi<strong>on</strong> 2, <strong>and</strong> Baseline<br />
2. As illustrated, during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first baseline<br />
phase, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> percentage of his inappropriate<br />
verbal behaviors was high, for an average of<br />
49.1%, ranging from 19.4% to 86.1%. Following<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> of SS without PS, his<br />
inappropriate behaviors showed a downward<br />
trend, for an average of 10.6%, ranging from<br />
0.0% to 16.7%. It should be noted, however,<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> difference in level between Baseline<br />
<strong>and</strong> Interventi<strong>on</strong> 1 was not substantial. After
Figure 2. Percentage of 10-s intervals with inappropriate sitting behaviors during baseline (A), Social Story<br />
without perspective sentences (B), <strong>and</strong> Social Story with perspective sentences (C) for Kenji.<br />
initiating SS with PS, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> level of his inappropriate<br />
verbal behaviors remained low from<br />
Sessi<strong>on</strong> 10 to Sessi<strong>on</strong> 13 (M 6.6%), but<br />
rebounded in Sessi<strong>on</strong>s 14 <strong>and</strong> 15 (M <br />
16.7%), resulting in an average of 9.7%, with<br />
a range from 0% to 16.7%. Immediately after<br />
withdrawing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS with PS in Baseline 2, no<br />
inappropriate verbal behaviors occurred.<br />
Figure 2 presents <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> results of observati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of Kenji’s inappropriate sitting across Baseline,<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> 1, <strong>and</strong> Interventi<strong>on</strong> 2. As<br />
illustrated, during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> baseline phase, he frequently<br />
exhibited inappropriate sitting, for an<br />
average of 72.3%, ranging from 52.5% to<br />
96.7%. Immediately after sitting <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sofa,<br />
he initiated repetitive behaviors, followed by<br />
putting his leg <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sofa or lying down. In<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast, his inappropriate sitting behaviors<br />
disappeared immediately following introducti<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS without PS (M 0.84%). Introducing<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS with PS was immediately followed<br />
by high percentage <strong>and</strong> low percentage<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behavior alternately (M 23.9%,<br />
range 0% – 73.5%).<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
In Study 1, an ABCA or ABC pre-experimental<br />
design was used for two students with ASD to<br />
examine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effects of adding a perspective<br />
sentence <strong>on</strong> reducing problem behaviors. Visual<br />
inspecti<strong>on</strong> indicated that a Social Story<br />
was effective in improving adaptive behaviors<br />
even though <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story did not include any<br />
perspective sentences. Adding a perspective<br />
sentence did not have any additi<strong>on</strong>al impact<br />
<strong>on</strong> improving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behaviors.<br />
“When everybody complies with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn, everybody<br />
feels good because everybody can be fairly in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
chair” was added as a perspective sentence to<br />
Taro’s SS without PS. “So, many people in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
hotel thought I am cool. Many people around me<br />
watched me do something <strong>and</strong> think I am cool”<br />
were added as perspective sentences to Kenji’s<br />
SS without PS. This was d<strong>on</strong>e based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
belief that informati<strong>on</strong> was missing for each<br />
participant to underst<strong>and</strong> why he needed to<br />
behave in a certain way <strong>and</strong> that c<strong>on</strong>sequently<br />
his inappropriate behaviors would improve<br />
when he obtained <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> informati<strong>on</strong>. However,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> results were different from our expectati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
One factor that may need to be addressed<br />
is motivati<strong>on</strong>. In o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r words, it should be discussed<br />
whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r or not <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> informati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>veyed<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective sentences can elevate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> motivati<strong>on</strong> of participants to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> level that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y want to change <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors.<br />
Effects of Perspective Sentences / 53
To discuss <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> motivati<strong>on</strong>al issue of perspective<br />
sentences, introducing a framework of<br />
establishing operati<strong>on</strong> may be helpful. The<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ory of establishing operati<strong>on</strong> (Michael,<br />
2000) explains that some antecedent events or<br />
stimuli c<strong>on</strong>tribute to changing behaviors because<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y change <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> value or meaning of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequence of emitting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors. Adding<br />
a perspective sentence to a Social Story<br />
would have impact <strong>on</strong> improving target behaviors<br />
of individuals with ASD <strong>and</strong> related disabilities<br />
if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective described by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sentence had <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacity to elevate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> value<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sequence of engaging in appropriate<br />
behaviors. That is, if Taro obtained informati<strong>on</strong><br />
about a c<strong>on</strong>tingency, “everybody feels<br />
good,,” by reading <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story that did not have a<br />
reinforcement value to him, he would not<br />
change his behaviors. Similarly, if Kenji obtained<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> about a c<strong>on</strong>tingency,<br />
“many people in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> hotel thought I am cool. Many<br />
people around me watched me do something <strong>and</strong><br />
think I am cool,” by reading <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story, that was<br />
not a reinforcer to him, he would not change<br />
his behaviors.<br />
The fact that adding perspective sentences<br />
did not have any impact <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants’<br />
target behaviors may be due partly to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack<br />
of power of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentence to enhance <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> value<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sequence. Based <strong>on</strong> this <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ory,<br />
when developing perspective sentences, it<br />
should be taken into c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> (a) not<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly what perspective is missing to explain<br />
why <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual needs to behave in a certain<br />
way but (b) also what perspective would<br />
enhance <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> value of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sequence c<strong>on</strong>tingent<br />
<strong>on</strong> engaging in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behavior. Specifically,<br />
we hypo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sized that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective<br />
selected is a str<strong>on</strong>g determinator of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness<br />
of a perspective sentence. For example,<br />
“Everybody” or“Many people,” which were<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms used in this study, apparently were<br />
not deemed specific or relevant enough to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
student to affect behavior.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> nature of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective<br />
sentences used in this study, drawbacks in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
research design should be noted. We changed<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s prior to c<strong>on</strong>firming <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> trend or<br />
stability of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data. We were forced to do so<br />
because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study did not start until <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school<br />
year was almost over. As a result, we were not<br />
able to clarify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ship between<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two types of Social Story <strong>and</strong> de-<br />
creased inappropriate behaviors. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, <strong>and</strong><br />
related to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first point, according to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
anecdotal reports from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers of both<br />
participants, students’ daily routines totally<br />
changed at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time when SS with PS was<br />
initiated, specifically, prior to Sessi<strong>on</strong> 10 for<br />
Taro <strong>and</strong> prior to Sessi<strong>on</strong> 7 for Kenji. Because<br />
both students were in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir graduati<strong>on</strong> year,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were required to participate in practice<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> graduati<strong>on</strong> cerem<strong>on</strong>y every day during<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> 2. This irregular schedule reduced<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> length of recess <strong>and</strong> time for o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
activities that Taro was interested in, such as<br />
cooking, snack eating, <strong>and</strong> walking. For Kenji,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> irregular schedule increased n<strong>on</strong>-preferred<br />
activities (i.e., a practice for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> graduati<strong>on</strong><br />
cerem<strong>on</strong>y). This, in turn, likely c<strong>on</strong>tributed<br />
to increases in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behaviors. It is<br />
unknown, however, why withdrawing Social<br />
Story instructi<strong>on</strong>, which was implemented<br />
while <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> irregular schedule c<strong>on</strong>tinued, resulted<br />
in complete suppressi<strong>on</strong> of Taro’s persistent<br />
<strong>and</strong> aggressive verbal behaviors.<br />
These limitati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> emerging hypo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ses<br />
prompted us to c<strong>on</strong>duct Study 2, which examined<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following: (a) adding a<br />
perspective sentence that was likely to enhance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> value of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sequence c<strong>on</strong>tingent<br />
<strong>on</strong> engaging in a target behavior, (b)<br />
keeping <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> until <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> trend or<br />
stability was c<strong>on</strong>firmed, <strong>and</strong> (c) c<strong>on</strong>ducting<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> experiment while a daily routine remained<br />
stable. Study 2 is described in detail<br />
below.<br />
Study 2<br />
Method<br />
Participants<br />
54 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Tatsunori, an 11-year-old boy, participated in<br />
this study. Although he was enrolled in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
same special school as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students in Study 1,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> possibility of disrupting his daily routine<br />
was minimal because he was not in his graduati<strong>on</strong><br />
year. Due to family issues, he lived in a<br />
child-care facility. He was diagnosed with attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)<br />
<strong>and</strong> mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong> (IQ 68, tested by<br />
Tanaka-Binet Intelligence Test) by a qualified<br />
pediatrician. Although he was capable of en-
gaging in complicated verbal communicati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
his reading level was equivalent to first grade.<br />
He often exhibited aggressive behaviors in resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
to directi<strong>on</strong>s or reprim<strong>and</strong>s provided<br />
by his teachers. At <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time of this study, he<br />
took carbamazepine in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> morning <strong>and</strong> at<br />
night.<br />
Target Behavior<br />
Tatsunori’s target behavior was described as<br />
“Washing h<strong>and</strong>s with water <strong>and</strong> soap after toileting<br />
without any prompts.” The selecti<strong>on</strong><br />
process of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behavior was identical to<br />
that of Study 1. That is, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behavior was<br />
selected based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interview with Tatsunori’s<br />
teachers <strong>and</strong> direct observati<strong>on</strong>s. Tatsunori’s<br />
teachers provided verbal prompts whenever<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y realized he did not wash h<strong>and</strong>s after<br />
toileting. However, this procedure did not<br />
make a positive change of this behavior.<br />
Setting<br />
The observati<strong>on</strong> of Tatsunori’s target behavior<br />
was c<strong>on</strong>ducted at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bathroom nearest to<br />
his homeroom. The sink where he was supposed<br />
to wash his h<strong>and</strong>s was located closest to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> entrance. Typically, <strong>on</strong>e or two o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r students<br />
were using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bathroom with a teacher<br />
when Tatsunori used <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bathroom.<br />
Materials<br />
As in Study 1, two types of Social Story were<br />
developed: <strong>on</strong>e without PS <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e with PS.<br />
The SS without PS c<strong>on</strong>sisted of six panels,<br />
whereas <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS with PS c<strong>on</strong>sisted of nine panels.<br />
The perspective sentences added to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS<br />
without PS were “Ms. [teacher’s name] thinks <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
pers<strong>on</strong> is wise when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> washes h<strong>and</strong>s after<br />
toileting. Mr. [teacher’s name] thinks <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> is<br />
cool when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> washes h<strong>and</strong>s after toileting.<br />
Ms. [teacher’s name] thinks <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> is lovely<br />
when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> washes h<strong>and</strong>s after toileting.” In<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se sentences, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> names of teachers whom<br />
Tatsunori appeared to like <strong>and</strong> adjectives used<br />
frequently by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se teachers were inserted.<br />
(The Table 1 shows <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> text part of both<br />
Social Stories.) The primary investigator wrote<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Stories, with feedback from Tatsunori’s<br />
teachers <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d author. Tatsunori’s<br />
teachers c<strong>on</strong>firmed that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> level in<br />
complexity <strong>and</strong> length of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story matched<br />
his level of reading.<br />
Data Collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Tatsunori’s teachers took resp<strong>on</strong>sibility in<br />
data collecti<strong>on</strong>. Whenever he went to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
bathroom <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e of his teachers was available,<br />
observati<strong>on</strong> was c<strong>on</strong>ducted. Because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teacher-to-student ratio was 2:6, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers<br />
were not always able to observe his h<strong>and</strong>-washing<br />
behaviors. C<strong>on</strong>tingent <strong>on</strong> his toileting, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teachers classified his h<strong>and</strong>-washing behavior<br />
into <strong>on</strong>e of four categories: 3 wash h<strong>and</strong>s<br />
with water <strong>and</strong> soup, 2 wash h<strong>and</strong>s with<br />
water <strong>on</strong>ly, 1 wash h<strong>and</strong>s with water <strong>and</strong><br />
soup with verbal prompts, 0 did not wash<br />
h<strong>and</strong>s. One of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers (hereafter referred<br />
to as main teacher) recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data<br />
<strong>and</strong> sent <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary investigator.<br />
Inter-Rater Reliability<br />
When collecting functi<strong>on</strong>al assessment data,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary investigator attempted to observe<br />
Tatsunori wash his h<strong>and</strong>s in a bathroom. However,<br />
Tatsunori was extremely sensitive to be<br />
observed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> investigator, leading to verbally<br />
aggressive behaviors <strong>and</strong> more difficulty<br />
engaging in h<strong>and</strong>-washing. When <strong>on</strong>e teacher<br />
followed him to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bathroom, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r was<br />
left al<strong>on</strong>e to take care of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> remaining students<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom. This kept him very<br />
busy <strong>and</strong> prevented ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r teacher from<br />
serving as a rater. Therefore, we had to totally<br />
rely <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data observed by <strong>on</strong>e of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers.<br />
Procedure<br />
Tatsunori’s teachers were asked to deal with<br />
target behaviors as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y had d<strong>on</strong>e prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
study. Anecdotal records taken weekly by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
primary investigator about teachers’ behaviors<br />
indicated that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y behaved in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same way<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tingent <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> occurrence of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target<br />
behaviors regardless of c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> records indicated that both teachers implemented<br />
Social Story interventi<strong>on</strong>s as<br />
planned.<br />
Baseline. In baseline, no Social Story interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were implemented.<br />
Effects of Perspective Sentences / 55
Figure 3. Score of h<strong>and</strong>-washing tasks during baseline (A), permanent visual step poster (A’), Social Story<br />
without perspective sentences (B), permanent visual step poster (A’), Social Story with perspective<br />
sentences (C), <strong>and</strong> permanent visual step poster (A’) for Tatsunori.<br />
Baseline Dash. This c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was identical<br />
to baseline with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> excepti<strong>on</strong> that a permanent<br />
visual step poster was added. In Sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
15, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> main teacher voluntarily developed a<br />
permanent visual support poster <strong>and</strong> posted it<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> wall over <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sink. The poster delineated<br />
each step of h<strong>and</strong>-washing, accompanied<br />
by words <strong>and</strong> illustrati<strong>on</strong>s. We classified<br />
this phase as Baseline Dash because adding<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> visual cue was not in our original plan. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> main teacher thought that using<br />
a visual cue would be a natural <strong>and</strong> universal<br />
support <strong>and</strong> planned to use <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> poster c<strong>on</strong>tinuously<br />
regardless of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Story interventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> 1. This c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was identical<br />
to Baseline Dash with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> excepti<strong>on</strong> that a<br />
Social Story was read. In this c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
main teacher was asked to introduce an SS<br />
without PS. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first sessi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> main<br />
teacher provided Tatsunori with an SS without<br />
PS <strong>and</strong> asked him to read <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story. The main<br />
teacher found that Tatsunori independently<br />
read <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story. When <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher asked him if<br />
he understood <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tent of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story, he<br />
said, “I have no questi<strong>on</strong>.” Therefore, from<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d sessi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> main teacher sat a<br />
little behind <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s shoulder <strong>and</strong> had<br />
no interacti<strong>on</strong> with him, except for saying “it<br />
is time to read” at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> beginning of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Although <strong>on</strong>e Social Story sessi<strong>on</strong> was<br />
scheduled daily, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story book was placed <strong>on</strong><br />
a shelf that allowed Tatsunori to use it at any<br />
time.<br />
Baseline Dash 2. In this phase, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> main<br />
teacher stopped providing Tatsunori with sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to read SS without PS. The teacher also<br />
eliminated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Story book from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
shelf to prevent him from accessing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> book<br />
at any time.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> 2. This c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was identical<br />
to Interventi<strong>on</strong> 1, except that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers<br />
read a Social Story from Interventi<strong>on</strong> 1 to<br />
which a perspective sentence had been added.<br />
Baseline Dash 3. After c<strong>on</strong>firming <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive<br />
effect of SS with PS <strong>on</strong> Tatsunori’s target<br />
behavior, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> main teacher withdrew <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social<br />
Story interventi<strong>on</strong>, returning to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
identical to Baseline Dash 1 <strong>and</strong> 2.<br />
Experimental Design<br />
56 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
A reversal design (AA’BA’CA’) was employed,<br />
with a baseline in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> A C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, a permanent<br />
visual step poster in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> A’ C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, an<br />
SS without PS a permanent visual step<br />
poster in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> B C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> an SS with<br />
PS a permanent visual step poster in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<br />
C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, to examine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> influence of a perspective<br />
sentence <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> occurrence of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
target behavior.
Results<br />
The results of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Story interventi<strong>on</strong> are<br />
presented in Figure 3. As illustrated, in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
first baseline c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, Tatsunori never<br />
washed his h<strong>and</strong>s with water <strong>and</strong> soap without<br />
prompts (M 1.1, Range 0 - 2). When<br />
introducing a permanent visual step support,<br />
he independently washed his h<strong>and</strong>s for two<br />
c<strong>on</strong>secutive times. However, his behavior was<br />
not stable (M 1.3, range 0 - 3), <strong>and</strong> he did<br />
not engage in h<strong>and</strong>-washing even with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teacher’s prompt in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> last two sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Initiating <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS without PS appeared to<br />
have some impact <strong>on</strong> improving his h<strong>and</strong>washing.<br />
Certainly, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> average of his correct<br />
behavior was improved (M 1.9, Range 0-<br />
3); still <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> last two sessi<strong>on</strong>s showed a downward<br />
trend. After withdrawing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS without<br />
PS, Tatsunori’s behavior was stable, averaging<br />
2.2, with a range from 2 to 3. His behavior was<br />
much more improved immediately after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
SS with PS was initiated. In almost all trials, he<br />
independently washed his h<strong>and</strong>s with soap,<br />
averaging 2.8, <strong>and</strong> ranging from 0 to 3. This<br />
effect was maintained even after withdrawing<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SS with PS (M 2.7, Range 1 - 3).<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
In Study 2, we examined <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effect of adding<br />
a perspective sentence <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behavior<br />
of a student with ADHD, with c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following three things. First, we created a<br />
perspective sentence that described a c<strong>on</strong>sequence<br />
that immediately followed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> occurrence<br />
of a target behavior <strong>and</strong> was likely to<br />
enhance <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> value of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sequence c<strong>on</strong>tingent<br />
<strong>on</strong> engaging in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behavior. Sec<strong>on</strong>d,<br />
we included sufficient sessi<strong>on</strong>s for each<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> to clarify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> trend or stability of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
data. Third, we implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> experiment<br />
when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> daily routine was not disrupted by<br />
school events.<br />
A visual inspecti<strong>on</strong> revealed that although<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Story without a perspective sentence<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributed to improving Tatsunori’s<br />
h<strong>and</strong>-washing, his target behavior did not c<strong>on</strong>stantly<br />
occur until a perspective sentence was<br />
added. The fact that positive <strong>and</strong> stable behavior<br />
change occurred immediately after an SS<br />
with PS was introduced seems to prove that<br />
adding a perspective sentence was resp<strong>on</strong>sible<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior change. Anecdotal reports<br />
from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> main teacher showed that Tatsunori<br />
said “Shut up! You always tell me to wash<br />
h<strong>and</strong>s” in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> last sessi<strong>on</strong> of Interventi<strong>on</strong> 1.<br />
However, in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first sessi<strong>on</strong> in Interventi<strong>on</strong> 2,<br />
he voluntarily informed his teacher that he<br />
had engaged in h<strong>and</strong>-washing. This episode<br />
suggests that he recognized that engaging in<br />
h<strong>and</strong>-washing was followed by positive feeling<br />
of his teacher toward him, which may have<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ed as a reinforcer. This, in turn, suggests<br />
that we successfully selected a perspective<br />
sentence that had capacity to enhance <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
value of c<strong>on</strong>sequence of h<strong>and</strong>-washing.<br />
General Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Previous research has used Social Stories<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mselves as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> independent variable, but<br />
failed to determine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effect of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> story. C<strong>on</strong>sidering that Social<br />
Stories include several types of sentences (e.g.,<br />
descriptive, perspective, directive), <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategy<br />
itself can be called “multi-comp<strong>on</strong>ent.”<br />
Unless we dem<strong>on</strong>strate empirical evidence of<br />
what is important am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> comp<strong>on</strong>ents to<br />
better change of a target behavior, we are not<br />
able to develop better Social Stories.<br />
In this study, we c<strong>on</strong>ducted a preliminary<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent analysis to narrow <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> gap between<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Story practices <strong>and</strong> existing<br />
empirical evidence. Specifically, we examined<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effect of adding perspective sentences<br />
(i.e., sentences describing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> thoughts <strong>and</strong><br />
feelings of o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs) <strong>on</strong> improving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> adaptive<br />
behaviors of students with ASD <strong>and</strong> related<br />
disabilities. The results in Study 1 suggest that<br />
Social Stories may have positive impact <strong>on</strong><br />
reducing problem behaviors even if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y do<br />
not include perspective sentences. The results<br />
of Study 2, using more rigorous design, corroborate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> suggesti<strong>on</strong> in Study 1. However,<br />
Study 2 presented <strong>on</strong>e more suggesti<strong>on</strong>: adding<br />
a perspective sentence boosted <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> improvement<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behavior if some parameters<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective sentence were<br />
changed.<br />
Specifically, in Study 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective sentence<br />
was chosen by taking into c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong><br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentence not <strong>on</strong>ly described why Tatsunori<br />
needed to engage in h<strong>and</strong>-washing but<br />
also that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentence was likely to raise <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
value of a c<strong>on</strong>sequence c<strong>on</strong>tingent <strong>on</strong> engag-<br />
Effects of Perspective Sentences / 57
ing in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behavior. To raise <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> values<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sequence, we identified <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
who were relevant to or had established rapport<br />
with Tatsunori, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n described <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
feelings <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y might experience when he engaged<br />
in appropriate behaviors, using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
phrases that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y typically used. Retrospectively,<br />
we changed three parameters in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
perspective sentence from Study 1 to Study 2:<br />
a specificity parameter, a time parameter, <strong>and</strong><br />
a likeability parameter.<br />
A specificity parameter has a c<strong>on</strong>tinuum, ranging<br />
from a specific perspective to a general<br />
perspective. Specific perspective sentences include<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> thoughts <strong>and</strong> feelings of an individual<br />
specific <strong>and</strong> relevant to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student. For<br />
example, Scatt<strong>on</strong>e et al. (2002) used “Ms Ann<br />
will be happy if I do not holler” (p. 542) in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir perspective sentences. Kuoch <strong>and</strong><br />
Mirenda (2003) used “(Interventi<strong>on</strong>ist) will be<br />
very happy to see every<strong>on</strong>e playing games <strong>and</strong><br />
having fun” “Mom will be happy if Henry eats<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> food” (p. 227).<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast, general perspective sentences<br />
describe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspectives of people in general<br />
(e.g., friends, we, people, everybody) who are not<br />
specific or relevant to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student. For example,<br />
Thiemann <strong>and</strong> Goldstein (2001) used<br />
“Friends like to show each o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r what <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are<br />
doing,” “This means <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y want to show me<br />
something, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y like it if I look” in a Social<br />
Story (p. 432). Similarly, Ivey, Heflin, <strong>and</strong> Alberto<br />
(2004) used “Usually people like to have<br />
a party to celebrate” in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir Social Story (p.<br />
170). Between <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two loci of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tinuum,<br />
“my friends” “my teachers” or “my neighbors”<br />
are placed. For example, Brownell (2002) included<br />
“If I say things that I heard <strong>on</strong> TV, my<br />
friends might not know what I’m talking<br />
about” (p. 128).<br />
With respect to a time parameter, two types of<br />
perspectives may be used: n<strong>on</strong>-c<strong>on</strong>tingent perspective<br />
<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tingent perspective. A n<strong>on</strong>c<strong>on</strong>tingent<br />
perspective uses o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs’ perspectives<br />
that might exist regardless of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> occurrence<br />
of a target behavior. For example, Thiemann<br />
<strong>and</strong> Goldstein (2001) used “Friends like playing<br />
with different toys <strong>and</strong> games,” “Friends<br />
like to show each o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r what <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are doing”<br />
(p. 432) in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir perspective sentences. These<br />
perspectives may exist regardless of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> occurrence<br />
of c<strong>on</strong>tingent resp<strong>on</strong>ses, securing attenti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
initiating comments, <strong>and</strong> initiating re-<br />
58 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
quests, which were selected as target<br />
behaviors. Similarly, a Social Story used by<br />
Lorimer et al. (2002) included “Adults like to<br />
talk” (p. 56) as a perspective sentence. These<br />
perspectives may exist regardless of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> occurrence<br />
of interrupting vocalizati<strong>on</strong> or tantrum,<br />
which was targeted to be reduced.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast, c<strong>on</strong>tingent perspectives describe<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs’ perspectives that emerge immediately<br />
following <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> occurrence or n<strong>on</strong>-occurrence<br />
of target behaviors. For example, Adams,<br />
Gouvousis, Vanlue, <strong>and</strong> Waldr<strong>on</strong> (2004) used<br />
“Mom <strong>and</strong> Dad are sad when I get upset,”<br />
“When I use my quiet voice, Mom <strong>and</strong> Dad are<br />
happy” for a perspective sentence. In this<br />
study, crying, screaming, falling, <strong>and</strong> hitting<br />
were selected as target behaviors. Similarly,<br />
Kuoch <strong>and</strong> Mirenda (2003) used “It makes<br />
people very sad when Andrew doesn’t share”<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir perspective sentences. For this participant,<br />
aggressi<strong>on</strong>, yelling, <strong>and</strong> crying were selected<br />
as target behaviors, which often followed<br />
sharing objects.<br />
Finally, a likeability parameter shows a c<strong>on</strong>tinuum<br />
of a reinforcement value of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong><br />
whose perspective is described in a Social<br />
Story, ranging from least to most valuable.<br />
Logically, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspectives of people who are<br />
not specific to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual are likely to be of<br />
less valuable to him or her. However, even<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g pers<strong>on</strong>s specific to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
value of perspective varies, depending <strong>on</strong><br />
whose perspective it is.<br />
For Taro, we used a perspective sentence<br />
(“When everybody complies with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn, everybody<br />
feels good because everybody can be fairly in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
chair”) that described <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective of people<br />
who were not highly specific (specificity<br />
parameter) <strong>and</strong> not highly valuable (likeability<br />
parameter), <strong>and</strong> that emerged c<strong>on</strong>tingent<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> occurrence of his target behaviors<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>tingency parameter). For Kenji, we used<br />
perspective sentences (“So, many people in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
hotel thought I am cool. Many people around me<br />
watch me do something <strong>and</strong> think I am cool”) that<br />
describe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective of people who were<br />
highly general (specificity parameter) <strong>and</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore, less valuable (likeablity parameter),<br />
<strong>and</strong> that existed regardless of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> occurrence<br />
of his target behaviors (c<strong>on</strong>tingent parameter).<br />
In Study 2, we used a perspective sentence<br />
(“Ms. [teacher’s name] thinks <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> is wise
when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> washes h<strong>and</strong>s after toileting. Mr.<br />
[teacher’s name] thinks <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> is cool when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
pers<strong>on</strong> washes h<strong>and</strong>s after toileting. Ms. [teacher’s<br />
name] thinks <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> is lovely when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong><br />
washes h<strong>and</strong>s after toileting”) that included a<br />
perspective of o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs who were specific (specificity<br />
parameter) <strong>and</strong> valuable (likeability parameter)<br />
to Tatsunori <strong>and</strong> that emerged c<strong>on</strong>tingent<br />
<strong>on</strong> engaging in his target behaviors<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>tingency parameter).<br />
Theoretically, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspectives of o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs<br />
who are specific <strong>and</strong> valuable to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student<br />
are more likely to be meaningful. Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rmore,<br />
describing o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs’ perspectives that occur<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tingent <strong>on</strong> a target behavior are much<br />
more helpful in underst<strong>and</strong>ing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> meaning<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior being exhibited (Gray, 2004).<br />
Therefore, using a perspective sentence describing<br />
a specific, valuable, <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tingent<br />
perspective is more likely to be effective in<br />
improving target behaviors. However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> negative<br />
side needs to be noted, too. For example,<br />
using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective of a pers<strong>on</strong> specific to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual may hinder generalizati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
behavior change. Therefore, if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> goal of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> is to enable <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual to use<br />
a skill in a variety of situati<strong>on</strong>s, using a perspective<br />
of a pers<strong>on</strong> less specific to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual<br />
may be appropriate.<br />
It cannot be emphasized enough that we<br />
did not dem<strong>on</strong>strate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
parameter change in this study. In additi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
changing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> parameters of Social Stories, we<br />
changed participants from Study 1 to Study 2.<br />
Taro <strong>and</strong> Kenji in Study 1 were diagnosed with<br />
or scored in a range of autism, whereas Tatsunori<br />
in Study 2 was diagnosed with ADHD.<br />
Adding a perspective sentence may have<br />
changed Tatsunori’s h<strong>and</strong>-washing, not because<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> parameters of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective sentences<br />
were changed to be specific, valuable,<br />
<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tingent but because he was more motivated<br />
by o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs’ perspectives than Taro <strong>and</strong><br />
Kenji, who was diagnosed with or c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
to have autism. Many more participants with<br />
autism spectrum disorders <strong>and</strong> related disabilities<br />
need to be studied to determine if using<br />
a sentence including more specific, valuable,<br />
<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tingent perspective is effective in improving<br />
any type of adaptive behaviors in any<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s. Not <strong>on</strong>ly comp<strong>on</strong>ent analyses (e.g.,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effect of perspective sentences) but also<br />
parametric analyses (e.g., <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effect of speci-<br />
ficity, c<strong>on</strong>tingency, <strong>and</strong> likeability parameters)<br />
warrant future research.<br />
References<br />
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(2004). Social Story interventi<strong>on</strong>: Improving communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
skills in a child with an autism spectrum<br />
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Bledsoe, R., Myles, B. S., & Simps<strong>on</strong>, R. L. (2003).<br />
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Brownell, M. D. (2002). Musical adapted Social Stories<br />
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Social Story interventi<strong>on</strong>: Teaching skills to children<br />
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Disabilities, 14, 82–95.<br />
Ivey, M. L., Heflin, J., & Alberto, P. (2004). The use<br />
of Social Stories to promote independent behaviors<br />
in novel events for children with PDD-NOS.<br />
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19, 164–176.<br />
Kuoch, H., & Mirenda, P. (2003). Social Story interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for young children with autism spectrum<br />
disorders. Focus <strong>on</strong> <strong>Autism</strong> <strong>and</strong> O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r Developmental<br />
Disabilities, 18, 219–227.<br />
Kuttler, S., Myles, B. S., & Carls<strong>on</strong>, J. K. (1999). The<br />
use of Social Stories to reduce precursors to tantrum<br />
behavior in a student with autism. Focus <strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>Autism</strong> <strong>and</strong> O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r Developmental Disabilities, 13,<br />
176–182.<br />
Lorimer, P. A., Simps<strong>on</strong>, R. L., Myles, B. S., & Ganz,<br />
J. B. (2002). The use of Social Stories as a preventative<br />
behavioral interventi<strong>on</strong> in a home setting<br />
with a child with autism. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g> of Positive Behavior<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong>s, 4, 53–60.<br />
Michael, J. (2000). Implicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> refinements of<br />
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Behavior Analysis, 33, 401–410.<br />
Myles, B. S., Trautman, M., & Schelvan, R. (2004).<br />
The hidden curriculum: Practical soluti<strong>on</strong>s for underst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
unstated rules in social situati<strong>on</strong>s. Shawnee<br />
Missi<strong>on</strong>, KS: <strong>Autism</strong> Asperger Publishing Co.<br />
Sansosti, F. J., Powell-Smith, K. A., & Kincaid D.<br />
(2004). A research sys<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis of social story inter-<br />
Effects of Perspective Sentences / 59
venti<strong>on</strong>s for children with autism spectrum disorders.<br />
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Scatt<strong>on</strong>e, D., Wilczynski, S. M., Edwards, R. P., &<br />
Rabian, B. (2002). Decreasing disruptive behaviors<br />
of children with autism using Social Stories.<br />
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535–543.<br />
60 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Thiemann, K. S., & Goldstein, H. (2001). Social Stories,<br />
written text cues, <strong>and</strong> video feedback: Effects<br />
<strong>on</strong> social communicati<strong>on</strong> of children with autism.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g> of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 425–446.<br />
Received: 20 May 2006<br />
Initial Acceptance: 22 July 2006<br />
Final Acceptance: 22 December 2006
Effectiveness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Picture Exchange Communicati<strong>on</strong> System<br />
as a Functi<strong>on</strong>al Communicati<strong>on</strong> Interventi<strong>on</strong> for Individuals<br />
with <strong>Autism</strong> Spectrum Disorders: A Practice-Based Research<br />
Syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis<br />
Kai-Chien Tien<br />
University of Kansas<br />
Abstract: This research syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis verifies <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Picture Exchange Communicati<strong>on</strong> System<br />
(PECS) for improving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong> skills of individuals with autism spectrum disorders<br />
(ASD). The research syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis was focused <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> degree to which variati<strong>on</strong>s in PECS training are associated<br />
with variati<strong>on</strong>s in functi<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong> outcomes (Dunst, Trivette & Cutspec, 2002). The communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences of PECS were examined in 13 studies, which included 125 participants with ASD who had<br />
been identified as having limited or no functi<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong> skills. Claims that PECS is an effective<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> for improving functi<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong> skills appeared to be supported by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> available research<br />
evidence.<br />
The purpose of this practice-based research<br />
syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis was to verify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Picture Exchange Communicati<strong>on</strong> System<br />
(PECS) for improving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
skills of individuals with autism spectrum<br />
disorders (ASD). The syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis focused<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> degree to which variati<strong>on</strong>s in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS<br />
training are associated with variati<strong>on</strong>s in functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sequences. In general<br />
terms, a practice-based research syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis<br />
differs from more traditi<strong>on</strong>al meta-analyses by<br />
systematically examining <strong>and</strong> unpacking <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
characteristics of practices that are related to<br />
differences in outcomes or c<strong>on</strong>sequences.<br />
Specifically, this type of analysis focuses more<br />
<strong>on</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>ing how <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same or similar<br />
characteristics exert <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same or similar observable<br />
effects <strong>and</strong> not solely <strong>on</strong> statistical or<br />
observati<strong>on</strong>-based relati<strong>on</strong>ships between or<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se variables. The reader is referred<br />
to Dunst et al. (2002) for a detailed explanati<strong>on</strong><br />
of this framework.<br />
Individuals diagnosed with ASD share significant<br />
deficits in communicati<strong>on</strong> (American<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cerning this article should<br />
be addressed to Kai-Chien Tien, University of Kansas,<br />
4227 Wimbled<strong>on</strong> Dr., Lawrence, KS 66047.<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2008, 43(1), 61–76<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities<br />
Psychiatric Associati<strong>on</strong>, 2000). In order to address<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> challenges of children<br />
with ASD, behavior analysts, speech-language<br />
pathologists, <strong>and</strong> special educators<br />
increasingly have turned to augmentative <strong>and</strong><br />
alternative communicati<strong>on</strong> (ACC) (Frea, Arnold,<br />
& Vittimberga, 2001). The Picture Exchange<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> System (PECS) is <strong>on</strong>e<br />
of such augmentative communicati<strong>on</strong> system<br />
designed to increase functi<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
skills <strong>and</strong> potentially provide a bridge to<br />
speech acquisiti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The Picture Exchange Communicati<strong>on</strong> System<br />
been supported by a small number of case<br />
studies <strong>and</strong> a large body of anecdotal literature<br />
(Charlop-Christy, Carpenter, Le, Le-<br />
Blanc, & Kellet, 2002; Magiati & Howlin 2003;<br />
Mirenda, 2001; Mirenda & Ericks<strong>on</strong>, 2000).<br />
Thus few published experimental studies have<br />
specifically investigated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of<br />
PECS for children with ASD or o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r developmental<br />
disabilities. Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rmore, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> majority<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> anecdotal literatures reviewing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness<br />
of PECS were c<strong>on</strong>tributed by its<br />
developers, Andy B<strong>on</strong>dy <strong>and</strong> Lori Frost.<br />
B<strong>on</strong>dy <strong>and</strong> Frost’s first published article<br />
(1993) <strong>on</strong> PECS detailed its use with children<br />
<strong>and</strong> adults with developmental disabilities.<br />
Specifically, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y described <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedures<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>al Communicati<strong>on</strong> Interventi<strong>on</strong> / 61
used to train school-based staff in Peru to use<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> system over a five-m<strong>on</strong>th period. Although<br />
no formal data were collected, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school reported<br />
that of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 74 students who received<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS training, at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> end of a 3-m<strong>on</strong>th<br />
period, 28 were working <strong>on</strong> mastering Phase I,<br />
28 were working <strong>on</strong> mastering Phases II, <strong>and</strong><br />
18 were working <strong>on</strong> mastering Phase III of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
PECS training protocol.<br />
In ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r study, B<strong>on</strong>dy <strong>and</strong> Frost (1994)<br />
reported outcomes for 85 n<strong>on</strong>communicative<br />
preschool children with ASD aged 5 years or<br />
younger. While children’s cognitive abilities<br />
were not assessed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were estimated as ranging<br />
from near-normal to profoundly disabled.<br />
Over 95% learned to use two or more pictures<br />
within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchange format; almost all<br />
learned at least <strong>on</strong>e picture within <strong>on</strong>e m<strong>on</strong>th<br />
of starting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS. For <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 66 children who<br />
used PECS for more than a year, 41 were able<br />
to use speech independently, whereas <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> remaining<br />
25 children were using a combinati<strong>on</strong><br />
of pictures or symbols <strong>and</strong> speech. All<br />
children mastered using pictures or symbols<br />
to communicate, although not all reached <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
highest levels of PECS. B<strong>on</strong>dy <strong>and</strong> Frost<br />
(1994) also presented anecdotal data from a<br />
number of single-case <strong>and</strong> small-group studies.<br />
Most indicated encouraging results in<br />
terms of increased sp<strong>on</strong>taneous communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> speech <strong>and</strong>, in some case, decreased<br />
behavioral problems.<br />
The impact of PECS <strong>on</strong> problem behaviors<br />
was also examined in several studies bey<strong>on</strong>d<br />
that of B<strong>on</strong>dy <strong>and</strong> Frost. For example, PECS<br />
was reported as an effective interventi<strong>on</strong> for a<br />
4-year-old with autism to decrease aggressive<br />
behavior in a general educati<strong>on</strong> preschool<br />
classroom (Frea et al., 2001). Dooley, Wilczenski,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Torem (2001) reported a dramatic<br />
decrease in problem behaviors <strong>and</strong> increase in<br />
compliance during transiti<strong>on</strong>s following PECS<br />
<strong>on</strong> a 3-year-old boy with a diagnosis of pervasive<br />
developmental disorders (PDD).<br />
Descripti<strong>on</strong> of PECS Practice<br />
Developed in 1985 by Andrew B<strong>on</strong>dy <strong>and</strong> Lori<br />
Frost, PECS originally was primarily used for<br />
preschool-age children with ASD <strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
social communicative disorders who displayed<br />
no functi<strong>on</strong>al or socially acceptable speech<br />
(Frost & B<strong>on</strong>dy, 2002, pp. 46). The rati<strong>on</strong>ale<br />
62 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
behind PECS is that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchange of a picture<br />
for a reinforcing item parallels <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicative<br />
exchange that takes place in typical c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong><br />
(B<strong>on</strong>dy & Frost, 1993, 1994). The<br />
PECS training is based <strong>on</strong> research <strong>and</strong> practice<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> principles of applied behavior analysis.<br />
Thus, distinct teaching strategies, reinforcement<br />
strategies, error correcti<strong>on</strong><br />
strategies <strong>and</strong> generalizati<strong>on</strong> strategies are essential<br />
for teaching each skill (see Frost &<br />
B<strong>on</strong>dy, pp. 46-47).<br />
PECS is different from o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
systems in three main ways: (a) it does not<br />
require prerequisite skills; (b) it was designed<br />
to address <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack of motivati<strong>on</strong> for social<br />
reinforcement; <strong>and</strong> (c) it immediately teaches<br />
initiating, instead of teaching resp<strong>on</strong>ding before<br />
initiating (B<strong>on</strong>dy & Frost, 1994). The<br />
PECS training c<strong>on</strong>sists of six phases, which will<br />
be described in detail in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following.<br />
Phase I–“How” to Communicate. In this<br />
phase, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> terminal objective is that up<strong>on</strong> seeing<br />
a “highly preferred” item, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child will<br />
pick up a picture of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> item, reach toward <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
communicative partner, <strong>and</strong> release <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture<br />
into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> trainer’s h<strong>and</strong> (Frost & B<strong>on</strong>dy,<br />
2002, pp. 67). One trainer entices <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child<br />
with an object that is highly desired. As <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
child reaches for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> desired object, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
trainer, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitator, physically assists<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child in picking up a picture for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> desired<br />
object. The first trainer immediately<br />
gives <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child a reward al<strong>on</strong>g with an appropriate<br />
comment, such as “Oh, you want<br />
M&M!” when he/she receives <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture.<br />
Phase II – Distance <strong>and</strong> Persistence. In this<br />
stage, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchange c<strong>on</strong>tinues with attempts<br />
to increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child’s independence. Thus,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> terminal objective is that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child goes to<br />
his communicati<strong>on</strong> book where his picture is<br />
stored, pulls <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture off, goes to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
trainer, gets <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> trainer’s attenti<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> releases<br />
he picture into he trainer’s h<strong>and</strong> (Frost<br />
& B<strong>on</strong>dy, 2002, pp. 93).The child now is encouraged<br />
to use greater sp<strong>on</strong>taneity <strong>and</strong> persistence,<br />
<strong>and</strong> to generalize <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> skill he acquired.<br />
The facilitator is still available for asneeded<br />
assistance. Thus, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child learns to<br />
remove <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture from a display board for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchange <strong>and</strong> must engage in more physical<br />
movement than in Phrase I in order to<br />
accomplish <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchange. However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child
is still encountering <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e symbol <strong>on</strong> a<br />
board at any <strong>on</strong>e time.<br />
Phase III – Picture Discriminati<strong>on</strong>. The terminal<br />
object for this phase is that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child<br />
requests desired items by going to a communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
book, selecting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriate pictures<br />
from an array, <strong>and</strong> going to a communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
partner <strong>and</strong> giving him/her <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture<br />
(Frost & B<strong>on</strong>dy, 2002, pp.123). In this stage<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child is asked to discriminate between several<br />
items <strong>on</strong> a board, choosing which item he<br />
wants, or which activities he wants to try. The<br />
child begins by answering forms of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong><br />
“What do you want?” but <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se are faded<br />
quickly so <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child will make choices sp<strong>on</strong>taneously<br />
as well as in resp<strong>on</strong>se to a questi<strong>on</strong>. As<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child becomes more comfortable making<br />
discriminati<strong>on</strong>s, a third item may be added,<br />
<strong>and</strong> so <strong>on</strong>.<br />
Phase IV – Sentence Structure. The terminal<br />
objective is that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child requests present <strong>and</strong><br />
n<strong>on</strong>-present items using a multi-word phrase<br />
by going to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> book, picking up a picture/<br />
symbol of “I want,” putting it <strong>on</strong> a sentence<br />
strip, picking out <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture of what she<br />
wants, putting it <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentence strip, removing<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> strip from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> board,<br />
<strong>and</strong> finally approaching <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicative<br />
partner <strong>and</strong> giving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentence strip to him<br />
(Frost & B<strong>on</strong>dy, 2002, pp.159). Thus, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
child is taught to combine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> object picture<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> carrier phrase “I want” <strong>on</strong> a sentence<br />
strip <strong>and</strong> to give <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> strip to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> adult or<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> partner. The two pictures are<br />
attached to a sentence strip <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> entire<br />
strip is exchanged with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicative<br />
partner in return for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pictured item.<br />
Phase V – Resp<strong>on</strong>ding to “What do you want?”<br />
In this stage <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child learns to resp<strong>on</strong>d to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
questi<strong>on</strong> “What do you want?” by exchanging<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentence strip. Thus, this phase extends<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentence structure begun in Phase IV. Use<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong>ing phrase is deliberately delayed<br />
until this phase because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchange<br />
behavior should be automatic by that point in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> programming sequence (Frost & B<strong>on</strong>dy,<br />
2002, pp. 209). Adjectives <strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r words<br />
may be added to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child’s repertoire to help<br />
her fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r refine her requests.<br />
Phase VI – Commenting. In this finial stage,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child learns to resp<strong>on</strong>d to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
“What do you want?” “What do you see?”<br />
“What do you have?” This phase makes a fun-<br />
damental shift in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child’s communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> expected outcome from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teachers or peers. That is, it is designed to<br />
introduce <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child to commenting behavior,<br />
while <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> previous stages focused <strong>on</strong> requesting<br />
behavior. Through <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of pictures for<br />
“I see,” “I hear,” “I smell,” etc., <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child is<br />
taught to comment <strong>on</strong> elements of his/her<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
Search Strategy<br />
Search Terms<br />
Relevant studies were identified by using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
keywords “PECS” <strong>and</strong> “Picture Exchange<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> System.” The term “autism”<br />
was used to fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r restrict <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> search. Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r,<br />
an author search was c<strong>on</strong>ducted using<br />
“Andy B<strong>on</strong>dy” <strong>and</strong> “Lori Frost.”<br />
Sources<br />
A computer-assisted bibliographic search was<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted. The Psychological Abstracts (PsycINFO),<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong>al Resources Informati<strong>on</strong><br />
Center (ERIC) database, Exp<strong>and</strong>ed Academic<br />
ASAP, Wils<strong>on</strong> OmniFile, MEDLINE, Dissertati<strong>on</strong><br />
Abstract Online, Center for Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> Research Informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Exchange<br />
(CIRRIE), <strong>and</strong> REHABDATA were <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
primary informati<strong>on</strong> databases searched for<br />
relevant studies. An <strong>on</strong>line search of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Internet<br />
via <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Google search engine was also<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted. The reference lists of all acquired<br />
sources were also reviewed. In additi<strong>on</strong>, h<strong>and</strong><br />
searches were completed for journal articles,<br />
book chapters, <strong>and</strong> books to locate additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
studies of PECS that may have been omitted<br />
from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bibliographic search findings. Finally,<br />
repeated sweeps of various sources were<br />
made until no fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r studies could be located.<br />
Selecti<strong>on</strong> Criteria<br />
Studies were included in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis<br />
if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y met all <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following criteria: (a) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
focus of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study was to establish <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness<br />
of PECS for improving functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> skills; (b) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS training<br />
was described in sufficient detail to ascertain<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong> applied in a review study<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>al Communicati<strong>on</strong> Interventi<strong>on</strong> / 63
was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong> described<br />
under Descripti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Practice; (c) individuals<br />
involved in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study were diagnosed with<br />
ASD; (d) communicati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sequences were<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> major outcome measured; <strong>and</strong> (e) articles<br />
were written in English.<br />
Exclusi<strong>on</strong> criteria. It was necessary to exclude<br />
<strong>on</strong> study (Cummings & Williams, 2000)<br />
that appeared to have met all <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> inclusi<strong>on</strong><br />
criteria during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> initial phase of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> search<br />
process. Close inspecti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study revealed<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS training was <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e comp<strong>on</strong>ent<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> treatment so as to warrant its<br />
exclusi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Search Results<br />
Eleven articles, including 13 studies <strong>and</strong> 125<br />
participants, met <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> selecti<strong>on</strong> criteria <strong>and</strong><br />
were included in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis. Table<br />
1 shows selected characteristics of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants.<br />
Table 2 lists <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research designs used<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies, dependent measures, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
characteristics of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Participants<br />
The 125 participants who participated in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
studies all exhibited limited or no functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> skills (see Table 1). Ages<br />
ranged from <strong>on</strong>e to twelve years old at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
baseline assessment. Participants’ gender was<br />
reported in 10 of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies (77%). The vast<br />
majority (65%) of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants were reported<br />
as males (female 36, male 68).<br />
Across all <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies, participants’ ethnicity<br />
was <strong>on</strong>ly reported in three studies (Charlop-<br />
Christy et al., 2002; Ganz & Simps<strong>on</strong>, 2004;<br />
Tincani, 2004).<br />
Participants’ language age was reported in<br />
five studies (36%); however, different methods<br />
were used for assessment <strong>and</strong> reporting.<br />
Eight studies (57%) did not report participants’<br />
language age, but provided descripti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir speech abilities (Adkins & Axelrod,<br />
2002; Ganz & Simps<strong>on</strong>, 2004; Heneker &<br />
Page, 2003; Liddle, 2001; Schwartz, Garfinkle,<br />
& Bauer, 1998; Tincani, 2004). In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two<br />
studies (Charlop-Christy et al., 2002; J<strong>on</strong>es,<br />
2005) that specifically reported expressive <strong>and</strong><br />
receptive language ages, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants’ expressive<br />
language ages ranged from 1.2 to 1.8<br />
years, with a mean age of 1.4; <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants’<br />
receptive language ages ranged from 1.8 to<br />
1.9 years, with a mean age of 1.9 years.<br />
Participants’ developmental age was reported<br />
in three studies (Anders<strong>on</strong>, 2002; Ganz<br />
& Simps<strong>on</strong>, 2004; Kravits, Kamps, Kemmerer,<br />
& Potucek, 2002), but different methods were<br />
used for assessment <strong>and</strong> reporting. One study<br />
(Tincani, 2004) reported participants’ st<strong>and</strong>ardized<br />
intelligence scores <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Developmental<br />
Profile-II. Nine studies (64%) did not<br />
report any IQ, developmental ages, or o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
related informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> participants; however,<br />
<strong>on</strong>e study (Schwartz et al., 1998) indicated<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants were identified as having<br />
cognitive delays.<br />
Research Designs<br />
64 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Table 2 summarizes <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research design employed<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies included in this syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis.<br />
Twelve studies (92%) used single-participant<br />
designs. One study used a retrospective<br />
analysis of archival data to examine pre-/postinterventi<strong>on</strong><br />
outcomes (Schwartz et al., 1998).<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 12 studies employing single-participant<br />
designs, four types of research designs<br />
were employed. First of all, an AB or a variati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> design was used in four studies<br />
(Ganz & Simps<strong>on</strong>, 2004; Heneker & Page,<br />
2003; Magiati & Howlin, 2003). Sec<strong>on</strong>d, two<br />
studies employed multiple-baseline design<br />
across participants (Charlop-Christy et al.,<br />
2002; J<strong>on</strong>es, 2005) while <strong>on</strong>e study used multiple-baseline<br />
designed across settings (Kravits<br />
et al., 2002). Third, two studies used a changing-criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
design to eliminate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need to<br />
withdraw <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> include several<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>s subphases (Ganz & Simps<strong>on</strong>;<br />
Liddle, 2001). Last, an alternating-treatments<br />
design was employed in three studies comparing<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of PECS <strong>and</strong> sign language<br />
training (Adkins & Axelrod, 2002;<br />
Anders<strong>on</strong>, 2002; Tincani, 2004).<br />
Three of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 12 single-participant studies<br />
(25%) reported follow-up data after post treatment<br />
(Charlop-Christy et al., 2002; J<strong>on</strong>es,<br />
2005; Schwartz et al., 1998). Length of time<br />
between post-treatment <strong>and</strong> follow-up ranged<br />
from 1 m<strong>on</strong>th to 12 m<strong>on</strong>ths. Two studies c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
by Heneker <strong>and</strong> Page (2003) reported<br />
follow-up results but did not provide data.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, all 12 single-participant studies<br />
employed outcome measures that require ob-
TABLE 1<br />
Characteristic of Participants<br />
Study N a<br />
Gender<br />
M F<br />
Ethnicity<br />
Chr<strong>on</strong>ological<br />
Age<br />
(years:m<strong>on</strong>ths)<br />
Adkins & Axelrod<br />
(2002) 1 1 0 N/A* 7<br />
Anders<strong>on</strong> (2002) 6 4 2 N/A 2–4<br />
Charlop-Christy<br />
et al. (2002)<br />
Ganz & Simps<strong>on</strong><br />
(2004)<br />
Heneker & Page<br />
(2003)<br />
3 3 0<br />
3 2 1<br />
a. Ethiopian-<br />
American<br />
b. Chinese-<br />
American<br />
c. Korean-<br />
American<br />
a. Asian<br />
b. African-<br />
American<br />
c. Caucasian<br />
3:8–12<br />
3:9–7:2<br />
Language Age<br />
(years:m<strong>on</strong>ths)/<br />
O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r Info.<br />
Developmental<br />
Age/IQ/<br />
O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r Info. Diagnosis<br />
No functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
language N/A PDD b <strong>and</strong> ADHD c<br />
0:8–1:6<br />
(CDI d<br />
Producti<strong>on</strong>)<br />
0:8–1:4<br />
(CDI<br />
Comprehensi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
1:2<br />
(MCDI e Expressive)<br />
1:9<br />
(PPVT f Receptive)<br />
0:10–1:6<br />
(VABS g<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Domain)<br />
No functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
language<br />
N/A N/A N/A 1–3<br />
No functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
language<br />
N/A N/A N/A 4–5 Limited functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
language<br />
J<strong>on</strong>es (2005) 5 3 2 N/A 5:1–8:2<br />
Kravits et al.<br />
(2002)<br />
1 0 1 N/A 6<br />
Liddle (2001) 21 N/A N/A N/A<br />
Magiati &Howlin<br />
(2003)<br />
Schwartz et al.<br />
(1998)<br />
34 29 5 N/A 5–10:6<br />
31 22 9 N/A 3–6<br />
0:10–1:10<br />
(VABS Adaptive<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong>)<br />
1:9–1:11<br />
(PPVT Receptive)<br />
1:4–1:10<br />
(PLSh Expressive)<br />
27% rank<br />
(WPPSI-R i Verbal<br />
Behavior)<br />
Limited or no<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
language<br />
0:8–2:8<br />
(VABS<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Domain)<br />
Limited or no<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
skills<br />
1:3–1:7<br />
Years<br />
(Bayley)<br />
a. <strong>Autism</strong><br />
b. PDD<br />
N/A <strong>Autism</strong><br />
0:7 Years<br />
(VABS)<br />
for 1 child.<br />
2:4 Years<br />
(Battelle)<br />
for<br />
1 child,<br />
N/A for<br />
1 child<br />
N/A <strong>Autism</strong><br />
N/A <strong>Autism</strong><br />
N/A <strong>Autism</strong><br />
2:8 Years<br />
(VABS)<br />
2–2:5 Years<br />
(PEP-Rj )<br />
N/A<br />
a. <strong>Autism</strong><br />
b. Developmental<br />
delay with autistic<br />
characteristics<br />
c. Developmental<br />
delay <strong>and</strong> speech/<br />
language impairment<br />
<strong>Autism</strong><br />
N/A <strong>Autism</strong><br />
Cognitive<br />
delay<br />
18 3 15 N/A 3:3–5:11 N<strong>on</strong>verbal N/A<br />
a. <strong>Autism</strong><br />
b. Severe learning<br />
disabilities<br />
a. <strong>Autism</strong><br />
b. PDD-NOS k<br />
c. O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r develomental<br />
disabilities<br />
a. <strong>Autism</strong><br />
b. O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
developmental<br />
disabilities<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>al Communicati<strong>on</strong> Interventi<strong>on</strong> / 65
TABLE 1—(C<strong>on</strong>tinued)<br />
Study N a<br />
Tincani<br />
(2004)<br />
Gender<br />
M F<br />
2 1 1<br />
servati<strong>on</strong>al coding. Interrater reliability data<br />
were <strong>on</strong>ly presented in eight of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies<br />
(67%), 5 studies (Adkins & Axelrod, 2002;<br />
Heneker & Page, 2003; Liddle, 2001; Magiati &<br />
Howlin, 2003) did not report reliability data.<br />
Characteristics of Applicati<strong>on</strong> of PECS<br />
Ethnicity<br />
a. African-<br />
American<br />
b. Asian-<br />
American<br />
PECS was delivered in a variety of natural<br />
settings, such as homes <strong>and</strong> schools, across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
13 studies. With two excepti<strong>on</strong>s, interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
agents were reported (85%). PECS was implemented<br />
specifically by experimenters or<br />
trained pers<strong>on</strong>nel in three studies (Adkins &<br />
Axelrod, 2002; Charlop-Christy et al., 2002;<br />
Ganz & Simps<strong>on</strong>, 2004), while <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> remaining<br />
eight studies utilized teachers or parents as<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong> deliverers.<br />
Selected characteristics of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
implemented in each study are also presented<br />
in Table 2. As illustrated, nine studies<br />
indicated how many phases of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS training<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>ducted; <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> remaining studies did not<br />
(Adkins & Axelrod, 2002; Heneker & Page,<br />
2003; Schwartz et al., 1998). In five of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies<br />
that indicated PECS phases, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants received<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> entire six phases of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS training.<br />
The remaining four studies (Anders<strong>on</strong>,<br />
2002; Ganz & Simps<strong>on</strong>, 2004; Kravits et al., 2002;<br />
Chr<strong>on</strong>ological<br />
Age<br />
(years:m<strong>on</strong>ths)<br />
5:10–6:8<br />
Total 125 68 36 1–12<br />
a<br />
Number of participants.<br />
b<br />
Pervasive developmental disorder.<br />
c<br />
Attenti<strong>on</strong> deficit hyperactivity disorder.<br />
d<br />
MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory.<br />
e<br />
Minnesota Child developmental Inventory.<br />
f<br />
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test.<br />
g<br />
Vinel<strong>and</strong> Adaptive Behavior Scales.<br />
h<br />
Preschool Language Scale.<br />
i<br />
Wechsler Preschool <strong>and</strong> Primary Scale of Intelligence.<br />
j<br />
Psychoeducati<strong>on</strong>al Profile-Revised.<br />
k<br />
Pervasive developmental disorder-not o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rwise specified.<br />
* N/A Informati<strong>on</strong> not available in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> article.<br />
Tincani, 2004) reported that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants<br />
received three or four phases of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> training.<br />
Treatment fidelity. Informati<strong>on</strong> regarding<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fidelity of treatment implementati<strong>on</strong> was<br />
reported in all <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies. However, fidelity data<br />
were <strong>on</strong>ly reported in three studies; <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> remaining<br />
studies (77%) just stated that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> treatment<br />
was implemented according to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedures<br />
described in The Picture Exchange Communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
System Training Manual (Adkins & Axelrod,<br />
2002; Charlop-Christy et al., 2002; Ganz & Simps<strong>on</strong>,<br />
2004; Kravits et al., 2002; Schwartz et al.,<br />
1998) or that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementers were formally<br />
trained to use PECS (Heneker & Page, 2003;<br />
Liddle; 2001; Magiati & Howlin, 2003). In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
three studies that reported fidelity data, two independent<br />
observers coded sessi<strong>on</strong>s or sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
videotapes to establish <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> implements’ degree<br />
of adherence to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> treatment manual c<strong>on</strong>tent<br />
(Anders<strong>on</strong>, 2002; J<strong>on</strong>es, 2005; Tincani, 2004).<br />
For those three studies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean interobserver<br />
agreement for treatment fidelity was 93.86%<br />
(range from 91.675 to 96.8%).<br />
Outcomes<br />
Language Age<br />
(years:m<strong>on</strong>ths)/<br />
O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r Info.<br />
66 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
No functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
language<br />
Developmental<br />
Age/IQ/<br />
O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r Info. Diagnosis<br />
54IQ<br />
(Developmental<br />
ProfileII)<br />
for1child,<br />
N/Afor1child<br />
<strong>Autism</strong><br />
Participants’ communicati<strong>on</strong> outcomes were<br />
measured in all <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies using a range of<br />
data collecti<strong>on</strong> methods <strong>and</strong> a range of re-
TABLE 2<br />
Characteristics of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Research Designs <strong>and</strong> Interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Study<br />
Adkins &<br />
Axelrod<br />
(2002)<br />
Anders<strong>on</strong><br />
(2002)<br />
Charlop-Christy<br />
et al. (2002)<br />
Ganz &<br />
Simps<strong>on</strong><br />
(2004)<br />
Heneker &<br />
Page (2003)<br />
J<strong>on</strong>es (2005)<br />
Kravits et al.<br />
(2002)<br />
Liddle (2001)<br />
Research<br />
Design a Dependent Measures<br />
(S)<br />
Alternative<br />
treatments<br />
(S)<br />
Alternative<br />
treatments<br />
(S)<br />
Multiple<br />
baseline<br />
(S)<br />
Changing<br />
criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
(S)<br />
O 1XO 2O 3<br />
(S)<br />
O 1XO 2O 3<br />
(S)<br />
Multiple<br />
baseline<br />
(S)<br />
Multiple<br />
baseline<br />
(S)<br />
Changing<br />
criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
a. Correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
b. Mastery rate<br />
c. Most preferred<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ding<br />
technique<br />
a. Correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
b. Mastery rate<br />
c. Frequency of<br />
initiati<strong>on</strong><br />
d. Behavior<br />
e. Eye c<strong>on</strong>tact<br />
f. Vocalizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
a. Spoken language<br />
b. Socialcommunicative<br />
behavior<br />
c. Problem behavior<br />
a. PECS acquisiti<strong>on</strong><br />
b. Intelligible words<br />
c. N<strong>on</strong>-word<br />
vocalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
a. Amount of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
b. Functi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
c. Methods of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
d. Level of adult<br />
support<br />
a. Amount of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
b. Functi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
c. Methods of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
d. Level of adult<br />
support<br />
a. Sp<strong>on</strong>taneous<br />
requests<br />
b. Time delay<br />
c. Generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
The frequency of<br />
sp<strong>on</strong>taneous<br />
language<br />
sp<strong>on</strong>dents. The majority of communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
outcomes were measured through two individual<br />
observati<strong>on</strong> reports or through observa-<br />
Natural<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
Setting<br />
PECS acquisiti<strong>on</strong> Y<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
Agent<br />
PECS<br />
Phase<br />
Average<br />
Length of<br />
Follow-up Fidelity b Reliability<br />
Y Experimenters N/A* N/A M N/A<br />
N N/A I–III N/A M, O Y<br />
Y Therapists I–VI<br />
10<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths<br />
M Y<br />
Y Experimenters I–IV N/A M Y<br />
Y Teachers N/A<br />
Y Teachers N/A<br />
10<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths<br />
6<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths<br />
C N/A<br />
C N/A<br />
Y N/A I–VI 1 m<strong>on</strong>th C, O Y<br />
Y<br />
Teachers<br />
Mo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
Teachers<br />
Speech <strong>and</strong><br />
language<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rapist<br />
I–III N/A M Y<br />
I–VI N/A C N/A<br />
ti<strong>on</strong>al coding of sessi<strong>on</strong>s videotapes by two<br />
independent observers. Outcomes assessed included<br />
(a) observer reports of mastery rate of<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>al Communicati<strong>on</strong> Interventi<strong>on</strong> / 67
TABLE 2—(C<strong>on</strong>tinued)<br />
Study<br />
Magiati &<br />
Howlin<br />
(2003)<br />
Schwartz et al.<br />
(1998)<br />
Tincani (2004)<br />
PECS acquisiti<strong>on</strong>, (b) frequency of sp<strong>on</strong>taneous<br />
requests initiated by participants, (c)<br />
method <strong>and</strong> functi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants’ communicati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> (d) number of pictures <strong>and</strong><br />
spoken words used by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants following<br />
introducti<strong>on</strong> of PECS. In additi<strong>on</strong>, participants’<br />
behavior outcomes were measured in<br />
three studies, Anders<strong>on</strong> (2002), Charlop-<br />
Christy et al. (2002), <strong>and</strong> Magiati <strong>and</strong> Howlin<br />
(2003). The behavior outcomes examined included<br />
frequency of problem behaviors participants<br />
engaged in <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> incidence of frustrati<strong>on</strong><br />
showed by participants.<br />
Syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis Findings<br />
Research<br />
Design a Dependent Measures<br />
(S)<br />
O 1XO 2O 3<br />
Qualitative<br />
research<br />
(S)<br />
XO 1O 2O 3<br />
O 4<br />
(S)<br />
Alternative<br />
treatments<br />
Table 3 summarizes <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> findings of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis<br />
regarding <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> outcomes<br />
of PECS reported across studies. The<br />
summary includes a descripti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> influence<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS training <strong>on</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
outcomes as reported in each<br />
study. In additi<strong>on</strong>, it c<strong>on</strong>tains informati<strong>on</strong><br />
about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> degree to which change in communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
status was dem<strong>on</strong>strated as a direct<br />
result of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS training. As illustrated,<br />
Natural<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
Setting<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
Agent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was little variati<strong>on</strong> across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 13 studies<br />
regarding <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> specificity of documenting appropriate<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> of PECS.<br />
For purposes of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis, studies that<br />
lacked data dem<strong>on</strong>strating implementers’<br />
mastery of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS skills were categorized as<br />
having Low Specificity (N 0; 0 %). Studies<br />
that provided evidence of implementers’ mastery<br />
of PECS skills but did not report any<br />
treatment-fidelity procedures were categorized<br />
as having Moderate Specificity (N 9;<br />
69%). Finally, studies that provided data regarding<br />
implementers’ skill mastery <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
treatment fidelity procedures used were classified<br />
as High Specificity studies (N 4; 31%).<br />
The studies with High Specificity provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
str<strong>on</strong>gest evidence that change in communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
outcomes were a direct c<strong>on</strong>sequence of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS training.<br />
Results<br />
PECS<br />
Phase<br />
Average<br />
Length of<br />
Follow-up Fidelity b Reliability<br />
PECS acquisiti<strong>on</strong> Y Teachers I–VI 6 m<strong>on</strong>ths C N/A<br />
PECS acquisiti<strong>on</strong> Y Teachers I–VI N/A M N/A<br />
a. Sp<strong>on</strong>taneous<br />
speech<br />
b. Communicative<br />
forms<br />
c. Communicative<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
d. Communicative<br />
acts<br />
a. Motor imitati<strong>on</strong><br />
b. M<strong>and</strong>s<br />
c. Word vocalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
Y Teachers N/A<br />
12<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths<br />
M Y<br />
Y Experimenters I–III N/A O Y<br />
* N/A Informati<strong>on</strong> not available in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> article.<br />
a (S) Single subject, O Different assessment phases of a study, X PECS interventi<strong>on</strong> phase of study.<br />
b M Implementer used interventi<strong>on</strong> manual c<strong>on</strong>taining strategies of PECS, C Implementer dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
mastery of strategies to acceptable criteri<strong>on</strong>, O Objective observer coded observati<strong>on</strong>s for adherence<br />
to PECS during sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
c Y Reliability data reported.<br />
68 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sequence. Across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
studies, participants who received <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS<br />
training experienced positive gains in functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> skills. Thus, communi-
TABLE 3<br />
Major Findings<br />
Study Communicati<strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>sequences O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r C<strong>on</strong>sequences<br />
Adkins & Axelrod<br />
(2002)<br />
Anders<strong>on</strong> (2002)<br />
The use of PECS produced<br />
a better acquisiti<strong>on</strong> rate,<br />
more sp<strong>on</strong>taneous<br />
usage, <strong>and</strong> a higher<br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> rate than<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of sign language<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child with PDD.<br />
PECS was a more effective<br />
method for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child<br />
with PDD, <strong>and</strong> it<br />
generalized under<br />
different c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
PECS was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> preferred<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se method used<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child.<br />
The child began to imitate<br />
some sounds <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>esyllable<br />
words<br />
For <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> majority of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
children, rates of<br />
acquisiti<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> were<br />
uniformly faster than<br />
rates of acquisiti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sign language<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
All of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
mastered more items in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> than<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sign language<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
All <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
PECS c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>; four<br />
out of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> six children<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated skill<br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sign language c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Three of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
appeared to behaviorally<br />
prefer PECS; <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
three children appeared<br />
to behaviorally prefer<br />
sign language.<br />
All <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children initiated<br />
with PECS more often<br />
than with sign language<br />
when both modalities<br />
were available.<br />
The three children who<br />
appeared to prefer sign<br />
language initiated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
greatest number of sign<br />
trials during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> free<br />
choices without PECS<br />
probes.<br />
The child appeared to be able<br />
to achieve corresp<strong>on</strong>dence<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> presented object.<br />
Five of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> six children<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated more eye<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tact in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sign language<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> than in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Several children began<br />
vocalizing during treatment<br />
in both <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sign language<br />
<strong>and</strong> PECS c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> three children<br />
who vocalized during<br />
correct resp<strong>on</strong>ding did so<br />
significantly more often in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sign language c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
than in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Tantrum <strong>and</strong> avoidance<br />
behaviors decreased for all<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children in both PECS<br />
<strong>and</strong> sign language<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Three of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> six participants<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated significant<br />
increases in positive affect<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sign language<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, while <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e<br />
significant increase was<br />
found in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Two children dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
more self-stimulati<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sign language c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
while two children engaged<br />
in significantly more selfstimulated<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Report of<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> a<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
PECS b<br />
Y M<br />
Y H<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>al Communicati<strong>on</strong> Interventi<strong>on</strong> / 69
TABLE 3—(C<strong>on</strong>tinued)<br />
Study Communicati<strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>sequences O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r C<strong>on</strong>sequences<br />
Charlop-Christy<br />
et al. (2002)<br />
Ganz &<br />
Simps<strong>on</strong><br />
(2004)<br />
Heneker &<br />
Page (2003)<br />
All <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
approximately 30.7 more<br />
sp<strong>on</strong>taneous initiati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
per hour if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were<br />
using sign language than<br />
if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were using PECS.<br />
All three children mastered<br />
PECS use within a<br />
relatively short time.<br />
All children showed<br />
increases in sp<strong>on</strong>taneous/<br />
imitati<strong>on</strong> speech <strong>and</strong><br />
mean length of utterance.<br />
All children had collateral<br />
gain in socialcommunicative<br />
behavior,<br />
such as joint attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> eye c<strong>on</strong>tact, following<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS training.<br />
All three children made<br />
progress in mastery of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
PECS system <strong>and</strong><br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated increases in<br />
average intelligible words<br />
spoken per trial.<br />
All participants began Phase<br />
I without word utterances<br />
or speaking in <strong>on</strong>e-word<br />
utterances <strong>and</strong> ended<br />
phase IV speaking threeto<br />
four-word-phases.<br />
All three children began<br />
using l<strong>on</strong>ger phrases <strong>and</strong><br />
speaking with more<br />
complex syntax by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
end of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS training.<br />
One child showed a<br />
decrease in n<strong>on</strong>-word<br />
vocalizati<strong>on</strong>s, while <strong>on</strong>e<br />
child showed an increase.<br />
The third <strong>on</strong>e appeared<br />
relatively stable.<br />
The children were using<br />
more sophisticated forms<br />
of communicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
need less prompting to do<br />
so.<br />
Requesting was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> main<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The children were observed<br />
to use symbols as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
main methods of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The children appeared to<br />
have learned <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
importance of needing<br />
somebody’s attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
before communicating<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m.<br />
A 70% or greater reducti<strong>on</strong> was<br />
observed for 10 of 12<br />
problem behaviors, <strong>and</strong> four<br />
problem behaviors were<br />
eliminated.<br />
The children did not show an<br />
increase in sp<strong>on</strong>taneously<br />
gaining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> adult’s attenti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The children appeared to show<br />
less frustrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> were able<br />
to accept <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
could not always have what<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y had asked for.<br />
70 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Report of<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> a<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
PECS b<br />
N M<br />
Y M<br />
Y M
TABLE 3—(C<strong>on</strong>tinued)<br />
Study Communicati<strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>sequences O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r C<strong>on</strong>sequences<br />
J<strong>on</strong>es (2005)<br />
The children were<br />
sp<strong>on</strong>taneously attempting to<br />
exchange <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> symbols in 95%<br />
of cases.<br />
Requesting was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> main<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> of communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The children were observed to<br />
move towards using more<br />
formal methods of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> across all<br />
c<strong>on</strong>texts.<br />
Sp<strong>on</strong>taneous exchange<br />
occurred <strong>on</strong> average 96% of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time for all interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that involved a symbol.<br />
The PECS training was highly<br />
successful for three of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> five<br />
children. They learned to use<br />
target utterances, made gains<br />
in length <strong>and</strong> variability of<br />
sp<strong>on</strong>taneous utterances,<br />
generalized those gains across<br />
items <strong>and</strong> people, <strong>and</strong><br />
maintained those gains.<br />
One of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> five children<br />
showed <strong>on</strong>ly minimal change<br />
(no generalizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> no<br />
change in variability) in<br />
sp<strong>on</strong>taneous speech. The<br />
remaining <strong>on</strong>e did not show<br />
gains in sp<strong>on</strong>taneity, but did<br />
show important gains in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
prerequisite skill of imitati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Four out of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> five children<br />
showed an increase in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
mean length of utterances for<br />
training items after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS<br />
training.<br />
Three children showed an<br />
increase in word variati<strong>on</strong><br />
during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS <strong>and</strong> timedelay<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. One child<br />
showed no increases in new<br />
word use after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
preliminary increases seen in<br />
baseline, while <strong>on</strong>e child<br />
introduced new words during<br />
each of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedural phases<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study <strong>and</strong> followup.<br />
Four of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> five children began<br />
to use target utterances<br />
sp<strong>on</strong>taneously during PECS<br />
<strong>and</strong> time-delay sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Only<br />
<strong>on</strong>e maintained this ability<br />
during followup, <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
<strong>on</strong>e generalized this ability<br />
across communicative<br />
partners.<br />
One child significantly<br />
increased his ability to<br />
expressively label attributes;<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> remaining four children<br />
remained level through<br />
PECS.<br />
The children showed an<br />
increase in sp<strong>on</strong>taneously<br />
gaining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> adult’s attenti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Two children increased <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
ability to imitate target<br />
utterances, while <strong>on</strong>e child<br />
decreased her ability to<br />
imitate.<br />
Report of<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> a<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
PECS b<br />
N M<br />
Y H<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>al Communicati<strong>on</strong> Interventi<strong>on</strong> / 71
TABLE 3—(C<strong>on</strong>tinued)<br />
Study Communicati<strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>sequences O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r C<strong>on</strong>sequences<br />
Kravits et al.<br />
(2002)<br />
Liddle (2001)<br />
Magiati &<br />
Howlin<br />
(2003)<br />
The child dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
successful use of PECS.<br />
The child’s sp<strong>on</strong>taneous<br />
language, which includes<br />
verbalizati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> ic<strong>on</strong><br />
use, increased with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The child dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
significantly more<br />
initiati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
verbalizati<strong>on</strong>s during<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s than<br />
during baseline sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The child did not<br />
significantly increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
range of spoken<br />
vocabulary during<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The durati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child’s<br />
peer interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
significantly increased.<br />
Twenty of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
learned to use PECS to<br />
request items, <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e<br />
child failed to achieve<br />
phase I.<br />
Eleven out of 20 children<br />
who learned to use PECS<br />
learned to use sentence<br />
strips to request items.<br />
The remaining nine<br />
children improved in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir ability to interact<br />
with o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs by being able<br />
to initiate requesting.<br />
Nine out of 21 children<br />
were been observed to<br />
have increased <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
attempts at spoken<br />
language.<br />
The children showed<br />
significant improvements<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir use of PECS, with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> level of PECS,<br />
frequency of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS<br />
use, <strong>and</strong> extent of PECS<br />
vocabulary all increasing<br />
over time.<br />
The children were found to<br />
show an improvement in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir overall level of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>. There<br />
were increases in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
children’s use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r forms of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>, such as<br />
signs/gestures, spoken<br />
words <strong>and</strong> phrases.<br />
Changes in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> less speech<br />
group were slow to occur,<br />
but became marked over<br />
time. For children with<br />
higher level of speech<br />
large gains occurred<br />
initially, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se tended<br />
to be plateau out.<br />
There was a significant<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children’s<br />
total score <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Riml<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Autism</strong> treatment Evaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
Check-list (from a mean of<br />
74.9, SD 20.98 to 65.1, SD<br />
20.89, t 3.91, p .001),<br />
indicating an overall<br />
improvement in problem<br />
behaviors.<br />
72 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Report of<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> a<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
PECS b<br />
Y M<br />
Y M<br />
Y M
TABLE 3—(C<strong>on</strong>tinued)<br />
Study Communicati<strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>sequences O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r C<strong>on</strong>sequences<br />
Schwartz et al.<br />
(1998)<br />
Tincani (2004)<br />
cative behavior change was documented in all<br />
studies. The most comm<strong>on</strong>ly reported communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences of PECS included:<br />
(a) successful use of PECS as a communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
tool (reported in 100% studies); (b) an<br />
increase in overall level of communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> language (reported in 62% studies); (c)<br />
an increase in sp<strong>on</strong>taneous language/<br />
speech/imitati<strong>on</strong> (reported in 46% studies);<br />
(d) an increase in initiati<strong>on</strong>s of communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
(reported in 31% studies); <strong>and</strong> (e) an<br />
increase in mean length of utterance (re-<br />
Report of Relati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
a Generalizati<strong>on</strong> PECSb 14 m<strong>on</strong>ths <strong>on</strong> average (range <br />
3-28 m<strong>on</strong>ths) after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
beginning of PECS training,<br />
children were using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS<br />
system in a functi<strong>on</strong>al manner<br />
to communicate with adults <strong>and</strong><br />
peers.<br />
The children mastered <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fundamental PECS protocol<br />
within 11 m<strong>on</strong>ths, <strong>and</strong> learned<br />
to exchange with peers in an<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al 3 m<strong>on</strong>ths.<br />
Children who learned PECS use<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> system across settings. Fortyfour<br />
percent of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
acquired unprompted, n<strong>on</strong>echolalic<br />
spoken<br />
Y M<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> all<br />
children dem<strong>on</strong>strated many<br />
successful communicative<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s across trained <strong>and</strong><br />
untrained functi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
settings.<br />
Children who received training in<br />
<strong>on</strong>e communicative functi<strong>on</strong><br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated increased use of<br />
different untrained<br />
communicative functi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Y M<br />
One child with weak h<strong>and</strong>-motor<br />
imitati<strong>on</strong> skills learned PECS<br />
more rapidly than sign<br />
language. On <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r h<strong>and</strong>,<br />
ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r child with moderate<br />
imitati<strong>on</strong> skills learned sign<br />
language more rapidly than<br />
PECS. Y H<br />
Sign language training produced<br />
more vocalizati<strong>on</strong> for both<br />
children; however, a procedural<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS<br />
system increased <strong>on</strong>e child’s<br />
vocalizati<strong>on</strong> to a level similar to<br />
that in sign language training.<br />
a<br />
Y Yes, N No.<br />
b<br />
H High specificity, M moderate specificity, L Low specificity (see text for a more detailed descripti<strong>on</strong><br />
of specificity ratings).<br />
ported in 23% studies). Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rmore, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
studies that included a follow-up assessment indicated<br />
maintenances of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> gains identified at<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time of posttesting (Charlop-Christy et al.,<br />
2002; Heneker & Page, 2003; J<strong>on</strong>es, 2005; Magiati<br />
& Howlin, 2003; Schwartz et al., 1998).<br />
The studies that compared PECS against<br />
sign language training dem<strong>on</strong>strated that<br />
(a) rates of acquisiti<strong>on</strong> in PECS were faster<br />
than rates of acquisiti<strong>on</strong> in sign language,<br />
(b) PECS was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> preferred method of communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
for most participants compared<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>al Communicati<strong>on</strong> Interventi<strong>on</strong> / 73
to sing language, <strong>and</strong> (c) PECS was associated<br />
with significantly greater improvements<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants without h<strong>and</strong>-motor imitati<strong>on</strong><br />
relative to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sign language training<br />
(Adkins & Axelrod, 2002; Anders<strong>on</strong>, 2002;<br />
Tincani, 2004).<br />
O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r c<strong>on</strong>sequences. Positive behavioral<br />
change was documented in three of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies<br />
(Anders<strong>on</strong>, 2002; Charlop-Christy et al.,<br />
2002; Magiati & Howlin, 2003). The most<br />
comm<strong>on</strong>ly reported behavior c<strong>on</strong>sequence<br />
were significant reducti<strong>on</strong>s in problem behaviors.<br />
Rival Explanati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
A number of rival explanati<strong>on</strong>s might explain<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive findings reported in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies<br />
reviewed in this syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis. However, many of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se rival explanati<strong>on</strong>s can be refuted as a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequence of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> generally high quality of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research designs.<br />
First, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that studies typically employed<br />
observati<strong>on</strong>al coding as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary method<br />
of data collecti<strong>on</strong> could have resulted in observer<br />
or rater bias. However, every study employed<br />
two independent observati<strong>on</strong>al data recorders<br />
<strong>and</strong> secti<strong>on</strong>s of different interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
phases (e.g., baseline, interventi<strong>on</strong>). Moreover,<br />
with str<strong>on</strong>g reliability data reported for<br />
eight of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 13 (62%) studies available, c<strong>on</strong>cerns<br />
that measurement variati<strong>on</strong>s in maternal<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s were a result of observer bias<br />
are minimized.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive changes of communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences may have been emerged<br />
as part of maturati<strong>on</strong>. However, this possibility<br />
is mitigated by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that many behavioral,<br />
social, <strong>and</strong> communicative deficits exhibited<br />
by children with autism spectrum disorders do<br />
not sp<strong>on</strong>taneously remit over time if untreated<br />
(American Psychiatric Associati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
2000). In additi<strong>on</strong>, 12 out of 13 studies used a<br />
single-subject design, <strong>and</strong> single-subject design<br />
methodology establishes <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> casual relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between treatment <strong>and</strong> outcomes by<br />
as series of intrasubject or intersubject replicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of treatment effect (Nati<strong>on</strong>al Research<br />
Council, 2001). Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rmore, in single-subject,<br />
multiple-baseline designs, participants<br />
serve as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own c<strong>on</strong>trol group. The presence<br />
of a c<strong>on</strong>trol group can serve to separate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effects of maturati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> those of treatments.<br />
Third, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> experimenter him/<br />
herself implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> treatment in several<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies could lead to problem with experimenter<br />
bias; that is, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> experimenter<br />
might influence <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participant’s resp<strong>on</strong>ses.<br />
However, this c<strong>on</strong>cern is mitigated somewhat<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that in most of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies reviewed<br />
(62%), <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> implementing PECS was<br />
some<strong>on</strong>e o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> experimenter.<br />
In summary, a number of comm<strong>on</strong> threats<br />
to internal validity were addressed within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
research designs of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se studies. Therefore,<br />
despite such potential threats to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalizability<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis findings<br />
support <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS training.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
74 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
The primary focus of this syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature<br />
was to summarize findings regarding<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of PECS for enhancing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong> skills of children<br />
with ASD. In brief, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> evidence for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>’s<br />
effectiveness was provided by studies<br />
that (a) assessed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> level of adherence to a<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ardized treatment protocol (i.e., treatment<br />
fidelity); (b) utilized appropriate <strong>and</strong><br />
well-executed research designs; (c) used measures<br />
with well-established reliability to assess<br />
outcomes; (d) replicated finding across participants;<br />
<strong>and</strong> (e) employed a follow-up comp<strong>on</strong>ent<br />
to dem<strong>on</strong>strate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> stability of treatment<br />
effects. Taken as a whole, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore, results of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies reviewed provide evidence for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
effectiveness of PECS; specifically, PECS is effective<br />
in enhancing functi<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
skills of individuals with ASD. Therefore,<br />
PECS is recommended as an evidence-based<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> for this purpose.<br />
Never<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>less, several points should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
regarding recommending of PECS as<br />
an evidence-based interventi<strong>on</strong>. First, most of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies included in this<br />
syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis were male (65%), which most likely<br />
is a reflecti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> differential prevalence<br />
rates of autism across genders. The pattern of<br />
gains exhibited by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants was similar<br />
for males <strong>and</strong> females, which indicates that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS training had <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same effect regardless<br />
of gender.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d, children in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies were diag-
nosed as having ASD. Therefore, PECS can<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly be recommended as an evidence-based<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> for individual with ASD, ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
than for individuals with o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r diagnoses. Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
research involving individuals with o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
types of diagnoses will be needed to determine<br />
whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r or not PECS is effective as a<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong> for<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r populati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Implicati<strong>on</strong>s for Practice<br />
For practiti<strong>on</strong>ers working <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children with<br />
ASD, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are two primary implicati<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
practice that can be derived from this research<br />
syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis. First, PECS training can easily be<br />
incorporated into an individual’s usual routine<br />
without requiring large-scale changes to<br />
class or home routines. Thus, similar programs<br />
may successfully be implemented by<br />
teachers <strong>and</strong> parents. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> value of<br />
PECS may lie not <strong>on</strong>ly in its ability to enhance<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> skills initially, but also to facilitate<br />
easy maintenance <strong>and</strong> applicati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
new situati<strong>on</strong>s. This is especially critical when<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidering that o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r interventi<strong>on</strong>s sometimes<br />
require c<strong>on</strong>structed envir<strong>on</strong>ments <strong>and</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore, are not likely to generalize outside<br />
of specially designed envir<strong>on</strong>ments.<br />
In summary, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> evidence reviewed in this<br />
syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis supports claims <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> PECS is effective<br />
in enhancing functi<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
skills of children with ASD. In additi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
implicati<strong>on</strong>s derived from this syn<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis suggested<br />
that PECS can be easily integrated into<br />
an individual’s usual routing <strong>and</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
skills acquired from PECS training can be<br />
maintained <strong>and</strong> generalized across different<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s. Insofar, PECS is recommended as<br />
an evidence-based interventi<strong>on</strong> for enhancing<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong> skills of individuals<br />
with ASD. However, fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r research involving<br />
individuals with o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r types of disabilities is<br />
recommended.<br />
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164.<br />
Received: 3 May 2006<br />
Initial Acceptance: 28 June 2006<br />
Final Acceptance: 19 December 2006
Preschool Teacher Percepti<strong>on</strong>s of Assistive Technology <strong>and</strong><br />
Professi<strong>on</strong>al Development Resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
Julia B. St<strong>on</strong>er, Howard P. Parette, Emily H. Watts, <strong>and</strong> Brian W. Wojcik<br />
Illinois State University<br />
Tina Fogal<br />
Bloomingt<strong>on</strong> District 87 Schools<br />
Abstract: This study investigated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspectives of teachers in an early childhood center c<strong>on</strong>cerning <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
thoughts <strong>and</strong> feelings about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> of a school wide assistive technology (AT) program designed to<br />
enhance emergent literacy skills for children identified as being at-risk or having special needs. Qualitative<br />
methodology was used to gain perspectives of all participants. Semi-structured interviews, observati<strong>on</strong>s in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
classroom, <strong>and</strong> a self-assessment of AT knowledge <strong>and</strong> practice were used to collect data. Data were analyzed<br />
using a multiple coding approach resulting in identificati<strong>on</strong> of four major <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mes: (a) percepti<strong>on</strong>s of technology,<br />
(b) perceived challenges to implementing technology, (c) percepti<strong>on</strong>s of AT <strong>and</strong> literacy <strong>and</strong> (d) self-reported AT<br />
use. Discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> recommendati<strong>on</strong>s focus <strong>on</strong> best practices of implementing school wide AT in early childhood<br />
settings.<br />
Young children with disabilities have increasingly<br />
been placed in child care <strong>and</strong> preschool<br />
settings since <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> passage of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Individuals<br />
with Disabilities Educati<strong>on</strong> Act of 1997 (IDEA<br />
97; Nati<strong>on</strong>al Early Childhood Technical Assistance<br />
Center, 2003). To serve <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se children<br />
appropriately in such settings, an individual<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> program (IEP) is developed for<br />
each child in which assistive technology (AT)<br />
devices [20 U. S. C. § 1401(1)] <strong>and</strong> services<br />
must be c<strong>on</strong>sidered [20 U.S.C. 1401(2)]. Both<br />
devices <strong>and</strong> services can result in a range of<br />
developmental benefits for young children<br />
with disabilities (Drasgow, Yell, & Robins<strong>on</strong>,<br />
2001; Mistreet, Lane, & Ruffino, 2005; Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Educati<strong>on</strong> of Young<br />
Children [NAEYC], 1996; Reed & Bowser,<br />
2005; Wiekle & Hadadian, 2003). However,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential of AT to benefit <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se children is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tingent <strong>on</strong> “thoughtful integrati<strong>on</strong> into<br />
This project was supported by a grant from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Illinois Children’s Healthcare Foundati<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
first three authors. Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cerning this<br />
article should be addressed to Howard P. Parette,<br />
Department of Special Educati<strong>on</strong>, Illinois State University,<br />
Box 5910, Normal, IL 61790-5910. Email:<br />
hpparet@ilstu.edu<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2008, 43(1), 77–91<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> early childhood curriculum” (NAEYC, p.<br />
3).<br />
While IDEA 97 provides a clear requirement<br />
for ‘thoughtful’ c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of AT in<br />
developing young children’s service plans, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB)<br />
also provides additi<strong>on</strong>al dem<strong>and</strong>s for teachers<br />
by (a) requiring that children with disabilities<br />
be taught to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same st<strong>and</strong>ards as all children,<br />
<strong>and</strong> (b) holding schools accountable for student<br />
achievement. However, “taking full advantage<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir rights to a high quality educati<strong>on</strong><br />
requires support to learn in ways that<br />
meet <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir educati<strong>on</strong>al needs” (Nati<strong>on</strong>al Center<br />
for Technology Innovati<strong>on</strong>, 2005, p. 3). AT<br />
affords many young children with disabilities<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> necessary learning supports to learn<br />
<strong>and</strong> achieve, especially with regard to developing<br />
emergent literacy skills that provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
foundati<strong>on</strong> for later success when entering<br />
public schools (Parette, St<strong>on</strong>er, Watts, &<br />
Wojcik, 2006).<br />
Use of technology to develop emergent literacy<br />
skills has been examined by numerous<br />
authorities (Beck, 2002; Pierce & Porter, 1996;<br />
Smedley et al., 1997; Scooter & Boss, 2002;<br />
Wright & Shade, 1994). In typical classrooms,<br />
early childhood teachers plan <strong>and</strong> implement<br />
an array of emergent literacy activities for chil-<br />
Preschool Teacher Percepti<strong>on</strong>s / 77
dren that emphasize oral language, experiences<br />
with print, storybook reading, <strong>and</strong> writing<br />
for different purposes (Beck; D<strong>on</strong>ovan,<br />
Milewicz, & Smolkin, 2003; Van Scooter &<br />
Boss). Sadly, AT is infrequently used in many<br />
classrooms to support emerging literacy activities,<br />
<strong>and</strong> its potential to help develop important<br />
skills needed for later learning <strong>and</strong> success<br />
may be minimized. This is compounded<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that most early childhood educati<strong>on</strong><br />
preservice programs still do not prepare<br />
teachers to be able to effectively c<strong>on</strong>sider AT<br />
during IEP development processes (Derer,<br />
Posgrove, & Reith, 1996; Lahm, 2003; Lesar,<br />
1998; Mistreet et al., 2005; Parette, Peters<strong>on</strong>-<br />
Karlan, & Wojcik, 2005), nor do <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y rapidly<br />
integrate AT into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir curricula (Zorfass &<br />
Rivero, 2005). The net result has been that (a)<br />
relatively few children receive AT in early interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
programs (RESNA Technical Assistance<br />
Project, as cited in L<strong>on</strong>g, Huang, Woodbridge,<br />
Woolvert<strong>on</strong>, & Minkel, 2003); (b) few<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>al publicati<strong>on</strong>s discuss AT usage<br />
with young children (Edyburn, 2001, 2002,<br />
2003); <strong>and</strong> (c) little is known about effective<br />
AT emergent literacy integrati<strong>on</strong> practices<br />
with early childhood populati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Thus, it seems appropriate to ask <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
“Why are teachers not c<strong>on</strong>sidering <strong>and</strong><br />
using AT for young children with disabilities?”<br />
<strong>and</strong> “What are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cerns that teachers have<br />
about AT?” Asht<strong>on</strong> (2005) noted that if negative<br />
percepti<strong>on</strong>s or attitudes towards AT exist<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g practicing professi<strong>on</strong>als, it is virtually<br />
an insurmountable task to change <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir mindsets.<br />
Asht<strong>on</strong> fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r observed that “Forcing<br />
teachers to learn something <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y perceive as<br />
unnecessary will prove a fruitless endeavor”<br />
(p. 236).<br />
Exploring Early Childhood Teacher Needs<br />
One project designed to address this need is<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Making A Difference Using Assistive Technology<br />
(MDAT) Project, funded by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Illinois<br />
Children’s Healthcare Foundati<strong>on</strong> in 2005<br />
(Parette, St<strong>on</strong>er, & Watts, 2005). The goal of<br />
this project was to develop an AT toolkit to<br />
enhance emerging literacy skills with preschool<br />
children who were at-risk or who had<br />
disabilities. However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> project involved <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
potential for substantive organizati<strong>on</strong> changes<br />
with regard to curricula approaches <strong>and</strong> pro-<br />
fessi<strong>on</strong>al development strategies used in<br />
schools. Research has indicated that when an<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong> is facing change <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re should be<br />
a systematic <strong>and</strong> deliberate process in place to<br />
ensure success <strong>and</strong> it is vital to involve those<br />
individuals affected by change in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> initial<br />
planning process (Kotter, 1999). Similarly, attitudes<br />
of educati<strong>on</strong> professi<strong>on</strong>als toward AT<br />
<strong>and</strong> its implementati<strong>on</strong> in school programming<br />
has been reported to be a major challenge<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>wide (SEAT Center, Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Center for Technology Innovati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Kansas<br />
University, 2005).<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sequently, before <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> MDAT Project<br />
could be implemented <strong>and</strong> an AT toolkit developed,<br />
it was imperative to examine teacher<br />
percepti<strong>on</strong>s regarding technology <strong>and</strong> literacy<br />
to assist project staff in decisi<strong>on</strong>-making regarding<br />
effective professi<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
<strong>and</strong> subsequent interventi<strong>on</strong> approaches. This<br />
preliminary work prior to project implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
was guided by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following research<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
1. How do teachers of preschool children describe<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir percepti<strong>on</strong>s AT?<br />
2. How do preschool teachers describe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerns about implementati<strong>on</strong> of a<br />
school-wide AT program?<br />
3. How do preschool teachers perceive AT for<br />
assisting with literacy skill development?<br />
4. What are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> preschool teachers’ experiences<br />
<strong>and</strong> self-reported uses of AT?<br />
Method<br />
Participants<br />
Participants were nine teachers at a self-c<strong>on</strong>tained<br />
preschool facility in a Midwestern city.<br />
Four of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers were teaching children<br />
with identified disabilities <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> remaining<br />
five taught children who were identified as<br />
being ‘at-risk.’ All teachers held state teaching<br />
certificates (see Table 1).<br />
Research Design<br />
78 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
The study employed qualitative strategies described<br />
by numerous researchers (e.g., Bogdan<br />
& Biklen, 1998; Leedy & Ormrod, 2001;<br />
Millan & Wergin, 2002). Specifically, qualitative<br />
research allowed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> researchers to deeply
TABLE 1<br />
Teacher Demographics 1<br />
Teacher Educati<strong>on</strong> Level Yrs Experience Classroom<br />
Barbara B.A. 10 At-risk<br />
Carole B.A. 17 At-risk<br />
D<strong>on</strong>na M.A. 12 Special needs<br />
Ellen B.A. 30 Special needs<br />
Jane B.A. 1 At-risk<br />
Karen B.A. 5 At-risk<br />
Sara B.A. 18 Special needs<br />
T<strong>on</strong>i M.A. 35 Special needs<br />
Teri B.A. 3 At-risk<br />
1 All teachers hold state teaching certificates<br />
explore <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspectives <strong>and</strong> gain insight into<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> feelings, emoti<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> thought processes<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants (Creswell, 2002; Strauss &<br />
Corbin, 1998). The study of perspectives of<br />
teachers who were designated to participate in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> of a school-wide AT program<br />
lends itself to qualitative methodology<br />
precisely because it is a phenomen<strong>on</strong> about<br />
which little is known. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, underst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspectives of teachers as users<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> AT was deemed essential prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> AT program.<br />
Interview questi<strong>on</strong>s were developed to address<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research questi<strong>on</strong>s (Kvale, 1996) <strong>and</strong><br />
semi-structured interviews lasting approximately<br />
a half-hour were c<strong>on</strong>ducted with all<br />
participants. Semi-structured interviews allowed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> researchers to ask for clarificati<strong>on</strong><br />
or additi<strong>on</strong>al informati<strong>on</strong>. (See Table 2 for a<br />
list of interview questi<strong>on</strong>s.) All interviews were<br />
audio-taped <strong>and</strong> transcribed verbatim to ensure<br />
accuracy.<br />
The Early Language <strong>and</strong> Literacy Class-<br />
TABLE 2<br />
Interview Questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
1. Describe your classroom.<br />
2. Describe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literacy activities in your classroom.<br />
3. Can you tell me about your experiences with assistive technology?<br />
4. Describe your involvement with AT.<br />
5. Tell me about your feelings using assistive technology with your students.<br />
6. What additi<strong>on</strong>al informati<strong>on</strong> would you like c<strong>on</strong>cerning assistive technology?<br />
7. How do you think assistive technology can help your students?<br />
room Observati<strong>on</strong> (ELLCO) Toolkit, (Smith,<br />
Dickins<strong>on</strong>, Sangeorge, & Anastasopoulos,<br />
2002) was used to assess envir<strong>on</strong>mental variables<br />
related to language development <strong>and</strong><br />
literacy in each of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers’ classrooms<br />
(i.e., morning classes for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3-year-old students<br />
<strong>and</strong> afterno<strong>on</strong> classes for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4-year-old<br />
students). The ELLCO has three distinct<br />
parts: <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> (a) Literacy Envir<strong>on</strong>ment Checklist,<br />
(b) Classroom Observati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Teacher Interview,<br />
<strong>and</strong> (c) Literacy Activities Rating<br />
Scale.<br />
Two researchers observed each classroom<br />
to determine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> extent of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> diversity of<br />
reading <strong>and</strong> writing materials <strong>and</strong> classroom<br />
layout. Next, interacti<strong>on</strong>s between teachers<br />
<strong>and</strong> students were observed during reading<br />
<strong>and</strong> writing instructi<strong>on</strong>, use of technology,<br />
oral language use, <strong>and</strong> assessment strategies.<br />
Finally, student-teacher <strong>and</strong> student-student<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s were observed for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of<br />
times <strong>and</strong> length of time for book reading <strong>and</strong><br />
writing during classroom activities. Inter-rater<br />
Preschool Teacher Percepti<strong>on</strong>s / 79
eliability was c<strong>on</strong>ducted between <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> researchers<br />
<strong>on</strong> all three parts of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ELLCO.<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, an Assistive Technology Self-<br />
Assessment Survey was delivered to participants<br />
in pers<strong>on</strong>, prior to classroom observati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> interviews (see Table 3). The<br />
paper-pencil survey was developed using recommended<br />
best practices from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
for Early Childhood (DEC) (S<strong>and</strong>all,<br />
McLean, & Smith, 2000) for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> applicati<strong>on</strong><br />
of technology in settings for young children<br />
who attend early interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> early<br />
childhood special educati<strong>on</strong> programs. C<strong>on</strong>tent<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> survey included <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> definiti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
assistive technology according to IDEA <strong>and</strong><br />
16 questi<strong>on</strong>s related to DEC’s recommended<br />
technology practices. The format of<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se opti<strong>on</strong>s followed a five-point comm<strong>on</strong><br />
rating scale focusing <strong>on</strong> agreement <strong>and</strong><br />
disagreement (Fink, 1995).<br />
Data Analysis<br />
This study employed collective case study<br />
methodology (Stake, 2000), involving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
study of more than <strong>on</strong>e case in order to “investigate<br />
a phenomen<strong>on</strong>, populati<strong>on</strong>, or general<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>” (p. 437). This approach assumes<br />
that investigating a number of cases will<br />
lead to better comprehensi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> better <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>orizing.<br />
Cross-case analysis was used to analyze<br />
each individual participant resp<strong>on</strong>ses as a<br />
whole entity. A comparative analysis of all participant<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>ducted which<br />
allowed researchers to see processes <strong>and</strong> outcomes<br />
across many participants, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>reby developing<br />
a deeper underst<strong>and</strong>ing of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
emerging phenomena through more powerful<br />
descripti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> explanati<strong>on</strong>s (Miles &<br />
Huberman, 1994).<br />
After completi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interviews, data<br />
were analyzed using a line by line multiple<br />
coding approach (Barbour, 2001). The researchers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n met frequently as a group <strong>and</strong><br />
developed categories based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir individual<br />
line-by-line coding. Disagreements about<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> categories were discussed, categories were<br />
refined, exp<strong>and</strong>ed, <strong>and</strong>/or deleted as needed,<br />
<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cordance was reached (Barbour). The<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stant comparative method by which researchers<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinually returned to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data for<br />
analysis was used as an overall methodological<br />
framework (Charmaz, 2000). Three members<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research team (i.e., three faculty members<br />
in a Midwestern university’s Department<br />
of Special Educati<strong>on</strong>) analyzed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data.<br />
NVivo © 2.0, a data management software program,<br />
was used to manage <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data (Richards,<br />
2002).<br />
C<strong>on</strong>firmability<br />
C<strong>on</strong>firmability of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> findings was achieved<br />
through three approaches: (a) triangulati<strong>on</strong><br />
(Creswell, 2002) of incidences that occurred<br />
across cases <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>firmed through observati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom, results of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ELLCO,<br />
<strong>and</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>ses to an Assistive Technology Self-<br />
Assessment Survey; (b) resp<strong>on</strong>dent validati<strong>on</strong><br />
(Creswell, 2002), i.e., c<strong>on</strong>firmati<strong>on</strong> of graphic<br />
<strong>and</strong> textual findings presented to participants<br />
regarding <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> researchers’ underst<strong>and</strong>ing of<br />
observati<strong>on</strong>s; <strong>and</strong> (c) member checks (Janesick,<br />
2000), or allowing participants <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school<br />
principal <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> opportunity to review <strong>and</strong><br />
quotes used in this report. All participants<br />
c<strong>on</strong>firmed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> findings.<br />
Findings<br />
Four major <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mes emerged from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data<br />
analysis: (a) percepti<strong>on</strong>s of technology, (b)<br />
perceived challenges to implementing technology,<br />
(c) percepti<strong>on</strong>s of AT <strong>and</strong> literacy,<br />
<strong>and</strong> (d) self-reported AT use. Each of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mes is discussed in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following secti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
with participant quotes supporting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> findings<br />
(see Table 2).<br />
Theme 1: AT Use<br />
80 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
The use of AT was assessed by two means:<br />
observati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> self-reports. Prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
structured interviews c<strong>on</strong>ducted with teachers,<br />
observati<strong>on</strong>s were made by two of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
researchers using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ELLCO. An Assistive<br />
Technology Self-Assessment Survey was also completed<br />
by each of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants.<br />
Observed AT use. Limited use of AT was<br />
observed in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classrooms identified as “atrisk”<br />
<strong>and</strong>, while <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was more use of AT in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classrooms which had students with disabilities,<br />
not all classrooms used AT at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
same level. The ELLCO instrument was used<br />
as an observati<strong>on</strong> tool because it has a secti<strong>on</strong><br />
that focuses <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of AT in preschool
TABLE 3<br />
Assistive Technology Self-Assessment<br />
Code Number:<br />
Date:<br />
Directi<strong>on</strong>s: Read <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> definiti<strong>on</strong> of AT <strong>and</strong> circle <strong>on</strong>e number for each item.<br />
Assistive technology (AT) is defined as “any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r acquired<br />
commercially off <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al capabilities of children with disabilities” (IDEA, 1997).<br />
Items:<br />
1. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in using assistive technology (AT) as a vehicle for more effectively serving children <strong>and</strong> families.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
2. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in my ability to c<strong>on</strong>sider assistive technology applicati<strong>on</strong>s to increase children’s ability to functi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> participate<br />
in diverse <strong>and</strong> less restrictive envir<strong>on</strong>ments.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
3. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in my ability to c<strong>on</strong>sider chr<strong>on</strong>ological age-appropriateness for children when selecting types of assistive<br />
technology in assessment <strong>and</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
4. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in my ability to c<strong>on</strong>sider developmentally appropriate practices for children when selecting types of assistive<br />
technology in assessment <strong>and</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
5. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in my ability to match assistive technology tools/devices to individual children’s capabilities <strong>and</strong> limitati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
6. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in my ability to c<strong>on</strong>sider <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> least intrusive, least intensive, yet effective low-tech tools/devices in making decisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
about assistive technology for individual children.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
7. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in my ability to use assistive technology to facilitate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assessment process of children.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
8. I am knowledgeable of sources for funding assistive technology.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
9. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in my ability to select <strong>and</strong> use assistive technology based <strong>on</strong> families’ preferences.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
10. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in my ability to provide assistance to individual families in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use, maintenance, <strong>and</strong> generalizati<strong>on</strong> of assistive<br />
technology to facilitate child development.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
11. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in my ability to provide children access to assistive technology across situati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> settings where instructi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> interacti<strong>on</strong> can take place.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
12. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in my ability to be resp<strong>on</strong>sive to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture, language, <strong>and</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omics of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> family when making decisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerning assistive technology applicati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
13. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in my ability to identify <strong>and</strong> evaluate educati<strong>on</strong>al software to meet <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs of children.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
14. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in my ability to integrate or embed assistive technology within children’s school activities.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
15. I am c<strong>on</strong>fident in my ability to verify proper implementati<strong>on</strong> of mechanical <strong>and</strong> electrical safety practices in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assembly <strong>and</strong><br />
integrati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> technology to meet <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs of children.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
16. I underst<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> legislative m<strong>and</strong>ates <strong>and</strong> governmental regulati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir implicati<strong>on</strong>s for technology in special educati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
Not at all Great Extent<br />
Preschool Teacher Percepti<strong>on</strong>s / 81
classrooms. For each <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> three “at-risk” classrooms,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> presence <strong>and</strong> use of technology<br />
were scored at a ‘basic’ level within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> general<br />
classroom envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Indicators of ‘basic’<br />
technology use included (a) computers<br />
accessible to children with use being limited<br />
to unm<strong>on</strong>itored game-playing; (b) infrequent<br />
instructi<strong>on</strong>al use of overhead projectors, audiotapes,<br />
or digital cameras; <strong>and</strong> (c) lack of a<br />
range of technology used for a variety of purposes.<br />
Across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> four classrooms that had<br />
students with disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> availability <strong>and</strong><br />
use of technology varied from a ‘basic’ level to<br />
an ‘exemplary’ level. Exemplary use was characterized<br />
by daily use of a range of technologies<br />
(e.g., switches, adaptive keyboard, computer,<br />
picture schedules, <strong>and</strong> communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
boards) for a variety of purposes.<br />
Self-reported AT use. There was a range of<br />
AT use reported by teachers. Teachers in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
four classrooms with children having disabilities<br />
had <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most extensive experiences with<br />
AT; two had children with severe disabilities<br />
<strong>and</strong> already had some AT devices. Two of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
five teachers—Jane <strong>and</strong> Terri—who were in<br />
at-risk classrooms, had graduated in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> previous<br />
two years <strong>and</strong> each had an AT course in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir teacher certificati<strong>on</strong> curriculum. The<br />
three o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r teachers--Karen, Barbara, <strong>and</strong> Carole--in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> at-risk classrooms reported limited<br />
experience <strong>and</strong> use of AT. Teachers were<br />
forthright in assessing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir AT experiences.<br />
For example, Karen stated that her experience<br />
was very minimal:<br />
I am familiar with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> computers <strong>and</strong><br />
things, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> touch screens. I know that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are certain kinds of mouse that help<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children use that easier. But I haven’t<br />
really worked with much of that, just have<br />
seen it.<br />
Overall, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Assistive Technology Self-Assessment<br />
Survey revealed that all teachers indicated a<br />
basic level of c<strong>on</strong>fidence in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir abilities in<br />
making decisi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>cerning low-tech/devices<br />
for individual children <strong>and</strong> were least c<strong>on</strong>fident<br />
in two areas: underst<strong>and</strong>ing AT legislati<strong>on</strong><br />
or regulati<strong>on</strong>s in special educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
sources of funding for assistive technology.<br />
Comparis<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers of “at-risk students”<br />
<strong>and</strong> teachers of students with disabilities<br />
indicated that both groups of teachers did<br />
82 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
not differ significantly in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir AT self-assessment,<br />
except in <strong>on</strong>e area. Teachers of students<br />
with disabilities were more c<strong>on</strong>fident in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir abilities to provide assistance to families<br />
when using AT to facilitate child development<br />
than teachers of “at-risk” students.<br />
Overall, observati<strong>on</strong>s of classroom activities<br />
c<strong>on</strong>firmed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers’ self-reported limited<br />
use of AT. However, all teachers, regardless of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir AT experience, stated that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were (a)<br />
excited about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school-wide project, (b) willing<br />
to learn, <strong>and</strong> (c) desired to use <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir new<br />
knowledge to benefit <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir students. As noted<br />
by Carole: “You know, I hear of all of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<br />
new things that are going <strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> I know that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> horiz<strong>on</strong> is exp<strong>and</strong>ing. I am willing to do<br />
anything that would promote that.”<br />
Theme 2: Percepti<strong>on</strong>s of Technology<br />
All teachers identified AT in terms of computers,<br />
software, augmentative <strong>and</strong> alternative<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> (AAC), or items such as digital<br />
cameras or tape recorders. For example,<br />
Carole defined AT as,<br />
My first visi<strong>on</strong> would be a n<strong>on</strong>-verbal child<br />
touching something <strong>and</strong> saying “I want<br />
that” or picking up a card to say ‘eat.’ So,<br />
when you say assistive technology, it means<br />
to me, you are helping those who are n<strong>on</strong>verbal<br />
to communicate.<br />
The majority of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers defined AT in<br />
terms of devices or objects that children could<br />
use to assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m in completing specific tasks.<br />
Two teachers with previous AT experiences<br />
identified a wider variety of tools. Ellen described<br />
her experience as,<br />
We do use communicati<strong>on</strong> books at snack/<br />
breakfast, beginning PECS. We use ‘I need<br />
a break’ cards, sabotaging something so<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y have to ask for it. I use Big Mac switches<br />
for participati<strong>on</strong>. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> morning we say ‘yo’<br />
for attendance, <strong>and</strong> if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y can’t make that<br />
verbalizati<strong>on</strong>, we use a recording. We use Go<br />
Talk, minimally at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> moment for recognizing<br />
classmates. I use Tech Speak, <strong>and</strong> again<br />
with kids that are more n<strong>on</strong>-verbal, more<br />
physical disabilities, to be able to answer<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s about colors, shapes, classmates,<br />
letters, etc.
Integrati<strong>on</strong> or supplemental perspective. During<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interviews teachers specifically described<br />
how <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y used or could use AT <strong>and</strong><br />
how AT affected or could affect <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir students’<br />
learning. From <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir resp<strong>on</strong>ses emerged two<br />
broad categories of perspectives. There were<br />
two teachers who described AT as something<br />
integrated in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum. These two teachers--Sara<br />
<strong>and</strong> Ellen--worked in classrooms with<br />
children with disabilities <strong>and</strong> perceived AT as<br />
being an integral <strong>and</strong> vital comp<strong>on</strong>ent of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
curriculum. A statement by Ellen revealed her<br />
comfort level <strong>and</strong> recogniti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> value of<br />
AT:<br />
Right now I am real comfortable with low<br />
tech, use of pictures, switches. I feel like<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students I teach, I want <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to<br />
participate, be challenged, <strong>and</strong> do something,<br />
<strong>and</strong> that is my best opti<strong>on</strong>. I couldn’t<br />
live without AT. I couldn’t be comfortable<br />
as a teacher <strong>and</strong> not use some of those<br />
things.<br />
Similarly, Sara described <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> benefit of AT for<br />
her students: “It fosters independence, pride<br />
because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y can participate, <strong>and</strong> it makes<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m active learners.” These teachers, because<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir knowledge, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir experience, <strong>and</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir student’s needs, appeared to integrate<br />
AT actively into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir curriculum.<br />
The remaining seven teachers perceived AT<br />
as a supplement ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than an integrated<br />
aspect of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir curriculum. This was illustrated<br />
by Terri’s resp<strong>on</strong>se to a request to describe<br />
how she uses AT in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom, “This will<br />
be short! Basic use of a computer <strong>and</strong> digital<br />
camera. I haven’t used <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> computer as much<br />
because we had so many pictures already, but<br />
I am very limited in assistive technology.” The<br />
research team observed that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se teachers<br />
had worked hard to meet <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
students <strong>and</strong> foster learning. AT had been<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m at various points in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir careers, although <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y had no inservice<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>al development experiences in AT,<br />
<strong>and</strong> had no support for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> limited amount of<br />
technology in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir classrooms. All teachers<br />
recognized <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir limitati<strong>on</strong>s, stated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir desire<br />
to learn, <strong>and</strong> spoke of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> challenges<br />
awaiting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m with regard to using AT in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
classrooms.<br />
Theme 3: Perceived Challenges to AT Use<br />
All teachers spoke of challenges regarding <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> of school-wide AT. These<br />
challenges were categorized into three primary<br />
sub-<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mes: (a) support, (b) time, <strong>and</strong><br />
(c) student populati<strong>on</strong> characteristics. Each of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se sub-<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mes is discussed in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following<br />
secti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Support. Teachers noted <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir intense<br />
need of AT support, especially technical support<br />
<strong>and</strong> professi<strong>on</strong>al development. Technical<br />
support was defined as supports related to use<br />
of computers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ability to problem solve<br />
technical difficulties, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for guidance<br />
in choosing appropriate AT. There was<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sensus <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> desire for a new operating<br />
platform for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir computers. Teachers spoke<br />
frequently of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> difficulty <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y had with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
current operating system in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Macintosh<br />
(Macs) computers that were in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir classrooms.<br />
The primary difficulty was not in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
performance of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Macs, but in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own<br />
level of knowledge as to how to use <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m. All<br />
teachers had a Windows operating system <strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir home computers, used that operating<br />
system primarily, <strong>and</strong> stated that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y had little<br />
time to learn to use <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Macs proficiently.<br />
Carole flatly stated, “We are not too happy<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Macs. I just d<strong>on</strong>’t think <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are as<br />
easy. I just d<strong>on</strong>’t care for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m.” And when<br />
probed with a questi<strong>on</strong> about her use of Windows<br />
she added, “Yes, <strong>and</strong> that could be <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
difference, that I am used to working with<br />
Windows.”<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>al technical support needs were<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for a network color printer that<br />
would c<strong>on</strong>sistently print, in color, <strong>and</strong> could<br />
be accessed directly from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom.<br />
When equipment did not functi<strong>on</strong> properly,<br />
teachers were frustrated since <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y had spent<br />
limited free time to produce a product. Ellen<br />
spoke of a particular instance that illustrated<br />
her frustrati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
All that time you just spent, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n you<br />
have to redo it [Boardmaker pictures] <strong>on</strong><br />
ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r computer. And I told you about<br />
ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r time, getting my breakfast cards<br />
d<strong>on</strong>e; I paid for it, went to Kinkos, laminated<br />
it, put Velcro <strong>on</strong> it, all that kind of<br />
stuff. Then I bring it back here, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
pictures came off. All <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time you spent was<br />
just g<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
Preschool Teacher Percepti<strong>on</strong>s / 83
Needed support for professi<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
in specific areas was identified by all teachers.<br />
One particular need was professi<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
focusing <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> technical skill of operating<br />
AT. Terri spoke of her willingness to<br />
receive training in this area: “I would be very<br />
positive towards it if somebody trained us, I’m<br />
very open to it, I just need to learn about it.”<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, teachers identified a need to be<br />
informed or guided towards purchasing AT<br />
that would benefit <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir students. For example,<br />
T<strong>on</strong>i commented, “I guess I would like to<br />
know what <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is to help <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> kids. High or<br />
low tech, I d<strong>on</strong>’t even know what to ask for.”<br />
Characteristics of student populati<strong>on</strong>. All<br />
teachers discussed challenges with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y served. Sara was <strong>on</strong>ly at<br />
school in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> morning when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> initial interviews<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>ducted; however, she is currently<br />
at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school full time. The structure of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school day, having both morning <strong>and</strong> afterno<strong>on</strong><br />
groups, coupled with varying ability<br />
levels am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se groups, provided substantive<br />
challenges. Additi<strong>on</strong>al challenging factors<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers identified were (a) poverty;<br />
(b) high mobility am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children; (c)<br />
English as a sec<strong>on</strong>d language; <strong>and</strong> (d) differences<br />
in maturity between <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> younger, morning<br />
group (M age 3.5 yrs) <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> older,<br />
afterno<strong>on</strong> group (M age 4.5 yrs). The high<br />
mobility rate was noted to be both particularly<br />
challenging <strong>and</strong> disturbing. Carole said,<br />
Yeah, especially for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children that need it<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y’re <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>es that are here for<br />
three weeks <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n take off. We open <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
door for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> homeless, or if we find out <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
are in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Missi<strong>on</strong>. They come for two days<br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n we’ll never see <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m again because<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y’ve moved, <strong>and</strong> that’s tough. We<br />
had a little girl that was here for 6 days, <strong>and</strong><br />
was here for our class picture, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n she<br />
was g<strong>on</strong>e. And <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n you know you look at<br />
that, <strong>and</strong> you say ‘Where’s she at?’ I hope<br />
she is safe <strong>and</strong> warm.”<br />
Teachers cared deeply about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir students.<br />
They recognized that some of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir students<br />
had no opportunity to experience technology<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than what was provided in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom,<br />
<strong>and</strong> even <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n such opportunities were<br />
of short durati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Instructi<strong>on</strong>al goals for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> morning <strong>and</strong> af-<br />
84 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
terno<strong>on</strong> groups differed also, with teachers<br />
identifying <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> afterno<strong>on</strong> groups as more academically<br />
oriented while <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> morning groups<br />
required a significant amount of social instructi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
D<strong>on</strong>na describes her morning class<br />
as needing instructi<strong>on</strong> in social skills: “We<br />
have just gotten a couple of really interesting<br />
students. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> morning class, we’ve got such<br />
a variety, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> range is incredible. There are<br />
some self-help things that we really need to<br />
push.” Teachers wanted AT that would benefit<br />
both <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir morning classes, with a focus <strong>on</strong><br />
social skills, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir afterno<strong>on</strong> classes, which<br />
focused more <strong>on</strong> academic skills.<br />
Time. A prevalent <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>me that emerged<br />
was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> issue of time c<strong>on</strong>straints. All teachers<br />
discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir c<strong>on</strong>cern that AT would cost<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m time--a limited commodity in preschool<br />
settings. Time c<strong>on</strong>cerns included time (a) required<br />
to learn AT, (b) required to incorporate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> AT into less<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> (c) needed to<br />
teach <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children how to use AT. Observati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classrooms c<strong>on</strong>firmed that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
typical day was filled with activities, with children<br />
being engaged in a range of centers,<br />
activities, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rapy sessi<strong>on</strong>s (for children<br />
with disabilities). Carole described a typical<br />
class:<br />
From <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> moment <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y walk in here in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
morning or in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> afterno<strong>on</strong>, for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two<br />
hours <strong>and</strong> 40 minutes <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are in here,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is not <strong>on</strong>e time when we sit down.<br />
There’s just c<strong>on</strong>stant moti<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>stant transiti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
not <strong>on</strong>ly for us but for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> kids.<br />
An additi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>cern related to time, was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
time required to assist children with AT, specifically<br />
with computer use. Karen described<br />
this issue as, “If things [computer software<br />
programs] get too difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n me or my<br />
assistant have to be over <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re to show <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m.<br />
You know, I d<strong>on</strong>’t mind helping <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m, but I<br />
have 20 o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r children.” Observati<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>firmed<br />
that 20 3- <strong>and</strong> 4-year-olds required c<strong>on</strong>sistent<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong> by both teacher <strong>and</strong> paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
in each of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classrooms.<br />
Ellen spoke of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time required to make<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> products using AT. Ellen was <strong>on</strong>e of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teachers that used AT c<strong>on</strong>sistently in her classroom<br />
<strong>and</strong> knew first-h<strong>and</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time required<br />
to produce products for use with 10<br />
children with disabilities. She explains her<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cern,
I d<strong>on</strong>’t know if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are any answers to that<br />
[time required to produce products]. If you<br />
want to use that stuff, you do have to make<br />
it, <strong>and</strong> I know <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is time involved. [I<br />
would like] Any ease in that process, <strong>and</strong><br />
making it practical or efficient in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom.<br />
Teachers’ percepti<strong>on</strong>s of challenges to implementing<br />
AT technology in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir classroom<br />
were grounded in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
classroom students, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir classroom schedules,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir need for additi<strong>on</strong>al time.<br />
Theme 4: Percepti<strong>on</strong>s of AT <strong>and</strong> Literacy<br />
Teachers described <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literacy in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum<br />
<strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sistently made references to<br />
reading. Reading was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary focus of all<br />
literacy activities; activities that incorporated<br />
writing were not menti<strong>on</strong>ed. Most of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> writing<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classrooms was focused <strong>on</strong> students’<br />
learning to write <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir names. This percepti<strong>on</strong><br />
of literacy being comprised almost exclusively<br />
by reading activities was c<strong>on</strong>firmed by observati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> observati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
structure provided by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ELLCO. Terri’s descripti<strong>on</strong><br />
of her classroom literacy activities is<br />
typical of o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r teachers’ resp<strong>on</strong>ses:<br />
Oh yeah, we use <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> large picture books,<br />
<strong>and</strong> books <strong>on</strong> tape, we do a lot of that.<br />
Yesterday, we were doing some role play<br />
with it, we have a lot of fun with it, <strong>and</strong><br />
exp<strong>and</strong> a lot of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> stories. We try to use<br />
pictures <strong>and</strong> different kinds of things with<br />
that also.<br />
Sara, <strong>on</strong>e of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most AT<br />
experience, described her inclusi<strong>on</strong> of AT<br />
during literacy activities:<br />
When we are in calendar we have those<br />
Boardmaker ® pictures <strong>and</strong> we make <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sentences, “Today is _____.” Different<br />
things with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Intellikeys. We are beginning<br />
to make <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> letters of our names <strong>and</strong><br />
recognizing our names, without pictures<br />
now, which I’m very excited. So much of it<br />
[AT] wraps into every little activity it’s hard<br />
to separate it out.<br />
However, most of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers did not<br />
use AT during reading, or during writing.<br />
The excepti<strong>on</strong> was if <strong>on</strong>e of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
was receiving occupati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rapy services;<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> occupati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rapist may have<br />
recommended a low tech AT device to assist<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> technical aspects of writing.<br />
The overall finding was that teachers perceived<br />
literacy, at this young age, as primarily<br />
reading activities <strong>and</strong> writing was minimally<br />
addressed. The incorporati<strong>on</strong> of AT during<br />
reading or writing activities was also minimal.<br />
More incorporati<strong>on</strong> occurred in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
two classes where teachers (Ellen <strong>and</strong> Sara)<br />
had more experience <strong>and</strong> knowledge of AT.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Implementing AT into a literacy curriculum<br />
in any preschool program requires substantial<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>al change. C<strong>on</strong>sistent with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research<br />
<strong>on</strong> successful organizati<strong>on</strong>al changes,<br />
<strong>on</strong>e of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary stakeholders in this preschool<br />
setting--<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers--were interviewed<br />
to underst<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir perspectives about AT, AT<br />
<strong>and</strong> literacy, <strong>and</strong> to underst<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir perceived<br />
challenges regarding implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> project. Such underst<strong>and</strong>ing was critical<br />
before developing any interventi<strong>on</strong> approaches—particularly<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
support strategies. The following discussi<strong>on</strong> is<br />
organized around each of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> four major<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>mes.<br />
Assistive Technology Use<br />
Findings regarding lack of familiarity with AT<br />
<strong>and</strong> infrequent usage is c<strong>on</strong>sistent with previous<br />
studies (Derer et al., 1996; Lesar, 1998;<br />
Parette, 1997; Scott, 1997). Involving teachers<br />
in AT planning processes, whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r for a single<br />
device or a school-wide AT program, has been<br />
str<strong>on</strong>gly recommended in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature<br />
(Carey & Sale, 1994; Copley & Ziviani, 2004;<br />
Riemer-Reiss & Wacker, 2000; Todis &<br />
Walker, 1993). Prior to any professi<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
approach designed to increase<br />
teacher familiarity with AT, it was critical to<br />
ask teachers about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir c<strong>on</strong>cerns, knowledge,<br />
<strong>and</strong> percepti<strong>on</strong>s of AT. Interviews were <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
first step in enhancing teacher involvement<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> MDAT project.<br />
The teacher participants in this study<br />
readily admitted <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir lack of training <strong>and</strong> lack<br />
of knowledge regarding types of AT, while<br />
also noting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir willingness to learn. Kotter<br />
Preschool Teacher Percepti<strong>on</strong>s / 85
(1999) observed that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first step to effective<br />
change in organizati<strong>on</strong>s is creati<strong>on</strong> of a sense<br />
of ‘urgency’ for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> change. All teachers were<br />
well aware of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> NCLB student<br />
achievement emphasis <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir professi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
They were also aware that emerging literacy<br />
skills provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> foundati<strong>on</strong> for children’s<br />
success <strong>on</strong> entering school. This knowledge,<br />
supported by administrative support for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
MDAT grant (i.e., expressed <strong>and</strong> fiscal support<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school administrati<strong>on</strong>), appeared<br />
to drive <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own commitments to participate<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> project.<br />
Percepti<strong>on</strong>s of Technology<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sistent with previous research (e.g., Hutinger,<br />
Johans<strong>on</strong>, & St<strong>on</strong>eburner, 1996) participants<br />
in this study, with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> excepti<strong>on</strong> of two<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educators, viewed AT as supplemental<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum, ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than being<br />
integrated. Approaching AT use from this paradigm<br />
is limiting to both teachers <strong>and</strong> students.<br />
The participants most comm<strong>on</strong>ly<br />
viewed AT narrowly, specifically in terms of<br />
computer <strong>and</strong> educati<strong>on</strong>al software. Only two<br />
special educators saw AT from an integrati<strong>on</strong><br />
perspective. It was determined that all teachers<br />
must learn, experience, <strong>and</strong> receive support<br />
when implementing AT as an integral part<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum. Changing this perspective<br />
of current teacher paradigm is viewed as a<br />
major challenge c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>ting this project, <strong>and</strong><br />
most preschool programs currently. Strategies<br />
to deal with such challenges include direct<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tact in classrooms by interventi<strong>on</strong> staff regularly,<br />
<strong>and</strong> engaging students <strong>and</strong> teachers in<br />
h<strong>and</strong>s-<strong>on</strong> activities that model integrative AT.<br />
Perceived Challenges to AT in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Classroom<br />
The anticipated challenges identified by<br />
teachers were support, time, <strong>and</strong> student<br />
needs. Interestingly, even with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir limited<br />
AT experience <strong>and</strong> use, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers clearly<br />
articulated challenges that are c<strong>on</strong>sistently<br />
identified in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature. Support challenges,<br />
specifically technical support <strong>and</strong> professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
development, have been documented<br />
as barriers to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of AT (e.g.,<br />
Beukelman & Mirenda, 1998; Carey & Sale,<br />
1994; Copley & Ziviani, 2004; Riemer-Reiss &<br />
Wacker, 2000).<br />
86 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
The challenge of time focused <strong>on</strong> finding<br />
time to learn <strong>and</strong> implement <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> AT into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
classroom. In earlier studies involving instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
technology, researchers c<strong>on</strong>cluded<br />
that something <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> order of 3to5<br />
years is required for teachers to become really<br />
adept at incorporating technology into<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir teaching practice (Sheingold, 1991,<br />
1992). Currently, time to learn <strong>and</strong> effectively<br />
use technology in classrooms remains<br />
a c<strong>on</strong>cern for many teachers (Valm<strong>on</strong>t,<br />
2003). More recent publicati<strong>on</strong>s have emphasized<br />
essential c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for effective<br />
use of technology in classrooms, including<br />
(a) a shared visi<strong>on</strong> for integrati<strong>on</strong>; (b) st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
<strong>and</strong> curricula support; (c) required<br />
policies (e.g., use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Internet, legal use,<br />
equity); (d) access to hardware, software,<br />
<strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r resources; (e) trained pers<strong>on</strong>nel;<br />
(f) technical assistance; <strong>and</strong> (g) appropriate<br />
teaching <strong>and</strong> assessment approaches<br />
(Roblyer, 2006; Whitehead, Jensen, & Boschee,<br />
2003). However, less is known about<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time commitment required for teachers<br />
to become comfortable with integrating AT<br />
into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir curricula (see, e.g., R<strong>and</strong>le & Harris,<br />
2004). Ideally teachers should have time<br />
to learn <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> AT, experiment with it in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
classroom, <strong>and</strong> discuss any difficulties with<br />
support staff (MacArthur, 2001).<br />
The reality of teaching in an early childhood<br />
setting with children identified being<br />
at-risk or having disabilities is that time is a<br />
‘precious commodity’ <strong>and</strong> adequate time-both<br />
for professi<strong>on</strong>al development in learning<br />
to use devices, planning for integrati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> of devices in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum-are<br />
critical elements for successful technology<br />
integrati<strong>on</strong> (Speck & Knipe, 2005). Challenges<br />
of time to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> project staff c<strong>on</strong>tinue to<br />
be of prime c<strong>on</strong>cern.<br />
When <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> MDAT project was first implemented<br />
students did not attend school <strong>on</strong><br />
Friday, <strong>and</strong> that day was designated for professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
development several times a m<strong>on</strong>th.<br />
Within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first year of project implementati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
students began attending school five days<br />
a week. The original professi<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
schedule was significantly affected <strong>and</strong><br />
adaptati<strong>on</strong>s, c<strong>on</strong>sisting of h<strong>and</strong>s-<strong>on</strong> activity<br />
groups in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom c<strong>on</strong>ducted by project<br />
staff <strong>and</strong> graduate students, early morning abbreviated<br />
training sessi<strong>on</strong>s, half day Institute
sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> establishment of user<br />
groups, was immediately implemented. However,<br />
time for professi<strong>on</strong>al development c<strong>on</strong>tinues<br />
to be a challenge for all involved.<br />
Characteristics of students in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> preschool<br />
classrooms also presented unique challenges.<br />
It was found that access to AT in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> homes<br />
varied, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> mobility rate of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students<br />
was high, i.e., children across classrooms were<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>ing in <strong>and</strong> out of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> program.<br />
Teachers also repeatedly reported that dealing<br />
with behavioral c<strong>on</strong>cerns often took precedence<br />
in all activities occurring in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classrooms.<br />
One particular AT strategy that can<br />
assist teachers with behavioral c<strong>on</strong>cerns in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
classroom would be to incorporate visual strategies<br />
to promote appropriate behavior.<br />
Teachers in this project have been instructed<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of Boardmaker <strong>and</strong> Writing with<br />
Symbols to create visual schedules for classroom<br />
routines <strong>and</strong> sequences in specific classroom<br />
activities. This <strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r strategies will<br />
be systematically infused into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> AT professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
development approaches to ensure that<br />
teachers develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> necessary skill sets to use<br />
AT effectively in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum.<br />
AT <strong>and</strong> Literacy<br />
The philosophy of emergent literacy views individuals<br />
who are ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r “chr<strong>on</strong>ologically or<br />
cognitively young learners” as capable of<br />
learning literacy (Pierce & Porter, 1996, p.<br />
142). Skills that emerge during early literacy<br />
learning include an underst<strong>and</strong>ing of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
functi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cept of print. Underst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong> of print can be facilitated by<br />
activities such as reading a story, making lists,<br />
or scribbling <strong>and</strong> drawing (Justice & Pullen,<br />
2003; Sulzby & Teale, 1991). Similarly <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<br />
activities can also facilitate c<strong>on</strong>cepts of print<br />
such as turning <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> page from right to left,<br />
reading from left to right <strong>and</strong> recognizing<br />
printed vocabulary (Pierce & Porter). Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
early literacy interventi<strong>on</strong> is critical<br />
because young children who exhibit difficulties<br />
with emergent literacy skills rarely attain<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literacy level of peers who have adequate<br />
emergent literacy skills (Juel, 1988). The students<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> targeted preschool were identified<br />
as at-risk or had identified disabilities,<br />
which underscored <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> importance of facilitating<br />
emergent literacy skills.<br />
Summary <strong>and</strong> Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The MDAT project has been implemented<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> goal of using AT to foster emerging<br />
literacy skills. However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first step of this<br />
project was to investigate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers’ use <strong>and</strong><br />
perspectives of AT, address <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir needs of professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
development <strong>and</strong> minimize <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
challenges to making AT integral to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir curriculum.<br />
Supported by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge of<br />
teachers’ needs <strong>and</strong> perceived challenges <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
project staff has provided teachers with an AT<br />
toolkit, implemented professi<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
for AT within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> toolkit, <strong>and</strong> modeled<br />
use of AT during group activities. The following<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s are based <strong>on</strong> initial experiences<br />
with this project that should have<br />
applicability to programs nati<strong>on</strong>ally.<br />
Strategy 1. Gain perspectives of stakeholders.<br />
All too often, top-down approaches are used<br />
in public school settings (Kolderie, 1990) that<br />
are sometimes characterized by such artifacts<br />
as lack of teacher input regarding selecti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> development of curricula, budgeting, <strong>and</strong><br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>s regarding professi<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
needs. However, for professi<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
to be successful, teachers need opportunities<br />
to discuss <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir beliefs about technology<br />
<strong>and</strong> its relati<strong>on</strong>ship to pedagogy (MacArthur,<br />
2001). This project assumed that teacher input<br />
was critical to developing effective approaches<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> integrati<strong>on</strong> of AT into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
preschool curricula. For example, had <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research<br />
team not explored teacher percepti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
prior to developing interventi<strong>on</strong> strategies<br />
<strong>and</strong> an AT toolkit to facilitate writing literacy<br />
skills, a decisi<strong>on</strong> may have been made to use<br />
currently available computers (Macs). However,<br />
interviews with teachers revealed that<br />
preferences for operating platforms should be<br />
incorporated into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> AT toolkit to maximize<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir use. The change of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> platform has<br />
increased teacher involvement with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
project, increased <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir use of AT, <strong>and</strong> facilitated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir enthusiasm for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> changes this<br />
project has required. Similarly, at every phase<br />
of project decisi<strong>on</strong>-making regarding curricula<br />
approaches, ideas were presented to teachers<br />
for feedback, <strong>and</strong> teacher suggesti<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
systematically c<strong>on</strong>sidered.<br />
Strategy 2. Ensure flexibility in professi<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
approaches. With <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> loss of a designated<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>al development day, project<br />
Preschool Teacher Percepti<strong>on</strong>s / 87
staff had to make adjustments in key strategies<br />
to meet <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> identified needs of training.<br />
Training sessi<strong>on</strong>s were scheduled before<br />
school, which were minimally successful since<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were of short durati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> offered no<br />
opportunity to have h<strong>and</strong>s-<strong>on</strong> experience with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> technology. Moving into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom<br />
<strong>and</strong> modeling activities for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers has<br />
been received well. The activities embed AT<br />
<strong>and</strong> writing assessments <strong>and</strong> teachers are provided<br />
with a time to observe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of AT.<br />
Strategy 3. Use stipends to support teachers.<br />
Even though <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> U.S. Department of Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
has recommended that 30% of a school<br />
district’s budget be allocated to support professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
development, <strong>on</strong>ly about 6% is allotted<br />
for such activities (Internati<strong>on</strong>al Reading<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong>, 2001). Zabala <strong>and</strong> Carl (2005)<br />
argue that educati<strong>on</strong> agencies have obligati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to (a) include AT in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> technology<br />
planning <strong>and</strong> budgeting processes, <strong>and</strong> (b)<br />
provide c<strong>on</strong>tinuous AT learning opportunities<br />
for teachers. Though it may be difficult to<br />
secure internal funding in school systems to<br />
support teachers for professi<strong>on</strong>al development,<br />
numerous approaches have been promoted<br />
in recent years to exp<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
growth of teachers, including (a)<br />
school/university partnerships (Bauer &<br />
Anders<strong>on</strong>, 2001; Maring, Boxie, & Wiseman,<br />
2000; Wojcik, Peters<strong>on</strong>-Karlan, Watts, & Parette,<br />
2004); (b) use of <strong>on</strong>line professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
development resources [cf. Infinitec Assistive<br />
Technology Coaliti<strong>on</strong>, 2006; North Central<br />
Professi<strong>on</strong>al Development Laboratory, n.d.;<br />
Special Educati<strong>on</strong> Assistive Technology<br />
[SEAT], 2004; (c) cybermentoring (Boxie &<br />
Maring, 2001); (d) <strong>and</strong> increased access to<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong> training (cf. Center<br />
for Applied Special Technology, n.d.; D<strong>on</strong><br />
Johnst<strong>on</strong>, n.d.; Intellitools, n.d.), <strong>and</strong> listservs<br />
(Quality Indicators for Assistive Technology<br />
[QIAT], n.d.). Securing small mini-grants<br />
(Parette, Murdick, & Gartin, 1996) from local<br />
community groups, <strong>and</strong> grants from state <strong>and</strong><br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al private foundati<strong>on</strong>s may also be helpful<br />
in securing resources to support professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
development activities of teachers.<br />
While some <strong>on</strong>-line professi<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
resources are free (e.g., QIAT), o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs require<br />
membership fees or payment for participati<strong>on</strong><br />
88 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
(e.g., Infinitec Assistive Technology Coaliti<strong>on</strong>).<br />
Regardless of costs for professi<strong>on</strong>al development,<br />
teacher participati<strong>on</strong> in any AT curricula<br />
integrati<strong>on</strong> effort can be enhanced by providing<br />
teacher stipends (Hirsch, 2006;<br />
Reichardt, 2001). As noted by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Staff Development Council (Hirsch), schools<br />
must increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir capacity for teachers to<br />
learn <strong>and</strong> use technology by using stipends for<br />
teacher leaders who serve as mentors for new<br />
teachers, team leaders for learning teams, <strong>and</strong><br />
trainers. One strategy that holds particular<br />
promise is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of AT User Groups. Generally,<br />
a user group is defined as “a set of people<br />
who have similar interests, goals, or c<strong>on</strong>cerns.<br />
The members have regular meetings where<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y can share <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir ideas” (Whatis.com,<br />
2006). Creating such groups requires a commitment<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> part of (a) <strong>on</strong>e or more individuals<br />
having expertise with specific AT applicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to serve as a facilitator, <strong>and</strong> (b) a<br />
small group of 6-8 teachers who express interest<br />
in developing new AT integrati<strong>on</strong> skills.<br />
User groups would meet at regularly scheduled<br />
times, such as after school, for 1-2 hours,<br />
<strong>and</strong> allow teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> opportunity to share<br />
ideas with <strong>on</strong>e ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r regarding AT soluti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
used in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir classrooms. It would also allow<br />
for more intensive instructi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> creative<br />
problem-solving in collaborati<strong>on</strong> with <strong>on</strong>e or<br />
more facilitators having more advanced skills.<br />
Integral to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> creati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> maintenance of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se groups is a stipend to support participati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In this project, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research team will<br />
employ a user group approach currently used<br />
in a collaborative project—<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Heart of Illinois<br />
Low Incidence Associati<strong>on</strong> (HILIA)—<br />
which involves a cadre of teachers having AT<br />
interests, <strong>and</strong> who represent Illinois State University,<br />
<strong>and</strong> five school districts in Central Illinois<br />
(SEAT Center, 2006). In this project, a<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong> was made to offer interested teachers<br />
a small stipend to participate in minimum of 6<br />
out of 8 scheduled user group sessi<strong>on</strong>s that<br />
would be held in scheduled after-school sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Since teachers have o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r dem<strong>and</strong>s<br />
placed <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir time (e.g., families) <strong>and</strong> given<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack of time available during typical school<br />
days for professi<strong>on</strong>al development, m<strong>on</strong>etary<br />
incentives are both appropriate <strong>and</strong> necessary.<br />
They ensure teacher buy-in, <strong>and</strong> also support<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> development of critical AT competencies
that would be difficult to develop outside of a<br />
formal, <strong>on</strong>going professi<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
program.<br />
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Received: 20 May 2006<br />
Initial Acceptance: 20 July 2006<br />
Final Acceptance: 1 October 2006<br />
Preschool Teacher Percepti<strong>on</strong>s / 91
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2008, 43(1), 92–101<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities<br />
Effects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR Interventi<strong>on</strong> Program <strong>on</strong> Interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
between Campers with <strong>and</strong> without Disabilities during<br />
Inclusive Summer Day Camp Activities<br />
Christina M. Boyd, Jeffrey L. Fraiman, Kelly A. Hawkins, Jennifer M. Labin,<br />
Mary Beth Sutter, <strong>and</strong> Meghan R. Wahl<br />
University of Maryl<strong>and</strong><br />
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effects of a peer interventi<strong>on</strong> program designed to increase<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s between children with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities in an inclusive summer camp. A multiple probe<br />
single subject design was used to determine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> six dyads of campers aged<br />
five through ten over two week sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Each dyad c<strong>on</strong>sisted of <strong>on</strong>e camper with a mild to moderate disability<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e camper without a disability. The results showed an overall increase in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of interacti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR program was effective in increasing interacti<strong>on</strong>s between campers with <strong>and</strong> without<br />
disabilities. Factors c<strong>on</strong>tributing to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> success of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong> are discussed as well as limitati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Many studies have investigated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> dynamics<br />
of social interacti<strong>on</strong> between young children<br />
with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities. In particular, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
use of peer training has been examined as an<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> to increase social interacti<strong>on</strong>s in<br />
preschool <strong>and</strong> elementary school settings<br />
(Garfinkle & Schwartz, 2002; Goldstein, Kaczmarek,<br />
Penningt<strong>on</strong>, & Shafer, 1992; Hundert<br />
& Hought<strong>on</strong>, 1992; Odom, Ch<strong>and</strong>ler, Ostrosky,<br />
McC<strong>on</strong>nell, & Reaney, 1992). English,<br />
Goldstein, Kaczmarek, <strong>and</strong> Shafer (1996) developed<br />
a peer skills training program that<br />
taught children to “stay,” “play,” <strong>and</strong> “talk”<br />
with a peer with a disability. English, Goldstein,<br />
Shafer, <strong>and</strong> Kaczmarek (1997), Goldstein<br />
<strong>and</strong> English (1997), <strong>and</strong> Laushey <strong>and</strong><br />
Heflin (2000) investigated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> “stay-play-talk” training procedure in preschool<br />
<strong>and</strong> kindergarten children. In all three<br />
studies, children without disabilities received<br />
training sessi<strong>on</strong>s during which <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were<br />
Authors are members of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> University of Maryl<strong>and</strong><br />
Gemst<strong>on</strong>e Program, a multidisciplinary fouryear<br />
research program for selected h<strong>on</strong>ors students.<br />
Dr. Francey Kohl, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> faculty mentor, assisted in<br />
preparing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> manuscript. Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cerning<br />
this article should be addressed to Dr.<br />
Francey Kohl, 1308 Benjamin Building, Department<br />
of Special Educati<strong>on</strong>, University of Maryl<strong>and</strong>, College<br />
Park, MD 20742.<br />
92 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
taught how to interact with a child with a<br />
disability. The results showed a substantial increase<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interacti<strong>on</strong>s within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> dyad after<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> “stay-play-talk” procedure was taught.<br />
G<strong>on</strong>zalez-Lopez <strong>and</strong> Kamps (1997) provided<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> about disabilities to typically<br />
developing peers. In additi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
taught social skills to children with autism <strong>and</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir peers, which increased <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> incidence of<br />
positive interacti<strong>on</strong>s between <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> children.<br />
Sasso, Mundschenk, Melloy, <strong>and</strong> Casey (1998)<br />
examined <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effects of multiple variables <strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> social behavior of children with autism<br />
<strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r developmental disabilities. Results<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research suggested that dyads promoted<br />
social interacti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> part of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
child with a disability better than triads. Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rmore,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study showed that social behaviors<br />
were more prevalent during peer-initiated<br />
free play than when peers were instructed to<br />
teach a child with a disability how to play a<br />
specific game. Despite <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se findings, few research<br />
studies have been published regarding<br />
attempts to increase social interacti<strong>on</strong> between<br />
children with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities<br />
outside of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school setting. Though preschool<br />
<strong>and</strong> elementary schools are critical arenas<br />
for social development in young children,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are not <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly settings where children<br />
come toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, interact, <strong>and</strong> make friends.
TABLE 1<br />
Characteristics of Campers With <strong>and</strong> Without Disabilities<br />
One widely overlooked arena for social interacti<strong>on</strong><br />
is community recreati<strong>on</strong> programs.<br />
There is a dem<strong>on</strong>strated benefit of social<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong> during leisure activities for children<br />
with disabilities (Bedini, 2000). Studies<br />
have examined methods to improve inclusive<br />
recreati<strong>on</strong> in areas such as staff training <strong>and</strong><br />
administrative or structural modificati<strong>on</strong><br />
(Herbert, 2000; Schleien, Germ, & McAvoy,<br />
1996). In additi<strong>on</strong>, several studies have dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> benefit of inclusive recreati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> social acceptance of children with disabilities<br />
(Anders<strong>on</strong>, Schleien, McAvoy, Lais, &<br />
Seligmann, 1997; Devine, 2004; Sable, 1995).<br />
However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se studies did not address improving<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s between children with<br />
<strong>and</strong> without disabilities, which is an extensively<br />
studied area in educati<strong>on</strong>al settings. Due<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack of interventi<strong>on</strong> studies in leisure<br />
settings, research is needed to determine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
impact of peer training at recreati<strong>on</strong> sites.<br />
Therefore, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> purpose of this investigati<strong>on</strong><br />
was to examine effects of a peer interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
procedure designed to increase interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
between children with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities<br />
during an inclusive summer day camp.<br />
Method<br />
Campers Without Disabilities Campers With Disabilities<br />
Camp<br />
Sessi<strong>on</strong> Gender Age Gender Age Disability (Verbal Ability)<br />
1-A Male 7 Female 5 Emoti<strong>on</strong>al Disorder (Verbal)<br />
1-B Female 7 Male 10 <strong>Autism</strong> (Verbal)<br />
1-C Male 5 Male 5 <strong>Autism</strong> (Language Delay)<br />
2-A Male 8 Male 8 Visual Impairment (Verbal)<br />
2-B Female 7 Male 10 <strong>Autism</strong> (Verbal)<br />
2-C Male 7 Male 7 <strong>Autism</strong> (Limited language usage)<br />
Participant Selecti<strong>on</strong><br />
The study was c<strong>on</strong>ducted in an inclusive summer<br />
day camp organized by a suburban community<br />
recreati<strong>on</strong> program in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> mid-Atlantic<br />
regi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> United States. The<br />
investigati<strong>on</strong> took place during regularly<br />
scheduled camp hours (9am-5pm) at indoor<br />
<strong>and</strong> outdoor camp facilities. The camp program<br />
included activities such as organized<br />
team sports, games, arts <strong>and</strong> crafts, <strong>and</strong> swimming.<br />
The ratio of camp staff to children was<br />
approximately 1 to 5. The ratio of children<br />
with disabilities to children without disabilities<br />
was approximately 1 to 10. There were four<br />
two-week camp sessi<strong>on</strong>s in which approximately<br />
20 campers attended per sessi<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
study was implemented during two camp sessi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first <strong>and</strong> third of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sequence. During<br />
each camp sessi<strong>on</strong>, campers at three different<br />
sites were observed. Participants were<br />
summer day campers between five <strong>and</strong> ten<br />
years of age <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sisted of a combinati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
boys <strong>and</strong> girls. Table 1 displays participant<br />
characteristics, including age <strong>and</strong> gender.<br />
Children with disabilities. Recreati<strong>on</strong> coordinators<br />
were asked to mail an informati<strong>on</strong><br />
letter <strong>and</strong> a permissi<strong>on</strong> form to parents of all<br />
campers with disclosed disabilities, maintaining<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fidentiality until <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was an agreement<br />
by parents for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir child to participate<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research. Three campers with disabilities<br />
participated in each camp sessi<strong>on</strong>, for a<br />
total of six campers with disabilities over all<br />
camp sites. All children with disabilities for<br />
whom a parental permissi<strong>on</strong> form was returned<br />
were potential participants. Severity of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> disabilities ranged from mild to moderate.<br />
Children without disabilities. On <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first<br />
day of camp, campers without disabilities <strong>and</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir parents were approached. The research<br />
was explained <strong>and</strong> parents were asked if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
would allow <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir child to participate. If parents<br />
agreed to have <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir child participate,<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> letters <strong>and</strong> permissi<strong>on</strong> forms<br />
STAR Interventi<strong>on</strong> Program / 93
were provided <strong>and</strong> parents were asked to return<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d day of camp. Once<br />
permissi<strong>on</strong> was granted, three campers without<br />
disabilities from each camp sessi<strong>on</strong> were<br />
selected based <strong>on</strong> counselor recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
or r<strong>and</strong>om selecti<strong>on</strong> from those who<br />
volunteered by returning <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir permissi<strong>on</strong><br />
form.<br />
Procedure<br />
Experimental design. A multiple probe single<br />
subject experimental design was used.<br />
During <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d day of camp, baseline observati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of interacti<strong>on</strong>s between campers<br />
with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities began. Camper A<br />
was observed for a minimum of three baseline<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same time that Campers B <strong>and</strong><br />
C were observed for <strong>on</strong>e observati<strong>on</strong>. When<br />
baseline data were stable for Camper A, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> procedures were implemented.<br />
The interventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinued with Camper A<br />
until a noticeable increase in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s was observed <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Camper B<br />
was observed for three additi<strong>on</strong>al baseline observati<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Camper C was observed<br />
for <strong>on</strong>e additi<strong>on</strong>al baseline sessi<strong>on</strong>. When<br />
Camper B had a stable baseline, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
procedure was implemented. Likewise,<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinued until Camper B<br />
showed a noticeable increase in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number<br />
of interacti<strong>on</strong>s. Interventi<strong>on</strong> observati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>tinued for Campers A <strong>and</strong> B, while<br />
Camper C was observed for an additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
three baseline observati<strong>on</strong>s before <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
began.<br />
Dependent variable <strong>and</strong> data collecti<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
dependent variable was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> percentage of intervals<br />
in which an interacti<strong>on</strong> between campers<br />
with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities occurred. The<br />
primary focus of each observati<strong>on</strong> interval was<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camper without a disability, namely<br />
Camper A, B, or C. Interacti<strong>on</strong>s were defined<br />
as social behaviors occurring between campers<br />
with <strong>and</strong> without a disability including: (a)<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> (e.g., sustaining<br />
eye c<strong>on</strong>tact for three sec<strong>on</strong>ds, smiling, waving);<br />
(b) talking to each o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r; (c) directing<br />
an activity (e.g., explaining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> directi<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
an art project); (d) sharing materials; (e) participating<br />
in an activity toge<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r (e.g., assembling<br />
a puzzle); (f) prompting a skill (e.g.,<br />
gesturing to cut materials, modeling how to<br />
94 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
open a jar of paint); (g) physical assistance<br />
(e.g., taking <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong> of camper with a disability<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>nect <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> dots); <strong>and</strong> (h) physical<br />
or verbal encouragement (e.g., patting <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
back, giving a high five, saying “good job”).<br />
Data were collected during 5 minute observati<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5 minutes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re<br />
were a total of twenty 10 sec<strong>on</strong>d intervals for<br />
observing that were separated by 5 sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
intervals for recording. The observer was<br />
prompted via an earph<strong>on</strong>e with a tape recorded<br />
signal to start observing, to stop observing,<br />
or to record. A partial interval recording<br />
system was used in which an interval was<br />
marked indicating that an interacti<strong>on</strong> was observed<br />
regardless of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> frequency of interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
or length of time for each interacti<strong>on</strong>. At<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> end of each observati<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> percentage<br />
of intervals in which interacti<strong>on</strong>s occurred<br />
was determined. Data collecti<strong>on</strong> procedures<br />
were identical for all baseline <strong>and</strong><br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s across all campers<br />
<strong>and</strong> camp sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Independent variable. After baseline data<br />
were completed for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers without disabilities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first part of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
was implemented. Using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> “stay-play-talk”<br />
training by English et al. (1996) as a basis, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
STAR interventi<strong>on</strong> was developed for this<br />
study to target elementary school aged children<br />
in recreati<strong>on</strong> settings. The interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sisted of four behaviors that were modeled<br />
<strong>and</strong> taught to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers without disabilities<br />
to increase interacti<strong>on</strong>s with campers with disabilities:<br />
“S” stood for stay, “T” for talk, “A” for<br />
assist, <strong>and</strong> “R” for reward. Campers without<br />
disabilities were asked after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir baseline observati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were completed if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y would participate<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong>. Before <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
training sessi<strong>on</strong> began, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers without<br />
disabilities were each read an assent form <strong>and</strong><br />
participati<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research was agreed to by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers.<br />
At <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong>, campers<br />
without disabilities were separated from<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> group for no l<strong>on</strong>ger than 20 minutes. The<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong> began with a series of questi<strong>on</strong>s posed<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers: (a) What is a disability? (b)<br />
What are different types of disabilities? <strong>and</strong><br />
(c) What are possible similarities <strong>and</strong> differences<br />
between <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir camp experience <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
way campers with disabilities may experience<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camp? If <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers did not resp<strong>on</strong>d,
appropriate answers were provided. The<br />
campers without disabilities were told that<br />
during an activity such as arts <strong>and</strong> crafts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
would be given a butt<strong>on</strong> illustrating <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR<br />
acr<strong>on</strong>ym, which would be used as a reminder<br />
of how to interact with campers with disabilities.<br />
The campers were partnered with campers<br />
with disabilities <strong>and</strong> asked to be a “STAR.”<br />
After showing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> butt<strong>on</strong> during<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> acr<strong>on</strong>ym was explained.<br />
The explanati<strong>on</strong> included examples as well as<br />
opportunities for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers to participate<br />
in role playing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> four behaviors of “STAR.”<br />
The scenarios, which were used in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> role<br />
play, were chosen based partly <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> disabilities<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir assigned campers. After <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> was completed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers returned<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> group. Each day, when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> targeted<br />
activity occurred (e.g., arts <strong>and</strong> crafts),<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d part of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong> was<br />
implemented. The campers without disabilities<br />
were partnered with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assigned campers<br />
with disabilities, given <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR butt<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
reminded by <strong>on</strong>e of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> researchers to stay,<br />
talk, assist, <strong>and</strong> reward <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers with disabilities.<br />
Interobserver reliability. Six observers (all<br />
authors) acted as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary <strong>and</strong> sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
data collectors. Prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study, all observers became familiar<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> definiti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> dependent variable<br />
<strong>and</strong> what qualified as an interacti<strong>on</strong> between<br />
campers. Data collectors were paired off <strong>and</strong><br />
given a tape recorder with a double jack for<br />
two separate ear ph<strong>on</strong>es. Observers practiced<br />
data collecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> calculati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> a video of<br />
children interacting until a reliability agreement<br />
of 90% or above was reached. A point by<br />
point formula was used to calculate reliability:<br />
number of agreements of interacti<strong>on</strong> intervals<br />
divided by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of agreements plus<br />
disagreements of interacti<strong>on</strong> intervals multiplied<br />
by 100. During camp observati<strong>on</strong>s, two<br />
observers entered <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> room with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> tape recorder<br />
<strong>and</strong> double jack earph<strong>on</strong>es, sat as far<br />
away as possible from <strong>on</strong>e ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <strong>and</strong> listened<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> observe, record, or stop prompts<br />
with separate headsets.<br />
Procedural reliability. Procedural reliability<br />
was calculated for two different aspects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
study: (a) during all training sessi<strong>on</strong>s in which<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers without disabilities were taught<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> (b) before daily<br />
observati<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s when a reminder of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
STAR procedures was given al<strong>on</strong>g with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
STAR butt<strong>on</strong>. Procedural reliability was observed<br />
<strong>and</strong> recorded by <strong>on</strong>e of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> authors. A<br />
checklist of steps that was to be followed for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong> was used to insure all<br />
training steps were completed. During procedural<br />
reliability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> researcher observed <strong>and</strong><br />
recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of steps completed correctly.<br />
To calculate reliability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following<br />
formula was used: number of steps completed<br />
divided by total number of steps multiplied by<br />
100.<br />
Results<br />
Results of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong> program <strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> percentage of interacti<strong>on</strong>s between campers<br />
with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities in Camp Sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
1 are presented in Figure 1. The baseline<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Camper 1-A c<strong>on</strong>sisted of three<br />
observati<strong>on</strong> periods with no interacti<strong>on</strong>s occurring<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camper with a disability. The<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Camper 1-A c<strong>on</strong>sisted<br />
of 12 observati<strong>on</strong> periods with an average<br />
of 33.8% interacti<strong>on</strong>s with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camper<br />
with a disability, ranging from 5-55%. The<br />
baseline c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Camper 1-B c<strong>on</strong>sisted<br />
of four observati<strong>on</strong> periods with an average of<br />
3.8% interacti<strong>on</strong>s with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> designated camper<br />
with a disability <strong>and</strong> a range of 0-15%. When<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was introduced for<br />
Camper 1-B over 12 observati<strong>on</strong> periods, an<br />
average of 20.4% interacti<strong>on</strong>s occurred, ranging<br />
from 0-45%. The baseline c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for<br />
Camper 1-C c<strong>on</strong>sisted of five observati<strong>on</strong> periods<br />
during which no interacti<strong>on</strong>s occurred<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camper with a disability. The interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Camper 1-C c<strong>on</strong>sisted of<br />
three observati<strong>on</strong> periods with an average of<br />
35% interacti<strong>on</strong>s with a range of 10-75%.<br />
Results of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong> program<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> percentage of interacti<strong>on</strong>s between<br />
campers with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities over<br />
each observati<strong>on</strong> period in Camp Sessi<strong>on</strong> 2<br />
are presented in Figure 2. The baseline c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
for Camper 2-A c<strong>on</strong>sisted of three observati<strong>on</strong><br />
periods with an average of 1.7% interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camper with a disability,<br />
ranging from 0-5%. When <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Camper 2-A was in effect for 16<br />
observati<strong>on</strong> periods, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> average percentage<br />
of interacti<strong>on</strong>s was 31.6% with a range of 10-<br />
STAR Interventi<strong>on</strong> Program / 95
Figure 1. Effects of STAR interventi<strong>on</strong> program <strong>on</strong> percentage of interacti<strong>on</strong>s between campers with <strong>and</strong><br />
without disabilities during camp Sessi<strong>on</strong> 1.<br />
96 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008
Figure 2. Effects of STAR interventi<strong>on</strong> program <strong>on</strong> percentage of interacti<strong>on</strong>s between campers with <strong>and</strong><br />
without disabilities during camp Sessi<strong>on</strong> 2.<br />
STAR Interventi<strong>on</strong> Program / 97
55%. The baseline c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Camper 2-B<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sisted of four observati<strong>on</strong> periods with an<br />
average of 2.5% of interacti<strong>on</strong>s occurring with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camper with a disability, ranging from<br />
0-10%. Once <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was<br />
introduced for Camper 2-B over 12 observati<strong>on</strong><br />
periods, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> average percentage of interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
was 16.7% with a range of 0%-60%.<br />
The baseline c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for Camper 2-C c<strong>on</strong>sisted<br />
of five observati<strong>on</strong> periods with an average<br />
of 1% of interacti<strong>on</strong>s occurring with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
designated camper with a disability, ranging<br />
from 0-5%. The interventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for<br />
Camper 2-C c<strong>on</strong>sisted of 12 observati<strong>on</strong> periods<br />
with an average of 20.8% interacti<strong>on</strong>s with<br />
a range of 0-65%.<br />
Results of this investigati<strong>on</strong> showed that after<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong> training was given to each<br />
camper without a disability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> average percentage<br />
of interacti<strong>on</strong>s between campers with<br />
<strong>and</strong> without disabilities increased across all six<br />
campers. The mean percentage of increased<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s for all six campers from baseline<br />
to interventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s was 26.4%.<br />
Interobserver reliability. During <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> baseline<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for Camp Sessi<strong>on</strong> 1 (N 12)<br />
across all three campers, reliability measures<br />
were taken <strong>on</strong> 75% of all sessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
mean reliability calculati<strong>on</strong> was 100%. During<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s for Camp Sessi<strong>on</strong> 1 (N <br />
27) across all three campers, reliability measures<br />
were taken <strong>on</strong> 44% of all sessi<strong>on</strong>s, with a<br />
mean of 97.5% agreement <strong>and</strong> a range of<br />
90-100%. Therefore, in Sessi<strong>on</strong> 1 across all<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> campers, reliability was taken<br />
<strong>on</strong> 54% of all observati<strong>on</strong>s with a mean of<br />
99.2% agreement <strong>and</strong> a range of 90-100%.<br />
During baseline c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for Camp Sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
2 (N 12) across all three campers,<br />
reliability measures were taken <strong>on</strong> 75% of all<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean reliability calculati<strong>on</strong><br />
was 100%. During interventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
Camp Sessi<strong>on</strong> 2 (N 40) across all three<br />
campers, reliability measures were taken <strong>on</strong><br />
27.5% of all sessi<strong>on</strong>s, with a mean of 95.8%<br />
agreement <strong>and</strong> a range of 90-100%. Therefore,<br />
in Camp Sessi<strong>on</strong> 2 across all c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> campers, reliability was taken <strong>on</strong> 36.5% of<br />
all observati<strong>on</strong>s with a mean of 98% ranging<br />
from 90-100%. Overall, for Camp Sessi<strong>on</strong>s 1<br />
<strong>and</strong> 2 across all baseline c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> six campers, interobserver<br />
reliability was obtained <strong>on</strong> 44% of all<br />
observati<strong>on</strong>s with a mean of 98.6% agreement<br />
<strong>and</strong> a range of 90-100%.<br />
Procedural reliability. On 100% of all STAR<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> training sessi<strong>on</strong>s across both<br />
camp sessi<strong>on</strong>s with six campers, procedural<br />
reliability was taken by a sec<strong>on</strong>dary observer. A<br />
checklist of 20 critical steps necessary to implement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong> program was<br />
generated. During <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong> training<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>dary observer indicated<br />
whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> trainer implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sistently. The number of<br />
steps implemented during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
training divided by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> total number of steps<br />
(N 20) multiplied by 100 yielded procedural<br />
reliability results. For Camp Sessi<strong>on</strong>s 1<br />
<strong>and</strong> 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean procedural reliability was<br />
100%.<br />
On 38.9% of all daily reminder sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
across both camp sessi<strong>on</strong>s, procedural reliability<br />
was taken by a sec<strong>on</strong>dary observer. A checklist<br />
of five critical steps necessary to implement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> daily reminders was generated. During <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
daily reminder sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d observer<br />
indicated whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> trainer implemented<br />
each step. The number of steps implemented<br />
during interventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s divided by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
total number of steps (N 5) multiplied by<br />
100 yielded procedural reliability results. For<br />
Camp Sessi<strong>on</strong>s 1 <strong>and</strong> 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean procedural<br />
reliability for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> reminder procedures was<br />
100%.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
98 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
The STAR program was shown to be an effective<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> to increase interacti<strong>on</strong>s between<br />
campers with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities in<br />
each of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> six pairs in an inclusive summer<br />
day camp. These results were similar to those<br />
found by English et al. (1997), Goldstein <strong>and</strong><br />
English (1997), <strong>and</strong> Laushey <strong>and</strong> Heflin<br />
(2000) in school settings. It is believed that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> increase in interacti<strong>on</strong>s between campers<br />
with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two<br />
week camp sessi<strong>on</strong>s was a direct result of a<br />
combinati<strong>on</strong> of variables. First, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> initial<br />
training sessi<strong>on</strong> provided useful informati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> disabilities by emphasizing similarities<br />
across all campers <strong>and</strong> helped to make <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
campers feel more comfortable around <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
peers with disabilities. The importance of<br />
training for children without disabilities re-
garding how to effectively interact with children<br />
with disabilities has been echoed by several<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r studies (Goldstein & English;<br />
G<strong>on</strong>zalez-Lopez & Kamps, 1997). Sec<strong>on</strong>dly,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR procedures (specifically, “stay, talk,<br />
assist, <strong>and</strong> reward”) were effective because<br />
campers without disabilities were given specific<br />
ways to initiate <strong>and</strong> sustain interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
with campers with disabilities. Finally, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
daily reminders were beneficial <strong>and</strong> necessary<br />
because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y prompted <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers to assist<br />
campers with disabilities in specific camp activities.<br />
However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re were sudden drops in interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for certain observati<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s. In<br />
most of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se cases, camp circumstances bey<strong>on</strong>d<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> researchers’ c<strong>on</strong>trol led to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> decreased<br />
frequency of interacti<strong>on</strong>s. Decreases<br />
in interacti<strong>on</strong>s occurred when observed activities<br />
ended prematurely. The remainder of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> observati<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong> was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
while transiti<strong>on</strong>ing to ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r activity <strong>and</strong> interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were not as likely to occur. In instances<br />
where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> frequency of interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
dropped to zero, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary reas<strong>on</strong> was that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camper without a disability became too<br />
engrossed in his or her own assigned activity<br />
<strong>and</strong> failed to interact with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camper with a<br />
disability.<br />
The atmosphere surrounding <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camp also<br />
affected <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> frequency of interacti<strong>on</strong>s between<br />
campers. On multiple occasi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> observati<strong>on</strong><br />
periods were affected by changes in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
daily schedule that resulted in all or part of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> observati<strong>on</strong> occurring during activities<br />
where interacti<strong>on</strong>s were made difficult by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>straints of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> activity. Not all observati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were able to occur during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> passive activity<br />
of arts <strong>and</strong> crafts as originally planned <strong>and</strong> it<br />
was found that physical, outdoor activities often<br />
produced fewer interacti<strong>on</strong>s between<br />
campers. Some observati<strong>on</strong> periods were also<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted during unstructured activities because<br />
field trips occupied <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> majority of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
day, which also decreased <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> frequency of<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s observed. Ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r factor was<br />
daily absences by ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r camper, interrupting<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> flow of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>. Also, counselors,<br />
particularly <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> counselors in training (CIT)<br />
who were adolescent volunteers, <strong>on</strong> occasi<strong>on</strong><br />
interfered with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers during observati<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Most of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers with disabilities<br />
were assigned a CIT by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> recreati<strong>on</strong><br />
department who would sometimes m<strong>on</strong>opolize<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> attenti<strong>on</strong> of his or her camper, which<br />
obstructed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camper without a disability<br />
from assisting his or her partner.<br />
Despite <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> success of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
program could be improved by refining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
STAR procedures. It was found that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> training<br />
for some of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers without disabilities<br />
appeared to have been too advanced for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir age, which ranged from five to eight<br />
years. The c<strong>on</strong>cept of a disability was not always<br />
understood by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> younger campers,<br />
which affected <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
STAR procedures. This was especially true of<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s where campers had a disability that<br />
was not visible. Some of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers had mild<br />
disabilities, such as an emoti<strong>on</strong>al disorder,<br />
which were not discernable to o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r campers.<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, some campers without disabilities<br />
would focus <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e or two comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong>, such as stay<br />
<strong>and</strong> talk. One possible way to remedy <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
problem would be to use picture symbols for<br />
stay, talk, assist, <strong>and</strong> reward displayed <strong>on</strong> an<br />
index card that could be placed in fr<strong>on</strong>t of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
camper. The modeling <strong>and</strong> role-playing comp<strong>on</strong>ent<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong> was also essential.<br />
Adding more practice to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> role-playing comp<strong>on</strong>ent<br />
may help <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camper without disabilities<br />
to better underst<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> expectati<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR procedure. This could be accomplished<br />
by including a guided approach that<br />
would start with modeling, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n a prompted<br />
role-playing situati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> finally lead to independent<br />
role-playing by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camper.<br />
Although <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> daily reminders were critical<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> success of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR program, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
could also be improved in three ways. The first<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong> is to implement a role-playing<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent similar to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> initial interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> daily routine by having <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers<br />
act out specific behaviors of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>s before receiving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> butt<strong>on</strong><br />
each day. This may enhance younger campers’<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedures <strong>and</strong> fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir interacti<strong>on</strong>s. The sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong> would be to allow <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camp<br />
staff to give <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> daily reminders. This familiarity<br />
may help <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers feel more comfortable<br />
in asking questi<strong>on</strong>s about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers’<br />
disability, how to assist, <strong>and</strong> what is expected<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m, as well as facilitate generalizati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR behaviors across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> entire day. The<br />
STAR Interventi<strong>on</strong> Program / 99
last recommendati<strong>on</strong> would be to provide<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structive feedback at each daily reminder<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers without disabilities<br />
about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir interacti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> previous camp<br />
day.<br />
Limitati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
There were several factors both foreseen <strong>and</strong><br />
unforeseen that produced limitati<strong>on</strong>s to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
results of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong>. As is often<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> case with inclusive recreati<strong>on</strong> programs,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re were very few participants with disabilities<br />
at each camp site. For this study <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re<br />
were <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e or two campers with disabilities<br />
who had permissi<strong>on</strong> to participate in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study<br />
at each camp site <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se campers had mild<br />
disabilities that were not apparent to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
campers. It is unclear if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> results of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study<br />
would have been different if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers with<br />
disabilities had impairments easily recognizable<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r campers (e.g., a child in a<br />
wheelchair).<br />
An additi<strong>on</strong>al limitati<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research<br />
comes as a result of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> design of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
itself. During <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> baseline c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities were<br />
seated away from each o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, essentially eliminating<br />
any opportunity for interacti<strong>on</strong> between<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two. During <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong> observati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers with <strong>and</strong> without<br />
disabilities were seated next to each o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r.<br />
Simply placing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> campers next to each o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
may have increased <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> incidence of interacti<strong>on</strong><br />
between <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m. The campers without disabilities<br />
were always free to move during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
interventi<strong>on</strong>; however, most stayed in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> seat<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were asked to sit in. Had <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> participant<br />
pool been larger, it may have been possible to<br />
take baseline data <strong>and</strong> complete <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
with a camper who was initially sitting<br />
next to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> camper with a disability.<br />
Future Directi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The positive results of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
have far-reaching directi<strong>on</strong>s for future research.<br />
It is important to replicate across different<br />
variables so <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong> may<br />
be used by a variety of recreati<strong>on</strong> programs in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> future. It is also important to replicate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
procedures using campers with a variety of<br />
disabilities <strong>and</strong> a range of severity. This should<br />
include campers with physical, emoti<strong>on</strong>al, <strong>and</strong><br />
cognitive disabilities. Procedures should be<br />
replicated using different recreati<strong>on</strong> settings<br />
<strong>and</strong> activities, such as team sports, games,<br />
swimming, <strong>and</strong> dance. A final factor to c<strong>on</strong>sider<br />
for future research is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age <strong>and</strong> gender<br />
similarities of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pair of campers. Gender<br />
<strong>and</strong> age differences in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> dyads may have<br />
affected <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> results of this investigati<strong>on</strong>, but<br />
future replicati<strong>on</strong>s with pairs of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same gender<br />
or age versus pairs of differing gender <strong>and</strong><br />
age will give fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r insight into facilitating<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s in camp settings. Future studies<br />
could also explore different interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> age of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> child, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use<br />
of pictures for younger children versus abstract<br />
presentati<strong>on</strong>s for older children. Future<br />
research will streng<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> STAR interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> will exp<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
opportunity for many recreati<strong>on</strong> programs to<br />
use this method to increase friendships<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g campers with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities.<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g> of <strong>Autism</strong> <strong>and</strong> Developmental Disabilities, 30,<br />
183–193.<br />
Odom, S. L., Ch<strong>and</strong>ler, L. K., Ostrosky, M., McC<strong>on</strong>nell,<br />
S. R., & Reaney, S. (1992). Fading teacher<br />
prompts from peer-initiated interventi<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
young children with disabilities. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g> of Applied<br />
Behavior Analysis, 25, 307–317.<br />
Sable, J. R. (1995). Efficacy of physical integrati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
disability awareness, <strong>and</strong> adventure programming<br />
<strong>on</strong> adolescents’ acceptance of individuals with<br />
disabilities. Therapeutic Recreati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 29, 206–<br />
227.<br />
Sasso, G. M., Mundschenk, N. A., Melloy, K. J., &<br />
Casey, S. D. (1998). A comparis<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effects of<br />
organismic <strong>and</strong> setting variables <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> social<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong> behavior of children with developmental<br />
disabilities <strong>and</strong> autism. Focus <strong>on</strong> <strong>Autism</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r Developmental Disabilities, 13, 2–17.<br />
Schleien, S. J., Germ, P. A., & McAvoy, L. H. (1996).<br />
Inclusive community leisure services: Recommended<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>al practices <strong>and</strong> barriers encountered.<br />
Therapeutic Recreati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Journal</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 30, 260–<br />
273.<br />
Received: 23 August 2006<br />
Initial Acceptance: 17 October 2006<br />
Final Acceptance: 9 January 2007<br />
STAR Interventi<strong>on</strong> Program / 101
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2008, 43(1), 102–110<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities<br />
Use of a H<strong>and</strong>held Prompting System to Transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
Independently Through Vocati<strong>on</strong>al Tasks for Students with<br />
Moderate <strong>and</strong> Severe Intellectual Disabilities<br />
David F. Cihak<br />
University of Tennessee<br />
Kelby Kessler <strong>and</strong> Paul A. Alberto<br />
Georgia State University<br />
Abstract: The use of a h<strong>and</strong>held prompting system by four students with moderate to severe intellectual<br />
disabilities to independently transiti<strong>on</strong> between an ordered chain of tasks was examined in a community<br />
vocati<strong>on</strong>al setting Effectiveness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held prompting system was assessed using a multiple-probe design<br />
across participants. Analysis of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data revealed that students successfully used <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held system to increase<br />
independent transiti<strong>on</strong>s from task to task. Independent transiti<strong>on</strong>ing was maintained at a 100% level for up<br />
to nine weeks.<br />
The need to shift stimulus c<strong>on</strong>trol from a<br />
teacher to some o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r stimulus in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment provides a foundati<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
development of self-management procedures<br />
(Cooper, Her<strong>on</strong>, & Heward, 1987; Kazdin,<br />
1994; Repp, 1983). Self-management procedures<br />
frequently limit discriminative stimuli<br />
allowing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual to focus attenti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> a<br />
target behavior (Gifford, Rusch, Martin, &<br />
White, 1984). One self-management procedure<br />
that promotes a shift in stimulus c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
by limiting discriminative stimuli is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of<br />
h<strong>and</strong>held prompting systems (Cihak, Kessler,<br />
& Alberto, in press; Davies, Stock, & Wehmeyer,<br />
2002a, 2002b, 2004; Fergus<strong>on</strong>, Myles-<br />
Smith, & Hagiwara, 2005; Furniss et al., 2001;<br />
Riffel et al., 2005).<br />
Workers with moderate <strong>and</strong> severe intellectual<br />
disabilities often are asked to change<br />
from <strong>on</strong>e task to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next without help. Those<br />
who are unable to do so may experience decreased<br />
success (Lagomarcino, Hughes, &<br />
Rusch, 1989; Mank & Horner, 1988), maintain<br />
excessive dependence <strong>on</strong> job coaches <strong>and</strong><br />
exhibit limited behavioral maintenance<br />
(Rusch, 1986), engage in off-task behavior<br />
while waiting for external delivered prompts<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cerning this article should<br />
be addressed to David Cihak, College of Educati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Health, & Human Sciences, A412 Claxt<strong>on</strong> Complex,<br />
Knoxville, TN 37996-3442.<br />
102 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
(Browder & Shapiro, 1985; MacDuff, Krantz,<br />
McClannahan, 1993), <strong>and</strong> maintain low productivity<br />
rates (Agran, Fodor-Davis, & Moore,<br />
1986). The probability of those undesirable<br />
outcomes was decreased by instructi<strong>on</strong> in specific<br />
self-management skills (Certo, Mezzullo,<br />
& Hunter, 1985; Rusch, Martin, Lagomarcino,<br />
& White, 1987). Thus, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of h<strong>and</strong>held<br />
prompting systems by workers with moderate<br />
<strong>and</strong> severe intellectual disabilities may result<br />
in employee aut<strong>on</strong>omy <strong>and</strong> decrease dependence<br />
<strong>on</strong> coworkers, teachers, job coaches,<br />
<strong>and</strong> peers (Cihak et al., in press; Davies et al.,<br />
2002a, b, 2004; Fergus<strong>on</strong> et al., 2005; Furniss<br />
et al., 2001; Riffel et al., 2005).<br />
H<strong>and</strong>held computers (e.g., PDA, Pocket<br />
PC) are promising technology devices because<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y are portable, inexpensive, reliable, easy<br />
to maintain, program, use, <strong>and</strong> are socially<br />
desirable. One way to distinguish between<br />
h<strong>and</strong>held computer technologies is between<br />
commercially available devices <strong>and</strong> those that<br />
are custom made for an individual pers<strong>on</strong><br />
(Cook & Hussey, 2002). The term commercially<br />
available refers to devices that are massproduced.<br />
These include commercial devices<br />
designed for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> general populati<strong>on</strong>. Increasingly,<br />
commercial products are being designed<br />
according to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> principles of universal<br />
design. Universal design is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> design of technologies<br />
to be usable by all people, to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
greatest extent possible, without <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for<br />
adaptati<strong>on</strong> or specialized design. In this ap-
proach, features are built into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> product<br />
(e.g., various display opti<strong>on</strong>s-visual, auditory;<br />
alternatives to reading text-ic<strong>on</strong>s, pictures),<br />
which makes a product more accessible to<br />
individuals with disabilities. This is much less<br />
expensive than adapting a product after producti<strong>on</strong><br />
in order to meet <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs of an<br />
individual with a disability.<br />
If commercially available devices cannot<br />
meet an individual’s needs, it may be modified.<br />
However, when modificati<strong>on</strong> or commercial<br />
devices are not appropriate, it is necessary<br />
to design <strong>on</strong>e specifically for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> task-at-h<strong>and</strong>.<br />
This approach results in a custom device.<br />
Since custom products are not mass-produced,<br />
a custom device costs are much higher<br />
because it is a special product or a “<strong>on</strong>e of a<br />
kind” <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> costs of development must be<br />
recovered from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> smaller producti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Using a custom-made h<strong>and</strong>held device <strong>and</strong><br />
software, Davis et al. (2002a, 2002b, 2004)<br />
reported that participants with intellectual disabilities<br />
were more independent, required<br />
fewer external prompts, were more productive,<br />
<strong>and</strong> made fewer errors. Custom-made<br />
h<strong>and</strong>held computers <strong>and</strong> software have been<br />
used successfully across various disability characteristics<br />
including, developmental delay, autism,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Prader Willi Syndrome (Riffel et al.,<br />
2005). Moreover, custom-made devices have<br />
supported individuals with special needs in<br />
career <strong>and</strong> leisure activities (Furniss et al.,<br />
2001). Furniss et al. c<strong>on</strong>cluded that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of<br />
a custom-h<strong>and</strong>held prompting system was<br />
more effective than static picture prompts in a<br />
booklet, it was easily used in real work settings,<br />
<strong>and</strong> that students with severe disabilities preferred<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held device to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture<br />
booklet.<br />
Using a commercially produced h<strong>and</strong>held<br />
device <strong>and</strong> software, Fergus<strong>on</strong> et al. (2005)<br />
successfully decreased adult reliance to complete<br />
tasks at home <strong>and</strong> school for <strong>on</strong>e adolescent<br />
with Asperger’s Syndrome. Cihak et al.<br />
(in press) also used a commercially produced<br />
h<strong>and</strong>held device to successfully teach students<br />
with moderate intellectual disabilities to operate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held prompting system<br />
<strong>and</strong> to generalize skills across increasing complex<br />
vocati<strong>on</strong>al tasks in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> work setting without<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al training. Although <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature<br />
has noted that h<strong>and</strong>held computers<br />
efficacy for task acquisiti<strong>on</strong>, generalizati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> maintenance, Davies et al. (2004) noted<br />
that fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r research was needed to assess <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
effectiveness of h<strong>and</strong>held computers as a<br />
prompting system across a variety of tasks,<br />
domains, <strong>and</strong> ecologically valid work <strong>and</strong> employment<br />
settings.<br />
The purpose of this study was to determine<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of a commercially-produced<br />
h<strong>and</strong>held computer, as a prompting system to<br />
facilitate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> independent transiti<strong>on</strong>s from<br />
task to task in a community-based vocati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
instructi<strong>on</strong>al site for students with moderate<br />
<strong>and</strong> severe intellectual disabilities.<br />
Method<br />
Participants<br />
Four students, Aar<strong>on</strong>, Bill, Cate, <strong>and</strong> Doug<br />
were selected to participate based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following:<br />
(a) willingness to participate, (b) level<br />
of cognitive functi<strong>on</strong>ing within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> moderate<br />
to severe intellectual disability range, (c) current<br />
participati<strong>on</strong> in a high school program<br />
with regularly scheduled community-based instructi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
(d) no sensory deficits, (e) parental<br />
permissi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> (f) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s verbal agreement<br />
to participate. Aar<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Doug were 16<br />
years olds with a full-scale IQ of 36 <strong>and</strong> 40,<br />
respectfully. Bill <strong>and</strong> Cate were 17 years old<br />
with a full-scale IQ of 48 <strong>and</strong> 50, respectfully.<br />
IQ’s were assessed using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Wechsler Intelligence<br />
for Children (Wechsler, 1991) for<br />
Aar<strong>on</strong>, Bill, <strong>and</strong> Doug. The St<strong>and</strong>ford Binet<br />
(Thorndike, Hagen, & Sattler, 1986) was used<br />
to assess Cate. Students were able to independently<br />
complete individual tasks; however,<br />
each was dependent <strong>on</strong> an external source for<br />
task transiti<strong>on</strong>s. According to teacher reports,<br />
after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> completi<strong>on</strong> of individual task, if students<br />
were not prompted immediately to begin<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next task, each student would usually<br />
engage in some form of off-task behavior.<br />
Settings<br />
Pretraining instructi<strong>on</strong> using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held<br />
computer occurred in each student’s school<br />
resource classroom. Baseline, h<strong>and</strong>held<br />
prompting, <strong>and</strong> maintenance phases occurred<br />
during community-based instructi<strong>on</strong> (CBI) in<br />
three community settings; grocery store, department<br />
store <strong>and</strong> restaurant. Stores <strong>and</strong> res-<br />
H<strong>and</strong>held Prompting System / 103
TABLE 1<br />
Tasks assigned to each student<br />
taurant were selected because of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>venient<br />
locati<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students’ neighborhood<br />
school. Community instructi<strong>on</strong> for Aar<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Bill was at a grocery store, Doug at a restaurant,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Cate at a department store.<br />
Materials<br />
A Kodak DX3600 Zoom digital camera was<br />
used to digitally photograph each task analyzed<br />
step. Digital photos were <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n downloaded<br />
into an Axium X30 h<strong>and</strong>held computer<br />
that was used to deliver <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture <strong>and</strong><br />
auditory prompts. The Axium X30 was selected<br />
since it was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> least expensive device<br />
that allowed capabilities of photo display <strong>and</strong><br />
to record narrati<strong>on</strong>. Picture Perfect software<br />
was used to develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture <strong>and</strong> auditory<br />
prompts task sequence. The Picture Perfect<br />
software was selected due to its relative inexpensive<br />
price <strong>and</strong> capabilities of creating a<br />
relatively easy picture <strong>and</strong> auditory prompting<br />
system. Students placed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held computer<br />
in a pack fastened to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir waist with a<br />
small headph<strong>on</strong>e that attached around <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ear. The headph<strong>on</strong>e wire was worn under <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
uniform to reduce interference during task<br />
engagement. Students advanced <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompting<br />
system by pressing an arrow hardware butt<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Tasks<br />
Ten vocati<strong>on</strong>al tasks were identified for each<br />
student at each work site. Table 1 displays <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Students<br />
Aar<strong>on</strong> Bill Cate Doug<br />
Tasks 1) Ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring carts, 1) Ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring carts, 1) Straightening mushrooms, 1) Preparing coleslaw,<br />
2) Stocking milk, 2) Stocking milk, 2) Stocking bananas, 2) Preparing broccoli,<br />
3) Vacuuming, 3) Vacuuming, 3) Stocking pineapples, 3) Skewering shrimp,<br />
4) Preparing rolls, 4) Preparing rolls, 4) Cleaning fitting room, 4) Preparing tea,<br />
5) Putting back returns, 5) Putting back returns, 5) Cleaning registers, 5) Rolling silverware,<br />
6) Stocking cans, 6) Stocking cans, 6) Clo<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>s processing, 6) Bussing tables,<br />
7) Making cookies, 7) Making cookies, 7) Sweeping, 7) Setting tables,<br />
8) Cleaning registers, 8) Cleaning registers, 8) Cleaning windows, 8) Sweeping,<br />
9) Cleaning windows, 9) Cleaning windows, 9) Stocking picture frames, 9) Cleaning windows,<br />
10) Sweeping 10) Sweeping 10) Dusting shelves 10) Taking out trash<br />
list of tasks each student completed <strong>and</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
to <strong>and</strong> from. Tasks were r<strong>and</strong>omly<br />
ordered so that no two individual tasks would<br />
follow <strong>on</strong>e ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r from sessi<strong>on</strong> to sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Data Collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
104 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Event recording was used to record <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number<br />
of times a student independently transiti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
to a separate vocati<strong>on</strong>al task within a<br />
prescribed chain of tasks. Ten tasks were identified<br />
for each student. Since each student<br />
began <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir workday in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> employees’ breakroom,<br />
a total of 10 transiti<strong>on</strong>s were available.<br />
An independent transiti<strong>on</strong> was defined as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
student’s ability to move from task to task<br />
without relying <strong>on</strong> an individual to direct him<br />
or her. A student’s independent transiti<strong>on</strong> to<br />
a task was recorded as correct when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student<br />
completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first task, physically<br />
moved to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d task area, <strong>and</strong> completed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first step of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next task. These transiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
occurred after correct completi<strong>on</strong> of each individual<br />
ordered task. A transiti<strong>on</strong> was c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
assisted if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student asked for directi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>on</strong> what was next, waited for some<strong>on</strong>e to<br />
provide assistance (a verbal reminder to use a<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held prompting system was provided<br />
after 10s), or received unanticipated instructi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
from a coworker (such as gestures). If a<br />
student, after receiving a h<strong>and</strong>held prompt,<br />
moved to an unprompted task out of sequence,<br />
he or she was provided with a verbal<br />
reminder of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next task <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
was recorded as assisted. The total number of
independent transiti<strong>on</strong>s were totaled <strong>and</strong> divided<br />
by 10 to compute a percentage of independent<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>s for each student.<br />
Experimental Design<br />
A multiple-probe design across participants<br />
(Barlow & Hersen, 1984) was used to determine<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> efficacy of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held prompting<br />
system <strong>and</strong> student’s independent transiti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The multiple-probe design allowed sequential<br />
applicati<strong>on</strong>, comparis<strong>on</strong> effectiveness, <strong>and</strong> an<br />
opportunity to replicate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
h<strong>and</strong>held prompting system across students.<br />
The study included three phases; baseline, acquisiti<strong>on</strong><br />
of h<strong>and</strong>held prompting instructi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> maintenance phases. Prior to baseline a<br />
pre-training period occurred during which<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students were taught to operate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held<br />
prompting system, to select <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> different<br />
tasks to perform, to press <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> hardware butt<strong>on</strong><br />
to advance to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next step of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> task analysis<br />
<strong>and</strong> to follow <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> recorded directi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Tasks were ordered in a semi-r<strong>and</strong>om fashi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> a sessi<strong>on</strong>-by-sessi<strong>on</strong> basis to ensure that<br />
no two individual tasks would follow <strong>on</strong>e sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next ensuring different task-to-task<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>s for each sessi<strong>on</strong>. Before <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong> phase, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
names all 10 tasks were written <strong>on</strong> a piece of<br />
paper <strong>and</strong> r<strong>and</strong>omly drawn. If a task was<br />
drawn, that followed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same task from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
previous sessi<strong>on</strong>, it was returned to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> drawing<br />
<strong>and</strong> ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r task was selected. The r<strong>and</strong>omizati<strong>on</strong><br />
of task ordering allowed different<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>s to occur <strong>on</strong> a sessi<strong>on</strong>-by-sessi<strong>on</strong> basis,<br />
which reduced <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> likelihood of practice<br />
effects <strong>and</strong> students remembering what transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
was next.<br />
Experimental Procedures<br />
Pretraining. Similar to Cihak et al. (in<br />
press), prior to baseline, students’ participated<br />
in a pretraining period. For <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first<br />
phase of pretraining, students were instructed<br />
how to operate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held computer. They<br />
were instructed to physically turn <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> device,<br />
to wear <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> headph<strong>on</strong>es, to select colorcued<br />
ic<strong>on</strong>s representing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> different tasks or<br />
jobs to perform, <strong>and</strong> to select a color-cued<br />
hardware butt<strong>on</strong> to advance to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next step<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> task analysis.<br />
In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d phase, students were required<br />
to turn-<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> device <strong>and</strong> select a prerecorded<br />
ic<strong>on</strong>, which caused a popped-up window to<br />
occur with a familiar picture plus auditory<br />
prompt, <strong>and</strong> to follow each instructi<strong>on</strong>. Students<br />
also were required to press <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> hardware<br />
butt<strong>on</strong> to display <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next directi<strong>on</strong>. The prerecorded<br />
device instructed students to complete<br />
a two-step task familiar to students <strong>and</strong><br />
normally associated with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir morning classroom<br />
routine. Students were instructed to<br />
“close <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> door <strong>and</strong> hang up your coat,” or “sit<br />
down at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> table <strong>and</strong> pick-up your pencil.”<br />
Each student was required to reach a criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
of 100% accuracy for two c<strong>on</strong>secutive sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Baseline. During baseline, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of<br />
independent transiti<strong>on</strong> students made between<br />
assigned tasks within a vocati<strong>on</strong>al site<br />
was recorded. If a student was unable to independently<br />
move to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next ordered task <strong>and</strong><br />
simply waited for assistance, relied <strong>on</strong> a<br />
cowoker or peers to direct him or her to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
next task, or asked a teacher or supervisor for<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>al assistance, assistance was provided<br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong> was recorded as “assisted.”<br />
Assistance for all transiti<strong>on</strong>s was provided by<br />
an external source <strong>on</strong>ly after 10-s interval of<br />
no resp<strong>on</strong>se. Data were collected until a stable<br />
baseline was achieved for a minimum of five<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
H<strong>and</strong>held prompting procedures. All students<br />
started <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir workday in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> employees’ breakroom.<br />
Students were provided with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held<br />
prompting system <strong>and</strong> headph<strong>on</strong>es <strong>and</strong><br />
instructed to turn <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> device. After <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
device was activated, a pop-up window with an<br />
ic<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> targeted task was displayed. After<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student pressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ic<strong>on</strong>, a picture <strong>and</strong><br />
auditory prompt of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first step of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> task<br />
was displayed. Students <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n pressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> color-cued<br />
hardware butt<strong>on</strong> to advance to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
next step of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> task. After <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student progressed<br />
through <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> entire chained task, a<br />
picture <strong>and</strong> auditory prompt cued <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student<br />
to transiti<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next task. This process<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinued until all 10 tasks were complete. If<br />
a student did not transiti<strong>on</strong>, requested assistance,<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or 10-s interval elapsed with no<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student was prompted to watch<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held device screen. Criteri<strong>on</strong> for<br />
completi<strong>on</strong> of this phase was 100% independent<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>s for three c<strong>on</strong>secutive sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
H<strong>and</strong>held Prompting System / 105
Maintenance procedures. Follow-up probes<br />
were collected nine weeks after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student<br />
meet acquisiti<strong>on</strong> criteri<strong>on</strong>. Follow-up probes<br />
occurred in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> community setting where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
student was initially trained. Follow-up probes<br />
were collected to determine if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> initial instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
affected <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s performance<br />
over time.<br />
Reliability<br />
Interobserver reliability data <strong>and</strong> procedural<br />
reliability data were collected simultaneously<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary investigator <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom<br />
teacher. Interobserver <strong>and</strong> procedural reliability<br />
data were collected during 33% of baseline<br />
<strong>and</strong> each c<strong>on</strong>current phase. Observers<br />
independently <strong>and</strong> simultaneously recorded<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of steps <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student performed<br />
independently or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> required prompt <strong>and</strong><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se time. Interobserver agreement was<br />
calculated by dividing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of agreements<br />
of student resp<strong>on</strong>ses by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of<br />
agreements plus disagreements <strong>and</strong> multiplying<br />
by 100. Interobserver reliability ranged<br />
from 96 to 100%, with a mean of 99% agreement.<br />
The mean interobserver reliability<br />
agreement for each student across c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
was Aar<strong>on</strong>, 97%; Bill, 100%; Cate, 100%, <strong>and</strong><br />
Doug, 97%.<br />
Procedural integrity measures check <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> investigator’s<br />
performance by using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> correct<br />
prompting hierarchy <strong>and</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>se time. The<br />
classroom teacher was trained using an itemized<br />
checklist that listed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> task-analyzed<br />
steps of each task <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> level of prompt. The<br />
teacher was c<strong>on</strong>sidered successfully trained after<br />
completing 100% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> checklist for three<br />
c<strong>on</strong>secutive trials. The procedural agreement<br />
level was calculated by dividing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of<br />
observed teacher behaviors by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of<br />
planned teacher behaviors <strong>and</strong> multiplying by<br />
100 (Billingsley, White, & Muns<strong>on</strong>, 1980).<br />
Procedural reliability ranged from 97-100%,<br />
with a mean of 99%. The mean procedural<br />
reliability agreement for each student across<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s was: Aar<strong>on</strong>, 99%; Bill, 100%; Cate,<br />
96% <strong>and</strong> Doug 100%<br />
Results<br />
Number of independent transiti<strong>on</strong>s made by<br />
students during baseline, h<strong>and</strong>held prompt-<br />
ing interventi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> maintenance phases in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocati<strong>on</strong>al setting is presented in Figure 1.<br />
During baseline, students dem<strong>on</strong>strated limited<br />
ability to independently transiti<strong>on</strong> between<br />
specific work tasks. Number of independent<br />
task transiti<strong>on</strong>s made by students during<br />
this phase was zero. When students used <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
h<strong>and</strong>held prompting system during interventi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
increases in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of independent<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>s were apparent. Number of independent<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>s ranged from 40% to<br />
100% with a mean of 86%. Aar<strong>on</strong> dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
no independent transiti<strong>on</strong>s during<br />
baseline <strong>and</strong> increased independent transiti<strong>on</strong>ing<br />
to a mean of 82% (range 40-100%)<br />
during interventi<strong>on</strong>. Bill dem<strong>on</strong>strated no independent<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>s during baseline <strong>and</strong> increased<br />
independent transiti<strong>on</strong>ing to a mean<br />
of 84% (range 50-100%) during interventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Cate dem<strong>on</strong>strated no independent transiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
during baseline <strong>and</strong> increased independent<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>ing to a mean of 80%<br />
(range 50-100%) during interventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Doug dem<strong>on</strong>strated no independent transiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
during baseline <strong>and</strong> increased independent<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>ing to a mean of 94% (range <br />
80-100%) during interventi<strong>on</strong>. Number of instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s to reach criteria ranged<br />
from nine to five with a mean of six. Moreover,<br />
all students maintained transiti<strong>on</strong>ing<br />
nine weeks later with 100% independence.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
106 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
The purpose of this study was to determine<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of a commercially-produced<br />
h<strong>and</strong>held computer, as a prompting system to<br />
facilitate independent transiti<strong>on</strong>s from task to<br />
task in a community-based vocati<strong>on</strong>al instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
site for students with moderate <strong>and</strong> severe<br />
intellectual disabilities. Analysis of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
data indicated a functi<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ship in<br />
task transiti<strong>on</strong>s performance between baseline<br />
<strong>and</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong> replicated across participants.<br />
The current investigati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tributes<br />
to a growing body of research examining strategies<br />
to increase vocati<strong>on</strong>al skills of students<br />
with intellectual disabilities. This study replicates<br />
findings from previous studies which<br />
found that students with moderate to severe<br />
intellectual disabilities can learn to effectively<br />
use h<strong>and</strong>held prompting systems, increase student<br />
aut<strong>on</strong>omy at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> workplace, <strong>and</strong> de-
Figure 1. Number of independent tasks transiti<strong>on</strong>s across students.<br />
crease dependency <strong>on</strong> coworkers, teachers,<br />
job coaches, <strong>and</strong> peers (Cihak et al., in press;<br />
Davies et al., 2002a, 2002b, 2004; Fergus<strong>on</strong> et<br />
al., 2005; Furniss et al., 2001; Riffel et al.,<br />
2005).<br />
Prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held prompting interven-<br />
H<strong>and</strong>held Prompting System / 107
ti<strong>on</strong>, all students relied <strong>on</strong> specialized services<br />
<strong>and</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>nel to assist in meeting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students’<br />
vocati<strong>on</strong>al needs. Unfortunately, natural<br />
support opti<strong>on</strong>s in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> workplace are reduced<br />
greatly for individuals who require<br />
extensive <strong>and</strong> pervasive services or who are<br />
unable to work independently. Nisbet (1992)<br />
referred to natural supports as reliance <strong>on</strong><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s within typical envir<strong>on</strong>ments. Before<br />
placement of a worker with disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
workplace should be examined carefully to<br />
determine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> availability of natural supports<br />
<strong>and</strong> social interacti<strong>on</strong>s so that supported employment<br />
services can build up<strong>on</strong> what is already<br />
in place. That is, supervisors <strong>and</strong> coworkers,<br />
ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than job coacher or vocati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
counselors, would be resp<strong>on</strong>sible for providing<br />
some services to assist in successful job<br />
placement <strong>and</strong> job retenti<strong>on</strong>. However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>cept of natural supports also includes assuring<br />
employers of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir minimal involvement<br />
(Nisbet & Hagner, 1988). Although<br />
businesses have begun to recognize <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need<br />
to support all workers, how much support is<br />
minimal?<br />
Natural supports are successful for individuals<br />
with disabilities who require minimal assistance.<br />
However, natural supports become<br />
problematic if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> expectati<strong>on</strong> is that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> employer<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or coworker must c<strong>on</strong>sistently direct<br />
<strong>and</strong> supervise <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> worker. Issues including<br />
(a) training in strategies <strong>and</strong> techniques,<br />
<strong>and</strong> (b) employers <strong>and</strong> coworkers’ skill level<br />
to reliably implement interventi<strong>on</strong> plans become<br />
heighten when workers require extensive<br />
<strong>and</strong> pervasive assistances. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, if<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student requires extensive supports <strong>and</strong><br />
services, do employers or coworkers find <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
individual with disability an interference with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir performance?<br />
This study extends <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research literature of<br />
h<strong>and</strong>held prompting systems by enabling students<br />
to use <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held prompting system<br />
to independently transiti<strong>on</strong> from task to task<br />
in a vocati<strong>on</strong>al setting. Workers with moderate<br />
<strong>and</strong> severe intellectual disabilities often are<br />
asked to change from <strong>on</strong>e task to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next<br />
without help. Those who are unable to do so<br />
may experience decreased success resulting in<br />
low productivity rates <strong>and</strong> dependency <strong>on</strong> job<br />
coaches. These prompts were effective for<br />
teaching students to manage <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own task<br />
change behaviors. The use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held<br />
108 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
prompting system served as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> stimulus c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> desired behavior of independent<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>ing. With this methodology, teachers<br />
<strong>and</strong> professi<strong>on</strong>als can increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> level of<br />
independence, self-sufficiency <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> quality<br />
life of students with disabilities.<br />
A sec<strong>on</strong>d purpose of this study was to increase<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> probability of l<strong>on</strong>g-term maintenance<br />
of skills addressed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
h<strong>and</strong>held prompting system. Since <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
literature recognizes that maintenance<br />
is a difficult skill for students with moderate<br />
<strong>and</strong> severe intellectual disabilities to learn, it is<br />
incumbent up<strong>on</strong> teachers <strong>and</strong> professi<strong>on</strong>als to<br />
address <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se c<strong>on</strong>cerns in instructi<strong>on</strong>al program<br />
planning <strong>and</strong> teaching strategies. The<br />
use of a h<strong>and</strong>held computer prompting system<br />
is <strong>on</strong>e way of enhancing this instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent.<br />
A third purpose was to use a commercially<br />
available h<strong>and</strong>held computer to enhance skill<br />
acquisiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> maintenance. The advantages<br />
of using commercially available products include<br />
lower costs <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> availability supports<br />
<strong>and</strong> technical assistances. Moreover, when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
universal design approach is applied, accessibility<br />
<strong>and</strong> usability of h<strong>and</strong>held computers increases.<br />
More individuals with disabilities can<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n utilize this promising technology, which<br />
promotes greater independence.<br />
Several limitati<strong>on</strong>s of this study may have<br />
affected <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> results <strong>and</strong> interpretati<strong>on</strong>s. First,<br />
students were familiar with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocati<strong>on</strong>al site;<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y could easily navigate to o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r areas of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
store or restaurant. Novel vocati<strong>on</strong>al sites may<br />
require additi<strong>on</strong>ally prompts <strong>and</strong> directi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
cues, which may produce differentiated outcomes.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study was c<strong>on</strong>ducted with<br />
students who had extensive CBI experiences.<br />
Students with less extensive community experiences<br />
may require more intensive instructi<strong>on</strong><br />
to acquire, generalize, <strong>and</strong> maintain targeted<br />
skills. Third, all students dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
no resistant behaviors toward wearing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> device<br />
<strong>and</strong> were extremely motivated using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
h<strong>and</strong>held computer. Students who are less<br />
motivated or resistant to using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> h<strong>and</strong>held<br />
computer may perform differently.<br />
Future research is needed to verify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> results<br />
of this study <strong>and</strong> to investigate generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
across novel work settings. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
different type of transiti<strong>on</strong>s (e.g., place to<br />
place, preferred to n<strong>on</strong>preferred tasks) <strong>and</strong> a
type of skills (e.g., domestic, leisure, <strong>and</strong> community)<br />
needs to be investigated. Future research<br />
also should attempt to replicate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<br />
results across natural support instructors (e.g.,<br />
job coach, coworker, <strong>and</strong> parent), student<br />
characteristics, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> inclusi<strong>on</strong> of self-evaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
steps.<br />
References<br />
Agran, M., Fodor-Davis, J., & Moore, S. (1986). The<br />
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110 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Psychological Corporati<strong>on</strong> Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.<br />
Received: 3 May 2006<br />
Initial Acceptance: 1 July 2006<br />
Final Acceptance: 10 October 2006
Peer-Implemented Time Delay Procedures <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Acquisiti<strong>on</strong><br />
of Chained Tasks by Students with Moderate<br />
<strong>and</strong> Severe Disabilities<br />
Janet Read Godsey<br />
Christian County Schools, Hopkinsville, Kentucky<br />
John W. Schuster, Amy Shearer Lingo, Belva C. Collins,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Harold L. Kleinert<br />
University of Kentucky<br />
Abstract: This study evaluated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of <strong>and</strong> reliability of peer tutors implementing a c<strong>on</strong>stant time<br />
delay procedure when teaching four high school students with moderate <strong>and</strong> severe disabilities to prepare foods<br />
using picture recipes. We used a multiple probe design across subjects to determine <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer<br />
tutor implemented c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay procedure <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of chained food preparati<strong>on</strong> tasks. Data<br />
indicate that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> tutors were effective in teaching <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> four students to prepare food using picture recipes. Peer<br />
tutors also implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedure with a high degree of reliability. In additi<strong>on</strong>, all students maintained <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tasks at high levels <strong>and</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>ded with 100% accuracy during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> final maintenance assessment. Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
includes a comparis<strong>on</strong> of reliability data with o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r studies utilizing teacher-implemented c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay<br />
<strong>and</strong> chained tasks.<br />
Finding <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>nel required to provide<br />
high quality, individualized instructi<strong>on</strong> for students<br />
with moderate <strong>and</strong> severe disabilities is<br />
<strong>on</strong>e of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most difficult obstacles classroom<br />
teachers face. Because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intellectual <strong>and</strong><br />
physical capabilities of many students with<br />
moderate <strong>and</strong> severe disabilities require repeated,<br />
systematic, individualized instructi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
teachers often find that that students may<br />
have to do a lot of waiting <strong>and</strong> “seatwork”<br />
activities while teacher time is spent for individualized<br />
<strong>and</strong> small group instructi<strong>on</strong> elsewhere.<br />
Teachers who have many students requiring<br />
this type of instructi<strong>on</strong> find it nearly<br />
impossible to provide students with sufficient<br />
This study was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first author’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>sis <strong>and</strong> was<br />
completed as part of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> requirements for a Master<br />
of Science degree in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Department of Special<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> Counseling at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
University of Kentucky. Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cerning<br />
this article should be addressed to John W.<br />
Schuster, 229 Taylor Educati<strong>on</strong> Building, Department<br />
of Special Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
Counseling, University of Kentucky, Lexingt<strong>on</strong>, KY<br />
40506-0001. E-mail: jwschu01@uky.edu<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2008, 43(1), 111–122<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities<br />
opportunities to resp<strong>on</strong>d during instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>reby limiting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student’s opportunities<br />
in building acquisiti<strong>on</strong> skills to fluency,<br />
maintenance, <strong>and</strong> generalizati<strong>on</strong> levels<br />
(Kamps, Locke, Delquadri, & Hall, 1989).<br />
Although placement of students with moderate<br />
<strong>and</strong> severe disabilities into general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
classrooms has produced mixed reacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
from educators <strong>and</strong> given <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> evergrowing<br />
number of peers without disabilities<br />
in high school special educati<strong>on</strong> classrooms in<br />
credit generating peer programs, it does provide<br />
an opportunity to utilize instructi<strong>on</strong>al assistance<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> form of peer tutors. Classroom<br />
teachers may be reluctant to use this instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
arrangement for numerous reas<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
First, teachers may w<strong>on</strong>der if peer-delivered<br />
instructi<strong>on</strong> is as reliable or efficient as teacher<br />
<strong>and</strong> paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>al instructi<strong>on</strong>. Sec<strong>on</strong>d,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y also may expect that peer tutors will lack<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> discipline to perform <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedures systematically.<br />
Finally, teachers may have c<strong>on</strong>cerns<br />
that peer tutors, even after extensive<br />
training, may not generalize <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir use of systematic<br />
procedures when assigned to teach<br />
different skills or with different students.<br />
Peer-Implemented Time Delay / 111
Research has supported <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of peers<br />
when teaching skills to students with moderate<br />
<strong>and</strong> severe disabilities (e.g., Koury & Browder,<br />
1986; Miracle, Collins, Schuster, &<br />
Grisham-Brown, 2001; Romer, Busse, Fewell,<br />
& Vadasy, 1985; Tekin-Iftar, 2003; Tekin &<br />
Kircaali-Iftar, 2002; Werts, Caldwell, & Wolery,<br />
1996). For example, Kamps et al. (1989) used<br />
a multiple probe across behavior design to<br />
teach discrete tasks to two elementary school<br />
students with autism. Two fifth graders without<br />
disabilities served as peer tutors. Tutors<br />
used verbal reinforcement, instructive feedback,<br />
<strong>and</strong> model <strong>and</strong> verbal prompts to effectively<br />
teach skills such as identificati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
coins, naming of opposites, <strong>and</strong> reading comprehensi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Peer tutors also can successfully teach<br />
chained tasks to students with disabilities.<br />
Werts et al. (1996) taught elementary-aged<br />
peer tutors to implement an observati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
learning strategy to teach students with disabilities<br />
a variety of chained tasks. Target skills<br />
included sequencing numbers using tiles,<br />
playing a cassette tape, sharpening a pencil,<br />
using a calculator to compute simple additi<strong>on</strong><br />
problems, <strong>and</strong> using a computer game. The<br />
research found that peer tutors were successful<br />
in teaching <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target skill <strong>and</strong> used <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
training procedure with a high degree of procedural<br />
reliability indicating that peer tutors<br />
can provide highly effective instructi<strong>on</strong> of simple<br />
chained tasks.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to research finding that peer<br />
tutors can effectively teach students with disabilities,<br />
studies also have addressed whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
peers can deliver instructi<strong>on</strong> as effectively <strong>and</strong><br />
efficiently as teachers (Romer et al., 1985; Miracle<br />
et al., 2001). Romer et al. compared <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
efficiency of peer tutor instructi<strong>on</strong> to teacher<br />
instructi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> performance of vocati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
skills by students classified as deaf-blind with<br />
severe mental retardati<strong>on</strong>. Results indicated<br />
that acquisiti<strong>on</strong> measures of targeted skills by<br />
students were similar for both peer tutor instructi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> teacher instructi<strong>on</strong>. Students<br />
with disabilities, <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> average, took fewer<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s to reach criteri<strong>on</strong> with peer tutor instructi<strong>on</strong><br />
but required more assistance than<br />
for tasks taught by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher. Results indicated<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was little difference between<br />
peer instructi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> teacher instructi<strong>on</strong>. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
Miracle et al. compared teacher-<br />
112 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
deliver instructi<strong>on</strong> to peer-delivered instructi<strong>on</strong><br />
when teaching high school students with<br />
moderate disabilities to read sight words with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay procedure. An<br />
adapted alternating treatments design was<br />
used to compare <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> two interventi<strong>on</strong>s. Results<br />
indicated that peer-delivered <strong>and</strong> teacher-delivered<br />
instructi<strong>on</strong> was effective. The<br />
teacher-delivered instructi<strong>on</strong> occurred at a<br />
quicker pace (i.e., less time per sessi<strong>on</strong>) but<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> differences were minimal.<br />
Although research has dem<strong>on</strong>strated that<br />
peers can implement a variety of instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
strategies with discrete, <strong>and</strong> to a much lesser<br />
extent, chained tasks, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is little research<br />
involving peer tutors using systematic resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
prompting strategies (Wolery, Ault, &<br />
Doyle, 1992) like <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> system of least prompts,<br />
simultaneous prompting, <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>stant time<br />
delay. Tekin-Iftar (2003) researched <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness<br />
of peer tutors in delivery of a simultaneous<br />
prompting procedure to four students,<br />
aged 10 through 13, with a variety of<br />
disabilities. The author found that peer tutors<br />
successfully (a) taught students with disabilities<br />
to expressively identify community signs<br />
<strong>and</strong> (b) embedded instructive feedback (i.e.,<br />
definiti<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> signs) in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sequent<br />
event. These results also occurred when<br />
Tekin-Iftar <strong>and</strong> Kircaali-Iftar (2002) had peer<br />
sibling tutors implement both c<strong>on</strong>stant time<br />
delay <strong>and</strong> simultaneous prompting to teach<br />
children with mental retardati<strong>on</strong> to expressively<br />
name animals. The authors found that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> tutors implemented both procedures reliably.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>stant time delay has been <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> subject of<br />
numerous studies <strong>and</strong> has been shown to be<br />
effective, easy to use, <strong>and</strong> more efficient than<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r near errorless strategies such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> system<br />
of least prompts (Schuster et al., 1998).<br />
Researchers have taught peer tutors to implement<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay with students with<br />
disabilities. Peer tutors without disabilities<br />
have successfully used c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay to<br />
teach basic sight word reading to high school<br />
students with moderate disabilities (Miracle et<br />
al., 2001), generalized reading of cooking labels<br />
to high schoolers with mental disabilities<br />
(Collins, Brans<strong>on</strong>, & Hall, 1995), <strong>and</strong> sight<br />
word identificati<strong>on</strong> to elementary-aged students<br />
with severe disabilities (Wolery, Werts,<br />
Snyder, & Caldwell, 1994). All of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se studies
show that peer tutors can reliably implement<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay procedures with discrete<br />
tasks.<br />
The research studies described have supported<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of peer tutors as reliable<br />
implementers of systematic instructi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
While few studies used peer tutors to teach<br />
chained tasks <strong>and</strong> several studies used c<strong>on</strong>stant<br />
time delay, no study could be found that<br />
has examined <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of peer tutors<br />
implementing c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay to teach<br />
chained tasks. This investigati<strong>on</strong> was designed<br />
to answer <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following research questi<strong>on</strong>s (1)<br />
Is a triadic instructi<strong>on</strong>al arrangement with instructor<br />
modeling <strong>and</strong> role-play effective in<br />
teaching high school-age peer tutors to implement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay procedure? (2)<br />
Will high school-age peer tutors without disabilities<br />
reliably implement <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stant time<br />
delay procedure in teaching chained tasks<br />
across participants <strong>and</strong> over time? <strong>and</strong> (3) Will<br />
a peer tutor implemented c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay<br />
procedure be effective in teaching high<br />
school students with moderate <strong>and</strong> severe disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> acquisiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> maintenance of<br />
chained cooking tasks?<br />
Method<br />
Participants<br />
Students. Four students (all male), ranging<br />
in age from 15 to 20 years, enrolled in a public<br />
high school participated. All attended at least<br />
<strong>on</strong>e general educati<strong>on</strong> class, lunch, <strong>and</strong> assemblies<br />
with students who did not have disabilities.<br />
Jake, a 16-year-old student who <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Wechsler<br />
Intelligence Scale for Children – WISC – III<br />
(Wechsler, 1991), obtained an IQ of 40, was<br />
diagnosed with moderate mental retardati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Jake had a sight word vocabulary of 100-125<br />
words, could read <strong>and</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>d to many envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
signs, proper nouns, <strong>and</strong> words<br />
from computer pull-down menus, He was unable<br />
to read simple directi<strong>on</strong>s. Jake wrote <strong>and</strong><br />
verbalized his pers<strong>on</strong>al informati<strong>on</strong> (e.g.,<br />
name, guardian’s name, etc.). He prepared<br />
simple snacks (e.g., cold cereal, microwave<br />
popcorn). He attended general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
class for weightlifting <strong>and</strong> attended a social<br />
skills class <strong>and</strong> math class for students with<br />
mild mental disabilities. He went out of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
building twice a week for vocati<strong>on</strong>al training<br />
at a local grocery store. Jake’s Individualized<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> Plan (IEP) included objectives for<br />
using tools <strong>and</strong> equipment in a safe manner,<br />
following pictorial directi<strong>on</strong>s, behavior selfmanagement,<br />
employability skills, <strong>and</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>matics.<br />
Louis, a 20-year-old student who obtained<br />
an IQ of 40 <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Wechsler Adult Intelligence<br />
Scale (Wechsler, 1997), was diagnosed with<br />
moderate mental retardati<strong>on</strong>. He was in his<br />
fifth year of enrollment at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> high school <strong>and</strong><br />
attended general educati<strong>on</strong> classes in lifetime<br />
sports physical educati<strong>on</strong>, art, <strong>and</strong> food services<br />
technology. Louis had a sight word<br />
vocabulary of 150-200 words. He read <strong>and</strong><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ded appropriately to many envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
signs, proper nouns, <strong>and</strong> comm<strong>on</strong>ly<br />
used words drawn from vocati<strong>on</strong>al experiences,<br />
<strong>and</strong> could prepare several simple foods<br />
from memory (such a cold cereal <strong>and</strong> microwave<br />
popcorn). He did need supervisi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itor proporti<strong>on</strong>s used (e.g., overflowing<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> cereal bowl with milk, etc.). He received<br />
vocati<strong>on</strong>al training in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> community at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
library <strong>and</strong> at a local community service<br />
agency 2-3 times a week. Louis was unable to<br />
comprehend written directi<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> his IEP<br />
objectives were in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas of food preparati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
employability skills, <strong>and</strong> purchasing,<br />
Charlie, a 15-year-old male with an IQ of 40<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> WISC – III (Wechsler, 1991), was diagnosed<br />
with moderate mental retardati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Down syndrome, <strong>and</strong> a severe speech deficit.<br />
He attended a general educati<strong>on</strong> class in physical<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>. Charlie went out of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> building<br />
two times per week for community-based<br />
instructi<strong>on</strong> in safety <strong>and</strong> shopping instructi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Charlie had a sight vocabulary of 25-30 words.<br />
He read <strong>and</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>ded appropriately to<br />
many envir<strong>on</strong>mental signs, product names,<br />
<strong>and</strong> names of family members, teachers, <strong>and</strong><br />
fellow students. His speech often was difficult<br />
to underst<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
study <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher <strong>and</strong> speech pathologist were<br />
trying several voice-output devices to supplement<br />
speech. Charlie could follow verbal/<br />
model directi<strong>on</strong>s for making several simple<br />
snacks such as cold cereal <strong>and</strong> crackers with<br />
spreadables. Charlie was unable to read simple<br />
written directi<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> his IEP included<br />
objectives in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas of food preparati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
following pictured directi<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> self-m<strong>on</strong>i-<br />
Peer-Implemented Time Delay / 113
toring of behavior. He received speech <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rapy<br />
at school 2 times per week.<br />
J<strong>on</strong>ah, a 17-year-old male with a Kaufman<br />
Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) (Kaufman & Kaufman,<br />
1990) composite score of 40, was diagnosed<br />
with moderate mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, a<br />
moderate hearing impairment in <strong>on</strong>e ear, <strong>and</strong><br />
a severe visual impairment in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> opposite eye.<br />
He attended general educati<strong>on</strong> classes in<br />
physical educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> food services technology,<br />
<strong>and</strong> also was out of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> building 1-2 times<br />
per week for community-based instructi<strong>on</strong> in<br />
safety <strong>and</strong> shopping skills. J<strong>on</strong>ah had a sight<br />
word vocabulary of 25-50 words. He read <strong>and</strong><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ded appropriately to many envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
signs, product names, <strong>and</strong> names of<br />
family, teachers, <strong>and</strong> fellow students. His<br />
speech often was difficult to underst<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study was in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> process of<br />
obtaining a dynamic-screen, voice-output augmentative<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> device to supplement<br />
his speech. J<strong>on</strong>ah followed verbal/<br />
model directi<strong>on</strong>s for making several simple<br />
snacks such as cold cereal <strong>and</strong> crackers with<br />
spreadables. He followed 1-2 step instructi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
without redirecti<strong>on</strong> if given adequate processing<br />
time. J<strong>on</strong>ah was unable to read simple<br />
written directi<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> his IEP included objectives<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas of following pictured<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>s, communicati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> self-care.<br />
He received weekly speech <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rapy <strong>and</strong> occupati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rapy at school <strong>and</strong> services for<br />
visi<strong>on</strong> impairment <strong>on</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>sultative basis.<br />
Peer tutors. Eleven peer tutors, 2 males <strong>and</strong><br />
9 females, ranging in age from 16 to 18 years<br />
(high school juniors <strong>and</strong> seniors), <strong>and</strong> enrolled<br />
in a peer tutoring class for high school<br />
credit were tutors during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study. Five of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
peer tutors were enrolled in advanced level<br />
classes <strong>and</strong> were <strong>on</strong> a pre-college curriculum.<br />
The o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r seven were enrolled in st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
level classes <strong>and</strong> were <strong>on</strong> a vocati<strong>on</strong>al educati<strong>on</strong><br />
track for ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r industry or business related<br />
fields. All tutors who participated met<br />
prerequisite skills including availability for after<br />
school training sessi<strong>on</strong>s, faculty performance<br />
ratings, <strong>and</strong> interest in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> research<br />
study. Faculty performance rating forms were<br />
distributed to faculty members <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y rated<br />
students’ pers<strong>on</strong>al characteristics <strong>and</strong> work<br />
ethic <strong>on</strong> a scale of 1 to 5 (5 was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> highest<br />
rating). Students must have received an over-<br />
all 3.5 from at least five faculty members in<br />
order to be eligible for participati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Setting<br />
All experimental sessi<strong>on</strong>s occurred in a kitchen/living<br />
area adjacent to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students’ selfc<strong>on</strong>tained<br />
classroom. Because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> kitchen<br />
area was a separate room with a door that<br />
could be closed <strong>and</strong> because <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e student<br />
at a time was permitted to be in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> kitchen to<br />
prepare a snack, additi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>trol for distracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
did not occur.<br />
Materials/Equipment<br />
The teacher <strong>and</strong>/or peer tutors used <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following<br />
materials: (a) digital camera for creating<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pictorial recipes, (b) dishes <strong>and</strong> utensils,<br />
(c) food stored in cabinets, a refrigerator<br />
or freezer, (d) pictorial recipe cards with written<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>s beneath each photo with photos<br />
in sequence according to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> task analysis<br />
<strong>and</strong> held in order by a large metal ring, (e)<br />
data sheets, <strong>and</strong> (f) reliability forms for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dependent <strong>and</strong> independent measures.<br />
Skill Selecti<strong>on</strong><br />
114 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
All participating students had food preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following of pictorial directi<strong>on</strong>s as<br />
objectives included <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir IEP. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher interviewed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students’ parents,<br />
former teachers, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
foods <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y would prefer to cook. After determining<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students had no prior experience<br />
in preparing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target recipes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teacher screened <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir ability<br />
to follow a verbal/model prompt <strong>and</strong> to motorically<br />
imitate specific skills required to prepare<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target recipes. Target recipes for Jake<br />
<strong>and</strong> Louis included making a milkshake in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
blender (27 critical steps) <strong>and</strong> making a<br />
grilled cheese s<strong>and</strong>wich (32 critical steps).<br />
Target skills for Charlie <strong>and</strong> J<strong>on</strong>ah included<br />
making a waffle in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> toaster (27 critical<br />
steps) <strong>and</strong> making juice from a frozen c<strong>on</strong>centrate<br />
(25 critical steps). In additi<strong>on</strong>, each task<br />
analysis included a “turning <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> page” step in<br />
between each critical step for students to turn<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pages of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> picture recipe in order to see<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next step.
General Procedures<br />
The dependent variable was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> percent of<br />
correct steps completed independently <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
chained food preparati<strong>on</strong> tasks. Peer tutors<br />
implementing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay procedure<br />
was <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> independent variable. Initially,<br />
peer tutor training occurred followed by skill<br />
selecti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> target recipes. Then single<br />
opportunity baseline sessi<strong>on</strong>s occurred before<br />
training started (Schuster, Gast, Wolery, &<br />
Guiltinan, 1988). After <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher collected<br />
stable baseline data, Jake began training <strong>on</strong><br />
making a milkshake. When he reached or approached<br />
criteri<strong>on</strong>, Jake started training <strong>on</strong><br />
making a grilled cheese s<strong>and</strong>wich at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same<br />
time that Louis began training <strong>on</strong> making a<br />
milkshake. When Jake <strong>and</strong> Louis reached or<br />
approached criteri<strong>on</strong>, Louis started training<br />
<strong>on</strong> preparing a grilled cheese s<strong>and</strong>wich while<br />
Charlie began training <strong>on</strong> toasting a waffle.<br />
When Charlie reached or approached criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> making a waffle, he began training <strong>on</strong><br />
making juice while J<strong>on</strong>ah began training <strong>on</strong><br />
making a waffle. Then J<strong>on</strong>ah was trained to<br />
make juice. Intermittent maintenance probe<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s occurred <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> average of <strong>on</strong>ce every<br />
15 sessi<strong>on</strong>s for acquired tasks.<br />
Peer Tutor Training<br />
Prior to implementing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay<br />
procedure, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher trained <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer tutors<br />
through direct instructi<strong>on</strong>, modeling, <strong>and</strong> triadic<br />
role-play with peer tutors acting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> roles of data collector, prompter, <strong>and</strong> student<br />
(trainee). The teacher trained <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer<br />
tutors during two 90-minute after school sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
During training sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher<br />
taught <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer tutors how to implement <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay procedure <strong>and</strong> to record<br />
student resp<strong>on</strong>ses. At <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
training sessi<strong>on</strong>s each peer tutor had to dem<strong>on</strong>strate<br />
performance of data collecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> of c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay steps<br />
with at least 90% accuracy to participate. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong> to performance criteria, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher<br />
required <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer tutors to correctly answer at<br />
least 90% of questi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> a written exam before<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were allowed to participate in implementing<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay procedure<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> students. Twelve students initially<br />
completed training; however, <strong>on</strong>e tutor failed<br />
to meet <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> criteria for inclusi<strong>on</strong>. The 11 peer<br />
tutors r<strong>and</strong>omly served as both prompter <strong>and</strong><br />
data collector throughout <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study <strong>and</strong><br />
worked with a variety of students (i.e., peer<br />
tutors were not relegated to <strong>on</strong>e role <strong>and</strong><br />
assigned to <strong>on</strong>e student).<br />
Baseline Sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The teacher c<strong>on</strong>ducted a single opportunity<br />
baseline sessi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> all eight skills (two skills<br />
per student) at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> beginning of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study.<br />
Intermittent probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s occurred at least<br />
<strong>on</strong>ce every five sessi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> untrained tasks for<br />
Jake <strong>and</strong> Louis <strong>and</strong> every 10 sessi<strong>on</strong>s for Charlie<br />
<strong>and</strong> J<strong>on</strong>ah to help c<strong>on</strong>trol for repeated<br />
testing <strong>and</strong> maturati<strong>on</strong> effects. Three c<strong>on</strong>secutive<br />
baseline sessi<strong>on</strong>s occurred immediately<br />
prior to interventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> each task. The<br />
teacher used single opportunity probe sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to help c<strong>on</strong>trol for repeated testing <strong>and</strong><br />
maturati<strong>on</strong> effects as well as to reduce <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
costs associated with duplicate materials.<br />
The teacher c<strong>on</strong>ducted all baseline sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
During <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher gave students<br />
an attenti<strong>on</strong>al cue, a task request to<br />
make <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> food, <strong>and</strong> waited for a student’s<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se. If <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student initiated a correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se within 5 s <strong>and</strong> completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
within 20 s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher recorded a<br />
correct resp<strong>on</strong>se, provided verbal praise, <strong>and</strong><br />
waited 5 s for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student to initiate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next<br />
step in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> task analysis. The sessi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>tinued<br />
until a student committed an error (i.e.,<br />
did not initiate a resp<strong>on</strong>se within 5 s, or initiated<br />
a resp<strong>on</strong>se within 5 s but completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
wr<strong>on</strong>g step, completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> step incorrectly, or<br />
took too l<strong>on</strong>g to complete <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> step). If this<br />
occurred, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student was praised for attempting<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> task <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sessi<strong>on</strong> was terminated. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> end of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sessi<strong>on</strong>, students<br />
were allowed to eat a snack (previously prepared<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher or student).<br />
Training Procedures<br />
After stable baseline data, training occurred.<br />
One peer tutor acted as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompter <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r peer tutor as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data collector. For<br />
each task for Jake, Louis, <strong>and</strong> Charlie, two 0-s<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s occurred. For J<strong>on</strong>ah, three 0-s sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
occurred. Thereafter, all sessi<strong>on</strong>s used a<br />
5-s c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay procedure.<br />
Peer-Implemented Time Delay / 115
During 0-s sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompter gave an<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong>al cue, stated a task request (e.g.,<br />
“Make ______”), immediately provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolling prompt (i.e., a verbal/model<br />
prompt of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> step to be completed), <strong>and</strong><br />
waited 5 s for a student resp<strong>on</strong>se. If a student<br />
initiated a resp<strong>on</strong>se, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompter allowed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
student 20 s to complete <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> step. After <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
prompter provided c<strong>on</strong>sequences for each<br />
step <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> tutor waited 5 s for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student to<br />
initiate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> next step in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> task analysis.<br />
During 5-s sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompter gave an<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong>al cue, stated a task request (e.g.,<br />
“Make <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> ______”), <strong>and</strong> waited 5 s for a student<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se. If no resp<strong>on</strong>se occurred after<br />
5 s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompter provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trolling<br />
prompt <strong>and</strong> waited 5 s for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student to imitate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompt. If <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student initiated a<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se within 5 s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompter allowed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
student 20 s to complete <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se. After<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompter provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sequences, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tutor waited 5 s for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student to initiate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
next step in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> task analysis.<br />
The data collector recorded five possible<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses during training sessi<strong>on</strong>s. The data<br />
collector recorded a correct resp<strong>on</strong>se before<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompt (i.e., correct anticipati<strong>on</strong>) when a<br />
student initiated a resp<strong>on</strong>se before <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trolling<br />
prompt <strong>and</strong> completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> step<br />
within 20 s. All correct anticipati<strong>on</strong>s resulted<br />
in specific verbal praise. The data collector<br />
recorded an incorrect resp<strong>on</strong>se before <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
prompt (i.e., n<strong>on</strong>-wait error) when a student<br />
initiated a resp<strong>on</strong>se before <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompt but<br />
completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> step (a) out of sequence (sequence<br />
error), (b) incorrectly (topographical<br />
error), or (c) with too l<strong>on</strong>g of a durati<strong>on</strong><br />
(durati<strong>on</strong> error). These errors resulted in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
prompter interrupting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student, reminding<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student to wait, <strong>and</strong> delivering <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolling prompt. When a student initiated<br />
a resp<strong>on</strong>se within 5 s after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> delivery of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolling prompt <strong>and</strong> completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> step<br />
within 20 s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data collector recorded a correct<br />
after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompt (i.e., correct wait).<br />
These resp<strong>on</strong>ses resulted in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> trainer delivering<br />
verbal praise. The data collector recorded<br />
an incorrect after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompt (i.e.,<br />
wait error) when a student initiated a resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
within 5sof<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>prompter delivering<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trolling prompt <strong>and</strong> completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
step (a) out of sequence (sequence error), (b)<br />
incorrectly (topographical error), or (c) with<br />
too l<strong>on</strong>g of a durati<strong>on</strong> (durati<strong>on</strong> error). When<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se errors occurred, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompter redelivered<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trolling prompt <strong>and</strong> waited for a<br />
student resp<strong>on</strong>se. If <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student still did not<br />
complete a correct resp<strong>on</strong>se, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompter<br />
notified <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher. When a student did not<br />
initiate a resp<strong>on</strong>se within5sof<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>trolling<br />
prompt <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> data collector recorded a no resp<strong>on</strong>se,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompter delivered an additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong>al cue <strong>and</strong> prompt while completing<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> step for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student.<br />
At <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> end of each sessi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> student ate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prepared food. Training sessi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>tinued<br />
until each student reached three sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
at 100% correct anticipati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Maintenance<br />
After criteri<strong>on</strong> was reached <strong>on</strong> each task, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teacher c<strong>on</strong>ducted maintenance sessi<strong>on</strong>s at<br />
least <strong>on</strong>ce every 15 sessi<strong>on</strong>s until all students<br />
reached criteri<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> all cooking tasks. The<br />
trainer c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se sessi<strong>on</strong>s like 5-s delay<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Experimental Design<br />
We used a multiple probe across subjects <strong>and</strong><br />
behaviors design to dem<strong>on</strong>strate experimental<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol. Experimental c<strong>on</strong>trol was dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
when a change occurred in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> dependent<br />
variable when, <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly when, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
independent variable was applied <strong>and</strong> this<br />
change occurred across tiers in a time-lagged<br />
manner.<br />
Reliability<br />
116 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Peer tutor training. A general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teacher collected procedural reliability data<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher’s implementati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer<br />
tutor training procedure during 100% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
training sessi<strong>on</strong>s. The teacher calculated <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<br />
data by dividing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of trainer behaviors<br />
observed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of trainer behavior<br />
planned <strong>and</strong> multiplying by 100 (Billingsley,<br />
White, & Muns<strong>on</strong>, 1980). Some of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
trainer behaviors measured included providing<br />
definiti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> examples of key terms,<br />
passing out materials, dem<strong>on</strong>strating <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stant<br />
time delay procedure, having students<br />
role play, providing written examinati<strong>on</strong>s, <strong>and</strong><br />
providing feedback.
Skill training. The teacher <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e peer<br />
tutor collected both dependent <strong>and</strong> independent<br />
variable reliability data. They collected<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se data during 25% of all baseline sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> 26% of all interventi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s. The<br />
point-by-point method was used to calculate<br />
dependent variable reliability data (i.e., dividing<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of agreements by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number<br />
of agreements <strong>and</strong> disagreements <strong>and</strong> multiplying<br />
by 100). Procedural reliability data (i.e.,<br />
independent variable reliability data) were<br />
calculated according to formula cited by Billingsley<br />
et al., 1980. Some of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors<br />
measured, when appropriate, included delivering<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> attenti<strong>on</strong>al cue, stating <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> task request,<br />
waiting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriate delay interval,<br />
providing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trolling prompt, waiting <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se interval, <strong>and</strong> providing correct c<strong>on</strong>sequences.<br />
Results<br />
Reliability Data<br />
Reliability data of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> instructor training,<br />
modeling <strong>and</strong> triadic role-play procedure for<br />
training <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers tutors indicated 100% accuracy<br />
during both peer tutoring training sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
During baseline sessi<strong>on</strong>s, student resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
reliability data (i.e., dependent variable) resulted<br />
in a 100% agreement. During interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s when student data collectors recorded<br />
student resp<strong>on</strong>ses, student resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
reliability resulted in a mean agreement of<br />
98% (range 94-100%).<br />
During baseline sessi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>ducted by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teacher, procedural reliability data resulted in<br />
an overall mean accuracy of 99.5% (range <br />
98-100%) in following <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> required interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
behaviors. Procedural reliability data during<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s indicated that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
prompters followed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> planned behaviors<br />
with an overall mean accuracy of 93.1%<br />
(range 84-99%).<br />
Student Acquisiti<strong>on</strong> Data<br />
Student acquisiti<strong>on</strong> data are displayed in Table<br />
1 <strong>and</strong> Figures 1 <strong>and</strong> 2. Data are graphed<br />
using separate symbols to represent total task<br />
steps (<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> steps of turning <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> page between<br />
each picture card are included) with open<br />
TABLE 1<br />
Number of Sessi<strong>on</strong>s Through Criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
Student Skill<br />
squares <strong>and</strong> critical steps (turning page steps<br />
omitted) by open triangles. All students<br />
achieved criteri<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> all tasks. Overall, students<br />
required a total of 69 instructi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to reach criteri<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> all tasks. Individual<br />
students required between 6 <strong>and</strong> 12 sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
per task to reach criteri<strong>on</strong> (an average of 8.6<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s). Across all tasks, students committed<br />
a total of 40 errors through criteri<strong>on</strong>. Individually,<br />
students committed between 3 <strong>and</strong> 11<br />
errors per task for an overall error percentage<br />
of 1.04%. Error percentage was calculated by<br />
dividing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> number of errors committed by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> product of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> total number of interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s per skill by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> total number of<br />
steps in each task analysis each student performed<br />
(Schuster et al., 1988). Of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 40 total<br />
errors, 39 (97.5%) were n<strong>on</strong>-wait errors (i.e.,<br />
errors before <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompt). The remaining error<br />
was a wait error (i.e., an error after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
prompt) committed by Jake when acquiring<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> grilled cheese task.<br />
Student Maintenance Data<br />
Number of Sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Through Criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
Jake Milkshake 9<br />
Grilled Cheese 7<br />
Louis Milkshake 12<br />
Grilled Cheese 9<br />
Charlie Waffle 10<br />
Juice 6<br />
J<strong>on</strong>ah Waffle 9<br />
Juice 7<br />
Total 69<br />
Maintenance data indicate that Jake <strong>and</strong> Charlie<br />
maintained all tasks with 100% accuracy<br />
throughout <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> length of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study. Louis’<br />
performance decreased to 94% of total task<br />
steps <strong>and</strong> 96% of critical steps during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d maintenance probe sessi<strong>on</strong> but returned<br />
to 100% accuracy during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> final<br />
maintenance probe sessi<strong>on</strong>. The teacher did<br />
not collect maintenance data <strong>on</strong> J<strong>on</strong>ah due to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> end of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school year.<br />
Peer-Implemented Time Delay / 117
Figure 1. Percent of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses for Jake <strong>and</strong> Louis during baseline, interventi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> maintenance<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
The first research questi<strong>on</strong> this study sought<br />
to answer c<strong>on</strong>cerned <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of a<br />
peer tutor-training program c<strong>on</strong>sisting of instructor<br />
modeling <strong>and</strong> triadic role-play. High<br />
procedural reliability data for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se training<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s occurred. Eleven of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 12 peer tutors<br />
selected to participate in this study met both<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> written <strong>and</strong> performance criteria within<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> allotted time. Both dependent <strong>and</strong> independent<br />
variable reliability data collected during<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s supports <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effec-<br />
118 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
tiveness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer tutor training procedure.<br />
The fact that peer tutors were counterbalanced<br />
across students <strong>and</strong> tasks suggests that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer tutor training procedure was effective<br />
in programming for peer tutor generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
across different students <strong>and</strong> different<br />
tasks within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> cooking curricular area. The<br />
success of this program c<strong>on</strong>tributes to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
peer tutoring literature through replicating,<br />
in part, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer tutor training procedures<br />
used by Collins et al. (1995). However, while<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Collins et al. study addressed peer tutoring
Figure 2. Percent of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses for Charlie <strong>and</strong> J<strong>on</strong>ah during baseline, interventi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> maintenance<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
with discrete tasks, results of this study extend<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> expectati<strong>on</strong>s of peer tutors’ abilities to<br />
chained task instructi<strong>on</strong>, increasing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir versatility<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom.<br />
The sec<strong>on</strong>d research questi<strong>on</strong> addressed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> degree of reliability with which peer tutors<br />
could implement c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay in teaching<br />
chained tasks. Dependent variable reliability<br />
data indicate that overall peer tutors collected<br />
student resp<strong>on</strong>se data with 98%<br />
agreement (range 94-100%) with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> reliability<br />
observer. Peer tutors as a whole were<br />
able to implement <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se prompting<br />
strategy with 93% accuracy (range 84-99%).<br />
Wolery, Bailey, <strong>and</strong> Sugai (1988) state reliability<br />
above 90% is desirable, above 80% is acceptable.<br />
Nine out of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 11 peer tutors performed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> steps of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay<br />
procedure with 90% or better accuracy.<br />
Results of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer tutoring reliability data<br />
Peer-Implemented Time Delay / 119
in this study c<strong>on</strong>tribute to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer tutoring<br />
literature due to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> similarity to studies utilizing<br />
teacher-implemented c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay.<br />
Numerous studies (e.g., Braham, Collins,<br />
Schuster, & Kleinert, 1999; Fiscus, Schuster,<br />
Morse, & Collins, 2002; Graves, Collins, Schuster,<br />
& Kleinert, 2005; Griffen, Wolery, &<br />
Schuster, 1992; Hall, Schuster, Wolery, Gast, &<br />
Doyle, 1992; Miller & Test, 1989; Miracle et<br />
al., 2001; Schuster et al., 1988) using c<strong>on</strong>stant<br />
time delay with chained tasks have shown that<br />
teacher-delivered instructi<strong>on</strong> with this procedure<br />
has resulted in similar levels of acceptable<br />
<strong>and</strong> desirable procedural reliability data.<br />
There were some interesting findings when<br />
using peer tutors to deliver <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> instructi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
First, most of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> errors made by peer tutors<br />
involved not providing descriptive verbal<br />
praise after each correct resp<strong>on</strong>se. When<br />
given feedback about this omissi<strong>on</strong>, many<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> need for a c<strong>on</strong>tinuous reinforcement<br />
schedule. The peer tutors complained<br />
that it “felt unnatural” to praise students<br />
for every step. This could be of<br />
significant interest in future research, c<strong>on</strong>sidering<br />
that failure to provide c<strong>on</strong>tinuous verbal<br />
praise did not appear to adversely affect student<br />
acquisiti<strong>on</strong>. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, having peer tutors<br />
work in pairs as prompter <strong>and</strong> data collector<br />
resulted some disagreement at times. For example,<br />
peer tutors would disagree <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
amount of butter that was spread <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> bread<br />
<strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>refore whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se was correct<br />
or not. O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r similar differences of opini<strong>on</strong><br />
also occurred that required <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher to<br />
intervene.<br />
The third research questi<strong>on</strong> addressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
effectiveness of peer-tutor implemented c<strong>on</strong>stant<br />
time delay <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> acquisiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> maintenance<br />
of chained cooking tasks by students<br />
with moderate <strong>and</strong> severe disabilities. Data<br />
indicate that students <strong>on</strong>ly acquired <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills<br />
when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time delay procedure was implemented.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> data indicate that students<br />
reached criteri<strong>on</strong> quickly with no overlap<br />
between baseline <strong>and</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. A low occurrence of errors with<br />
noted absences of wait <strong>and</strong> no resp<strong>on</strong>se errors<br />
may support <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer tutors’ effectiveness in<br />
providing clear, c<strong>on</strong>sistent, verbal/model<br />
prompts. Maintenance data show that students<br />
retained <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills up to 22 sessi<strong>on</strong>s after<br />
meeting criteri<strong>on</strong>. The noticeable lack of vari-<br />
120 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
ability in student resp<strong>on</strong>se data supports <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
interpretati<strong>on</strong> that student acquisiti<strong>on</strong> was not<br />
adversely affected by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interchanging of<br />
peer tutor roles as data collector <strong>and</strong><br />
prompter <strong>and</strong> across students.<br />
Several o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r findings about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
are noteworthy. First, each student, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re<br />
was a slight increase in baseline data percentages<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d skill after <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first zero<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d sessi<strong>on</strong> occurred in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first skill. This<br />
was most likely due to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first few<br />
steps of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pictorial recipes were identical<br />
(e.g., select recipe book, wash h<strong>and</strong>s, etc.). In<br />
each of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se instances, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> baseline data became<br />
stable prior to interventi<strong>on</strong>. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, it<br />
should be noted that each student learned<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir sec<strong>on</strong>d task in fewer sessi<strong>on</strong>s than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir<br />
first. This could be <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> result of (a) <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
task being easier than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first (though this is<br />
doubtful given that two different sets of skills<br />
were targeted), or (b) students were “learning<br />
to learn” a picture recipe with c<strong>on</strong>stant time<br />
delay. Third, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> overall error percentage in<br />
this study (i.e., 1.04%) is lower than reported<br />
in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay chained task literature<br />
(Schuster et al., 1998). This is especially<br />
noteworthy given that peer tutors delivered<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> instructi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
When teaching tasks that c<strong>on</strong>tain c<strong>on</strong>sumables,<br />
costs should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered. Grocery<br />
items for this study amounted to $74.03. Students<br />
purchased groceries during communitybased<br />
instructi<strong>on</strong> trips using funds from an<br />
annual community-based budget provided by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> school district. The district supplied <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
camera, disks, <strong>and</strong> ink cartridges as each special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> classroom in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> district received<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se materials to assist in developing<br />
student alternate portfolios <strong>and</strong> instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
materials. The district also provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> computer,<br />
printer, paper, <strong>and</strong> laminating film.<br />
The teacher spent $84.00 of her pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
funds <strong>on</strong> various fast food gift certificate as<br />
incentives for peer tutors to remain as participants<br />
throughout <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study.<br />
Results of this study are significant for classroom<br />
teachers in that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y dem<strong>on</strong>strate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
value <strong>and</strong> capability of peer tutors in delivering<br />
quality <strong>on</strong>e-<strong>on</strong>-<strong>on</strong>e instructi<strong>on</strong> to students<br />
with moderate <strong>and</strong> severe disabilities. Because<br />
students with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se disabilities often are<br />
placed in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same classroom, time <strong>and</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>nel<br />
to meet <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual needs of such a
heterogeneous group of students is difficult. If<br />
peer tutors can provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same or similar<br />
quality of instructi<strong>on</strong> as classroom teachers<br />
<strong>and</strong> instructi<strong>on</strong>al assistants for particular<br />
tasks, classroom staff may take <strong>on</strong> more of<br />
supervisory role, while students receive more<br />
time for <strong>on</strong>e-<strong>on</strong>-<strong>on</strong>e instructi<strong>on</strong>. Freeing up<br />
time for classroom teachers may allow <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m to<br />
more closely m<strong>on</strong>itor <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
procedures <strong>and</strong> to modify instructi<strong>on</strong><br />
in a timelier manner. Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rmore, peer<br />
tutor instructi<strong>on</strong> may be preferable to students<br />
with disabilities because it may be perceived<br />
a more enjoyable <strong>and</strong> less stigmatizing<br />
than instructi<strong>on</strong> from an adult, especially if it<br />
is paired with opportunities to develop social<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships. If <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher promotes development<br />
of social relati<strong>on</strong>ships <strong>and</strong> emphasizes<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> role of peer tutors as same-age learning<br />
partners ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than “mini teachers”,<br />
students may perceive <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> instructi<strong>on</strong> from<br />
peer tutors favorably. It may be helpful for<br />
future research to address such social validity<br />
issues.<br />
This study c<strong>on</strong>tributes to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> literature in<br />
several ways. First, it c<strong>on</strong>tributes to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> time<br />
delay literature because no study has addressed<br />
teaching chained tasks through <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
use of peer tutors. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, it c<strong>on</strong>tributes to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer tutoring literature because we could<br />
find no study that addressed peer tutors teaching<br />
chained tasks with a systematic resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
prompting strategy with high school students.<br />
However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> study was limited in external<br />
validity because of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> small number of participants.<br />
It also may be difficult to replicate <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
study in settings where peer tutors are not<br />
graded for performance (as in this study<br />
where peers were enrolled in a credit generating<br />
class) or in settings where peer tutors<br />
cannot be trained at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> same time during<br />
large blocks of time. Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r research should<br />
train peer tutors to use o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r systematic instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
procedures with chained tasks,<br />
train students to perform chained tasks from<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r instructi<strong>on</strong>al domains, or to use resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
prompting strategies in community<br />
based settings. In future studies it may be wise<br />
to include generalizati<strong>on</strong> measures for both<br />
peer tutors <strong>and</strong> students with respect to using<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r materials in o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r settings. Future studies<br />
also may address whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r peer tutors could<br />
reliably code student errors (i.e., durati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
sequence, or topographical) or implement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedure al<strong>on</strong>e, acting as both data collector<br />
<strong>and</strong> prompter.<br />
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Received: 28 July 2006<br />
Initial Acceptance: 27 September 2006<br />
Final Acceptance: 7 January 2007
States’ Eligibility Guidelines for Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong>: An<br />
Update <strong>and</strong> C<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of Part Scores <strong>and</strong><br />
Unreliability of IQs<br />
Renee Berger<strong>on</strong>, R<strong>and</strong>y G. Floyd, <strong>and</strong> Elizabeth I. Sh<strong>and</strong>s<br />
The University of Memphis<br />
Abstract: Mental retardati<strong>on</strong> (MR) has traditi<strong>on</strong>ally been defined as a disorder in intellectual <strong>and</strong><br />
adaptive functi<strong>on</strong>ing beginning in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental period. Guided by a federal definiti<strong>on</strong> of MR<br />
described in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Individuals with Disabilities Educati<strong>on</strong> Act, it is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>sibility of each of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> United<br />
States to describe eligibility guidelines for special educati<strong>on</strong> services. The purpose of this study was to<br />
examine eligibility guidelines for MR for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 50 states <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> District of Columbia. This study examined<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms used to describe MR, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of classificati<strong>on</strong> levels, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> cutoff scores, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> adaptive behavior<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s for each state. In additi<strong>on</strong>, this study examined guidelines for c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of intelligence<br />
test part scores <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> unreliability of IQs through c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> st<strong>and</strong>ard error<br />
of measurement (SE M) or an IQ range. As found in previous studies, results revealed great variati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> specific eligibility guidelines for MR from state to state. The greatest variati<strong>on</strong> appeared to be across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
adaptive behavior c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s. Approximately 20% of states (10) recommend c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of intelligence<br />
test part scores, <strong>and</strong> approximately 39% of states (20) recommend attenti<strong>on</strong> to unreliability of IQs<br />
through c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SE M or an IQ range.<br />
Individuals with mental retardati<strong>on</strong> (MR)<br />
have been described in literature <strong>and</strong> historical<br />
documents for many centuries. Since<br />
around 1900, definiti<strong>on</strong>s of MR in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> United<br />
States have included three general aspects:<br />
deficits in intellectual functi<strong>on</strong>ing, impaired<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> daily envir<strong>on</strong>ment, <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>set<br />
during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental period (Sheerenberger,<br />
1983). Although <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se three criteria<br />
have been included in nearly all recent definiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of MR proposed by professi<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(e.g., American Associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Mental<br />
Retardati<strong>on</strong> [AAMR], 2002; American<br />
Psychiatric Associati<strong>on</strong> [APA], 2000), <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> specific<br />
criteria within each domain have been<br />
more variable across organizati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> over<br />
time.<br />
Deficits in intellectual functi<strong>on</strong>ing are usually<br />
defined by poor performance <strong>on</strong> normreferenced<br />
intelligence tests via IQs. IQs are<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cerning this article should<br />
be addressed to R<strong>and</strong>y G. Floyd, The University of<br />
Memphis, Department of Psychology, Memphis, TN<br />
38152. Email: rgfloyd@memphis.edu<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2008, 43(1), 123–131<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Developmental Disabilities<br />
often c<strong>on</strong>sidered reflecti<strong>on</strong>s of general intelligence,<br />
which represents intelligence as a single,<br />
global factor (Jensen, 1998). Research has<br />
established <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> predictive validity of IQs <strong>on</strong><br />
various outcomes, such as academic achievement<br />
<strong>and</strong> adaptati<strong>on</strong> to envir<strong>on</strong>mental dem<strong>and</strong>s<br />
(Brody, 1997; Neisser et al., 1996). The<br />
use of IQs to determine deficient intellectual<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing has been included in most definiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of MR across professi<strong>on</strong>al groups since<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> American Associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
(AAMR) first specified <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of intelligence<br />
tests in its 1959 definiti<strong>on</strong> of MR. Most<br />
current definiti<strong>on</strong>s adopted by professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s set <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> upper IQ cutoff for MR<br />
at two or more st<strong>and</strong>ard deviati<strong>on</strong>s below <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
populati<strong>on</strong> mean (i.e., IQs of 70 or below;<br />
AAMR, 2002; APA, 2000). Moreover, because<br />
some degree of measurement error is inherent<br />
in obtained IQs, many professi<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
now include an IQ range (e.g., IQs<br />
below 70 to 75) or specify that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
error of measurement (SE M) be c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than a strict IQ cutoff criteri<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Whereas IQs have l<strong>on</strong>g been used to satisfy<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intellectual deficit criteri<strong>on</strong> for MR, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re<br />
Eligibility Guidelines / 123
has been less agreement across professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s as to how adaptive behavior deficits<br />
should be evidenced. Adaptive behavior<br />
generally refers to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacity to meet <strong>on</strong>e’s<br />
daily functi<strong>on</strong>al needs based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual’s<br />
age <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture in which <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual<br />
lives. To determine deficient adaptive<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing, some definiti<strong>on</strong>s specify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use<br />
of global adaptive behavior composite scores,<br />
o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs specify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of scores reflecting<br />
adaptive domains (e.g., c<strong>on</strong>ceptual, social, <strong>and</strong><br />
practical; AAMR, 2002), <strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs specify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
use of scores reflecting adaptive behavior skill<br />
areas (e.g., self-care <strong>and</strong> community participati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
APA, 2000). However, some definiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
do not define requirements for deficient<br />
adaptive functi<strong>on</strong>ing. To best evaluate an individual’s<br />
adaptive functi<strong>on</strong>ing from an ecological<br />
perspective, most professi<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
specify that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> individual’s adaptive<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing be assessed in multiple settings to<br />
ascertain <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> pervasiveness of deficient functi<strong>on</strong>ing.<br />
Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Educati<strong>on</strong>al Setting<br />
The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA;<br />
P.L. 108-446, 2004) guarantees a free <strong>and</strong> appropriate<br />
public educati<strong>on</strong> to all students.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sistent with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al focus of impact<br />
<strong>on</strong> academic functi<strong>on</strong>ing, IDEA defines<br />
MR as “significantly subaverage general intellectual<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing, existing c<strong>on</strong>currently with<br />
deficits in adaptive behavior <strong>and</strong> manifested<br />
during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental period, that adversely<br />
affects a child’s educati<strong>on</strong>al performance”<br />
(Nati<strong>on</strong>al Archives <strong>and</strong> Records Administrati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
2005, p. 35836). Although <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
federal definiti<strong>on</strong> provides a general framework<br />
for determining eligibility for special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
services under <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> MR category, states<br />
are permitted to refine eligibility guidelines<br />
<strong>and</strong> to operati<strong>on</strong>alize deficient functi<strong>on</strong>ing.<br />
Purpose of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Study<br />
Previous studies examining differences across<br />
states’ eligibility criteria for MR under IDEA<br />
have found significant variati<strong>on</strong>s in terms<br />
(e.g., mental retardati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> mental disability),<br />
use of classificati<strong>on</strong> levels (e.g., mild, moderate,<br />
<strong>and</strong> severe), IQ cutoff scores, <strong>and</strong> adaptive be-<br />
124 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
havior c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> specified criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
(Denning, Chamberlain, & Polloway, 2000;<br />
Frakenberger, 1984; Frakenberger & Fr<strong>on</strong>zaglio,<br />
1991; Utley, Lowitzer, & Baumeister,<br />
1987). This study was designed to provide an<br />
updated examinati<strong>on</strong> of states’ guidelines <strong>and</strong><br />
to investigate two issues that have not received<br />
much attenti<strong>on</strong> in previous surveys.<br />
Despite <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> historical reliance <strong>on</strong> IQs in MR<br />
definiti<strong>on</strong>s, researchers <strong>and</strong> advocates often<br />
assert that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> over-reliance <strong>on</strong> a single score<br />
ignores <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> complexity of abilities (Daniel,<br />
1997; Horn & Noll, 1997). Research <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ories<br />
focused <strong>on</strong> cognitive abilities indicate<br />
that important informati<strong>on</strong> about an individual’s<br />
specific cognitive abilities may be overlooked<br />
if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> focus is <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly a single score, an<br />
IQ. Based <strong>on</strong> this reas<strong>on</strong>ing, test authors <strong>and</strong><br />
publishers have drawn increasingly <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ories<br />
describing specific cognitive abilities during<br />
test development to develop compositebased<br />
part scores representing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se abilities<br />
(Alf<strong>on</strong>so, Flanagan, & Radwan, 2005). Recent<br />
guidelines for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assessment <strong>and</strong> diagnosis of<br />
MR have also placed greater emphasis <strong>on</strong> part<br />
scores. For example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Security Administrati<strong>on</strong><br />
(SSA) released new guidelines in<br />
2002 for disability determinati<strong>on</strong> for MR that<br />
allow certain part scores to be used in place of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> IQ in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> diagnosis of MR when <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re is<br />
reas<strong>on</strong> to doubt <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> validity of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> IQ (Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Research Council [NRC], 2002). With<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> increasing emphasis <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ory-based test<br />
development <strong>and</strong> interpretati<strong>on</strong>, as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
introducti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SSA guidelines for MR<br />
eligibility that allow use of part scores in certain<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s, this study investigates <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevalence<br />
of intelligence test part score c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
It is well known that some degree of measurement<br />
error is inherent in obtained IQs,<br />
<strong>and</strong> many professi<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s specify<br />
that a range of scores (e.g., 70 to 75) or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
SE M be c<strong>on</strong>sidered in determining deficient<br />
intellectual functi<strong>on</strong>ing. However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> federal<br />
definiti<strong>on</strong> of MR under IDEA provides no<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong> that such measurement error be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered in determining eligibility for MR.<br />
Therefore, this study examines <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of<br />
score ranges or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SE M in determining deficient<br />
intellectual functi<strong>on</strong>ing across states.
Method<br />
Procedure<br />
The first author developed a spreadsheet to<br />
record data from states’ eligibility guidelines<br />
based <strong>on</strong> a review of similar studies (e.g., Denning<br />
et al., 2000; Utley et al., 1987). Items<br />
included <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following: state, year guidelines<br />
were last published, term used, whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r levels<br />
of MR were specified, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> IQ threshold, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
practices for identifying adaptive behavior deficits,<br />
<strong>and</strong> whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r adaptive behavior requirements<br />
should be evident across multiple settings.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, two items were added to<br />
determine whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r states included c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong><br />
of intelligence test part scores <strong>and</strong> c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong><br />
of ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SE M or a score range<br />
around IQs.<br />
Through an iterative process, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first <strong>and</strong><br />
third authors initially obtained eligibility<br />
guidelines from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Department of Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
websites for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 50 states <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> District of<br />
Columbia. (Hereafter, for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sake of simplicity,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> District of Columbia is referred to as a<br />
state.) Next, all state Departments of Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
were c<strong>on</strong>tacted via teleph<strong>on</strong>e, e-mail, or<br />
both to c<strong>on</strong>firm that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines posted <strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir websites were currently used for establishing<br />
eligibility for MR. Guidelines were c<strong>on</strong>firmed<br />
for 48 states during <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> period from<br />
September to December 2005, <strong>and</strong> all guidelines<br />
(including California, Maine, <strong>and</strong> Texas)<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>firmed by May 2006. Data from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
guidelines were <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>n entered into <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> spreadsheet<br />
by <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first author. To ensure accuracy<br />
in data recording, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> third author first reviewed<br />
guidelines from a r<strong>and</strong>om selecti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
20 states (39%) <strong>and</strong> independently coded <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
data. Across all items, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was 97.4% agreement.<br />
Although <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se estimates of inter-rater<br />
agreement indicate a high level of c<strong>on</strong>sistency<br />
in coding, most of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> disagreements between<br />
coders occurred with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> three items devoted<br />
to adaptive behavior assessment. For <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se<br />
three items, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was <strong>on</strong>ly 95.0% percent<br />
agreement. After criteria for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se items were<br />
fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r developed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first author again<br />
coded data for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se three items for all 51<br />
states, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> third author independently<br />
coded ano<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r r<strong>and</strong>om selecti<strong>on</strong> of 20 states.<br />
Percentage agreement across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se three<br />
items was 98.3%. Across both rounds of cod-<br />
ing, disagreements were evaluated <strong>and</strong> resolved<br />
by c<strong>on</strong>sensus.<br />
Results<br />
Table 1 summarizes <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> eligibility criteria for<br />
MR for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 51 states that were obtained by<br />
reviewing <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> official documents including<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> states’ guidelines. Overall, 53% of states<br />
use <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> term mental retardati<strong>on</strong> to describe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, 12% use <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> term mental disability,<br />
<strong>and</strong> 6% use <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> term intellectual disability.<br />
O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r terms used by two or fewer states include<br />
cognitive delay, cognitive disability, cognitive<br />
impairment, cognitively impaired, developmental<br />
cognitive disability, intellectual impairment, learning<br />
impairment/delay in learning, mental h<strong>and</strong>icap,<br />
mentally disabled, mentally h<strong>and</strong>icapped, <strong>and</strong><br />
significant limited intellectual capacity. Of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> 51<br />
states, 18 differentiated MR according to level<br />
of impairment or degree of severity based <strong>on</strong><br />
IQs. Most states used <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms mild, moderate,<br />
<strong>and</strong> severe/profound, <strong>and</strong> three used <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms<br />
educable MR, trainable MR, <strong>and</strong> severe/profound.<br />
Intellectual Deficit Criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
To satisfy <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intellectual deficit criteri<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
majority of states (59%) use an IQ cutoff of at<br />
least two SDs below <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> normative mean (or<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard scores of 70 or below). Approximately<br />
6% of states require an IQs to be below<br />
two SDs (or st<strong>and</strong>ard scores below 70), <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong>e state uses an IQ cutoff of at least <strong>on</strong>e <strong>and</strong><br />
a half SDs below <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> normative mean (or<br />
scores approximately 78 <strong>and</strong> below). However,<br />
22% of states’ guidelines c<strong>on</strong>tained <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> federal definiti<strong>on</strong> of MR without specific<br />
eligibility criteria <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>e state (Iowa) uses a<br />
n<strong>on</strong>categorical approach <strong>and</strong> does not provide<br />
eligibility criteria specific to MR. As noted<br />
in Table 1, two states’ guidelines include excepti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir IQ cutoff criteri<strong>on</strong>. Nebraska<br />
guidelines specify that students may be eligible<br />
for special educati<strong>on</strong> services for MR<br />
based <strong>on</strong> ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r (a) an IQ 2 SDs below <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
normative mean with commensurate (not<br />
specified) deficits in adaptive functi<strong>on</strong>ing or<br />
(b) an IQ 80 with significant deficits in <strong>on</strong>e<br />
or more adaptive skill or achievement areas<br />
(defined as st<strong>and</strong>ard scores 2 SDs below <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
normative mean). Wisc<strong>on</strong>sin guidelines require<br />
students initially being c<strong>on</strong>sidered for<br />
Eligibility Guidelines / 125
TABLE 1<br />
Eligibility Guidelines for Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> across States<br />
IQ part<br />
scores AB Score AB criteri<strong>on</strong> Multiple AB settings<br />
Score<br />
range<br />
State Year Term Levels IQ<br />
2 SD Measured in 2 distinct<br />
settings (criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
met in 1)<br />
Alabama 2005 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N 2 SD N N Ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r composite or 2<br />
domains/skill areas<br />
Alaska 2005 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N 2 SD N N NS NS NS<br />
Ariz<strong>on</strong>a 2003 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> Y 2 SD N N NS 2 SD NS<br />
Arkansas 2004 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N 70–75 Y N Domains/skill area (2) NS Measured in 1 setting;<br />
opti<strong>on</strong>ally measured<br />
in multiple settings<br />
California 2005 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N FED N N NS NS NS<br />
Colorado 2005 Significant Limited N 2 SD N N NS NS NS<br />
Intellectual Capacity<br />
C<strong>on</strong>necticut 2000 Intellectual Disability N 2 SD Y Y Domains/skill area<br />
1.5 SD Measured in 2 distinct<br />
(majority)<br />
settings<br />
Delaware 2004 Mental Disability Y 70 Y N Domains/skill area (2) NS NS<br />
District of Columbia 1997 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> Y FED N N NS NS NS<br />
Florida 2005 Mentally H<strong>and</strong>icapped Y 2 SD Y Y NS NS NS<br />
Georgia 2002 Intellectual Disability Y 70 1<br />
Y N NS NS Measured in 2 distinct<br />
settings<br />
Hawaii 2000 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N 2 SD N N Domains/skill area (2) NS NS<br />
Idaho 2005 Cognitive Impairment N 70 Y N Domains/skill area (2) NS NS<br />
Illinois 2003 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N FED N N NS NS NS<br />
Indiana 2002 Mental Disability Y 2 SD N N NS NS NS<br />
Iowa 2005 N/A - - - - NA NA NA<br />
Kansas 2001 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N 2 SD N N Domains/skill area (2) NS NS<br />
Kentucky 2000 Mental Disability Y 2 SD N N NS 2 SD NS<br />
Louisiana 2004 Mental Disability Y 2 SD N N Both composite <strong>and</strong><br />
NS NS<br />
domains/skill area<br />
(2)<br />
Maine 2003 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N FED N N NS NS NS<br />
Maryl<strong>and</strong> 2005 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N FED N N NS NS NS<br />
126 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008
TABLE 1—(C<strong>on</strong>tinued)<br />
IQ part<br />
scores AB Score AB criteri<strong>on</strong> Multiple AB settings<br />
Score<br />
range<br />
State Year Term Levels IQ<br />
Massachusetts Intellectual<br />
N NS N N NS NS C<strong>on</strong>sidered in multiple<br />
Impairment<br />
settings<br />
Michigan 2002 Cognitive Impairment Y 2 SD N 2<br />
N NS NS NS<br />
Minnesota 2005 Developmental<br />
Y 2 SD Y Y Both composite <strong>and</strong> Composite 15<br />
Cognitive Disability<br />
domains/skill areas<br />
(4)<br />
th %tile; Measured in 2 distinct<br />
documentati<strong>on</strong> of settings<br />
needs in 4 of 7<br />
domains<br />
Mississippi 2003 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> Y 2 SD Y Y Both composite <strong>and</strong> Vinel<strong>and</strong>: Composite C<strong>on</strong>sidered in multiple<br />
domains/skill areas 2 SD, all domains settings<br />
85; ABS-School:2: Part<br />
One Factor<br />
Scores 2 SD: must<br />
justify scores above<br />
this<br />
Missouri 2005 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N 2 SD N N NS NS NS<br />
M<strong>on</strong>tana 2004 Cognitive Delay N 2 SD Y N NS NS NS<br />
Nebraska 2004 Mental H<strong>and</strong>icap Y 2 SD N Y Domains/skill area (1) 2 SD (if using IQ Opti<strong>on</strong>ally measured in<br />
or <br />
80 criteri<strong>on</strong>)<br />
at least 2 distinct<br />
80<br />
settings<br />
Nevada 2000 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> Y 2 SD N Y Domains/skill area (2) NS NS<br />
New Hampshire 2002 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N FED N N NS NS NS<br />
New Jersey 2003 Cognitively Impaired Y 2 SD N N NS NS C<strong>on</strong>sidered in multiple<br />
settings<br />
New Mexico 2005 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N 70 Y N Ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r composite or 2 SD NS<br />
domains/skill area<br />
(1)<br />
New York 2004 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N FED N N NS NS NS<br />
North Carolina 2004 Mentally Disabled Y 70 Y N NS NS NS<br />
North Dakota 1999 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> Y 70 Y N NS NS NS<br />
Ohio 2002 Cognitive Disability N 70 Y N Domains/skill area (2) NS NS<br />
Eligibility Guidelines / 127
TABLE 1—(C<strong>on</strong>tinued)<br />
IQ part<br />
scores AB Score AB criteri<strong>on</strong> Multiple AB settings<br />
Score<br />
range<br />
State Year Term Levels IQ<br />
Oklahoma 2002 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> Y 2 SD Y Y NS NS C<strong>on</strong>sidered in multiple<br />
settings<br />
Oreg<strong>on</strong> 2004 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N 2 SD N N NS NS NS<br />
Pennsylvania 2001 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N FED N N NS NS Opti<strong>on</strong>ally c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
in multiple settings<br />
Rhode Isl<strong>and</strong> 2000 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N FED N N NS NS NS<br />
South Carolina 2002 Mental Disability Y 2 SD Y Y Composite 2 SD Measured in 1 setting<br />
<strong>on</strong><br />
both<br />
V/NV<br />
South Dakota 2004 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N 2 SD Y N NS NS NS<br />
Tennessee 2003 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N 2 SD Y N Composite 2 SD Measured in multiple<br />
settings<br />
Texas 2002 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N 2 SD N N NS NS NS<br />
Utah 2003 Intellectual Disability N 2 SD N 2<br />
Y NS NS Measured in multiple<br />
settings<br />
Verm<strong>on</strong>t 2003 Learning Impairment/ N 1.5 SD N N NS NS NS<br />
Delay in Learning<br />
Virginia 2002 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N FED N N NS NS NS<br />
Washingt<strong>on</strong> 2002 Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> N FED N N NS NS NS<br />
West Virginia 2005 Mentally Impaired N 70 Y N Domains/skill area (2) NS NS<br />
Wisc<strong>on</strong>sin 2002 Cognitive Disability N 2 SD Y N Domains/skill area (2) 2 SD NS<br />
or 1<br />
SD<br />
Wyoming 1999 Mental Disability N 2 SD Y Y NS NS NS<br />
128 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Note: AB adaptive behavior, FED federal definiti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly, NS not specified.<br />
1<br />
Under Georgia guidelines, more than <strong>on</strong>e formal measure of intelligence is required.<br />
2<br />
According to Michigan guidelines, IQs at or below approximately 2 SD satisfy <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intellectual deficiency criteri<strong>on</strong>. Similarly, Utah guidelines stated that IQs should<br />
“generally” be less than or equal to 2 SD below <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean. However, because <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines do not define “approximately” or “generally” <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> score ranges were coded<br />
as N.
eligibility to exhibit an IQ two or more SDs<br />
below <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> normative mean, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines<br />
allow c<strong>on</strong>tinued eligibility for students who,<br />
up<strong>on</strong> reevaluati<strong>on</strong>, exhibit IQs between <strong>on</strong>e<br />
<strong>and</strong> two SDs below <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> normative mean if <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
student is expected to exhibit intellectual deficits<br />
indefinitely. Approximately 39% of state<br />
guidelines specify c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of measurement<br />
error using ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r an IQ range (e.g., 70<br />
to 75) or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SE M (<strong>and</strong> associated ranges)<br />
surrounding IQs in determining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intellectual<br />
deficit criteri<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Most states specify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of a comprehensive<br />
intelligence test battery, which typically<br />
yield both an IQ <strong>and</strong> part scores, but approximately<br />
20% of states (10 states) menti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
use of part scores in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> MR definiti<strong>on</strong> or<br />
require school-based multidisciplinary teams<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>sider part scores in eligibility determinati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Most states with provisi<strong>on</strong>s for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use<br />
of part scores do not allow <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of a part<br />
score in isolati<strong>on</strong> to satisfy <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intellectual deficit<br />
criteri<strong>on</strong> but require c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of part<br />
scores in eligibility decisi<strong>on</strong>s. For example,<br />
some guidelines require that profiles of part<br />
scores be within <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> deficient range, some<br />
specify a cutoff criteri<strong>on</strong> for part scores, <strong>and</strong><br />
some require examinati<strong>on</strong> of part scores <strong>and</strong><br />
fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r investigati<strong>on</strong> of a student’s abilities if<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are discrepancies between part scores.<br />
However, <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e state (South Carolina) requires<br />
normative deficiencies to be evidenced<br />
in part scores ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than an IQ.<br />
Deficient Adaptive Functi<strong>on</strong>ing Criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
Procedures for determining adaptive behavior<br />
deficiencies vary greatly across states. The majority<br />
of states (63%) do not specify whe<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
composite scores reflecting global adaptive<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing or scores reflecting adaptive behavior<br />
domains or skill areas be used to establish<br />
deficient functi<strong>on</strong>ing. Am<strong>on</strong>g states<br />
whose guidelines specify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> necessary scores,<br />
two states specify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of adaptive behavior<br />
composites reflecting overall adaptive functi<strong>on</strong>ing,<br />
11 states specify <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of scores for<br />
adaptive behavior domains or skill areas, three<br />
states require that both composites <strong>and</strong> domains<br />
or skill areas be used, <strong>and</strong> two states<br />
allow for ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r composite scores or domains<br />
or skill areas to be used. Most states (77%) do<br />
not include a specific score criteri<strong>on</strong> for defi-<br />
cient functi<strong>on</strong>ing, 16% require scores of least<br />
2 SDs below <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> normative mean, <strong>and</strong> 2%<br />
require scores of at least 1.5 SDs below <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
normative mean. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, 2% of states require<br />
deficient adaptive functi<strong>on</strong>ing to be<br />
based <strong>on</strong> separate criteria for <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> adaptive<br />
behavior composite <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> adaptive behavior<br />
domains or skill areas. Although <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> diagnostic<br />
criteria outlined by most professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
groups specify that adaptive skill deficits be<br />
evidenced across settings, <strong>on</strong>ly six states<br />
(12%) require adaptive functi<strong>on</strong>ing to be<br />
measured in multiple settings, <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly four<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al states specify that adaptive functi<strong>on</strong>ing<br />
be c<strong>on</strong>sidered in multiple settings.<br />
(We coded <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following two instances as indicating<br />
that adaptive behaviors were c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
in multiple settings: descripti<strong>on</strong>s that indicated<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s of or informal<br />
observati<strong>on</strong>s of behaviors in n<strong>on</strong>-school settings<br />
<strong>and</strong> descripti<strong>on</strong>s of ratings completed by<br />
a single rater to describe behaviors in school<br />
<strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r settings.) In c<strong>on</strong>trast, two states<br />
(4%) specify procedures for measuring adaptive<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing in <strong>on</strong>e setting, <strong>and</strong> 37 states<br />
(73%) do not address <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> settings in which<br />
adaptive functi<strong>on</strong>ing be measured.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
This study provided an updated summary of<br />
states’ guidelines <strong>and</strong> investigated two issues<br />
that have not received much attenti<strong>on</strong> in previous<br />
reviews of state guidelines. In a manner<br />
almost identical to Denning et al (2000), we<br />
found <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> term mental retardati<strong>on</strong> is used by<br />
approximately half <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> states to describe <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> that mental h<strong>and</strong>icap is used by<br />
approximately 12% of states. In c<strong>on</strong>trast,<br />
fewer states than reported in Denning et al.<br />
now require differentiating levels of MR according<br />
to degree of impairment or severity<br />
based <strong>on</strong> IQs. We found that <strong>on</strong>ly 18 states in<br />
our study require <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se levels, whereas Denning<br />
et al. reported 27 states. Perhaps this<br />
decreased prevalence was influenced by criticisms,<br />
such as that by Wehmeyer (2003), noting<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> focus <strong>on</strong> labels related to levels of<br />
impairment lowers expectati<strong>on</strong>s by encouraging<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al placements <strong>and</strong> interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
based <strong>on</strong> perceived global impairment ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
than <strong>on</strong> individual needs.<br />
States require c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of IQs with an<br />
Eligibility Guidelines / 129
upper cutoff ranging from a low of 69 to a<br />
high of 80 for initial evaluati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> a high of<br />
85 for re-evaluati<strong>on</strong>s. Approximately 39% of<br />
state guidelines specify c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of measurement<br />
error using ei<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r an IQ range or<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SE M (<strong>and</strong> associated ranges) surrounding<br />
IQs in determining <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intellectual deficit criteri<strong>on</strong>.<br />
This percentage is <strong>on</strong>ly slightly higher<br />
than that reported by Utley et al. (1987),<br />
which was 36%.<br />
Effects of recent <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ory-based test development<br />
<strong>and</strong> interpretati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> SSA guidelines<br />
(NRC, 2002) focusing <strong>on</strong> compositebased<br />
part scores do not appear to be far<br />
reaching as of yet. For example, fewer than<br />
<strong>on</strong>e-fifth of states make reference to part<br />
scores, <strong>and</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e state requires normative<br />
deficiencies to be evidenced in part scores<br />
ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than in IQs. Fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>rmore, when states<br />
guidelines made reference to part scores, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
were most often to those scores that are not<br />
based <strong>on</strong> recent <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ories of intelligence (e.g.,<br />
Verbal IQ <strong>and</strong> Performance IQ; Alf<strong>on</strong>so et al.,<br />
2005; Kaufman & Lichtenberger, 2005; Wechsler,<br />
2003).<br />
Across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> eligibility guidelines, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was<br />
little c<strong>on</strong>sistency (a) in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> descripti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
which adaptive behavior scores (i.e., composites<br />
or domains/skill areas) were required for<br />
identificati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> (b) in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> criteria used to<br />
judged adaptive behaviors as deficits (e.g., <br />
70). If <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re was any c<strong>on</strong>sistency in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se areas,<br />
it was revealed in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> majority of state<br />
guidelines omitting descripti<strong>on</strong>s of which<br />
adaptive behavior scores are required <strong>and</strong> in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> majority of state guidelines failing to specify<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> criteri<strong>on</strong> indicating adaptive behavior<br />
deficits. However, in general, a few more<br />
states (five more) now appear to list specific<br />
practices recommended for adaptive behavior<br />
assessment than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y did about eight years ago<br />
(cf. Denning et al., 2000). It is required that<br />
those making judgments about special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
eligibility for children suspected of having<br />
MR c<strong>on</strong>sider foremost educati<strong>on</strong>al impairment<br />
because of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> risk of identifying “6-hour<br />
retarded children” whose deficits are not apparent<br />
across settings (President’s Committee<br />
<strong>on</strong> Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong>, 1969). Thus, it was<br />
quite unexpected that well less than <strong>on</strong>e-tenth<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> states require adaptive functi<strong>on</strong>ing to<br />
be measured in multiple settings. Despite this<br />
serious limitati<strong>on</strong> across <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> states, perhaps it<br />
is beneficial to acknowledge that progress in<br />
this area appears to have been made across<br />
almost two decades. Our review revealed that<br />
all states but <strong>on</strong>e (Nebraska) require <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> presence<br />
of adaptive behavior skill deficits for<br />
identificati<strong>on</strong> of mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, whereas<br />
Utley et al. (1987) <strong>and</strong> Frakenberger <strong>and</strong><br />
Fr<strong>on</strong>zaglio (1991) revealed that <strong>on</strong>ly approximately<br />
two-thirds of states require <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> presence<br />
of adaptive behavior skill deficits.<br />
Advantage <strong>and</strong> Limitati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The accessibility of informati<strong>on</strong> from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
World Wide Web allowed us direct access to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> eligibility guidelines for MR from most<br />
every state. Therefore, unlike previous research,<br />
state department administrators were<br />
not surveyed by paper-<strong>and</strong>-pencil methods.<br />
With careful c<strong>on</strong>tact <strong>and</strong> follow-up by ph<strong>on</strong>e<br />
to such individuals to ensure that we had accessed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> most recent versi<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se guidelines,<br />
limitati<strong>on</strong>s of our approach to data collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
are minimal. As with all such research,<br />
we anticipate that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re have been changes to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> eligibility guidelines since we obtained <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
informati<strong>on</strong> summarized in this manuscript.<br />
Similarly, it is possible that our coding of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
informati<strong>on</strong> found in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> state guidelines does<br />
not match perfectly with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> manner in which<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines are interpreted by those within<br />
states. For example, it is likely that our interpretati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> wording in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines<br />
often led us to c<strong>on</strong>clude that specific criteria<br />
were not specified well enough to code as<br />
something o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than “not specified,” when<br />
those using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines may have interpreted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> wording in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidelines differently.<br />
Thus, despite relatively high levels of<br />
inter-rater agreement in our study, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> coding<br />
may not reflect actual practices in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> field.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
130 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in Developmental Disabilities-March 2008<br />
Psychologists <strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r professi<strong>on</strong>als involved<br />
in assessment of children with or expected to<br />
have MR should be not <strong>on</strong>ly (a) well informed<br />
about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir state’s <strong>and</strong> neighboring states’ eligibility<br />
criteria but also (b) knowledgeable<br />
about best practices in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use <strong>and</strong> interpretati<strong>on</strong><br />
of intelligence tests <strong>and</strong> adaptive behavior<br />
assessment instruments. Our results reveal<br />
that some notable variati<strong>on</strong>s exist in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> eligi-
ility guidelines for MR from state to state.<br />
Variati<strong>on</strong>s include <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms used to describe<br />
this excepti<strong>on</strong>ality, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> criteri<strong>on</strong> used to identify<br />
an intellectual deficit, <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> scores <strong>and</strong><br />
criteria used to identify adaptive behavior deficiencies.<br />
Despite <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> finding that few states<br />
require that adaptive behavior deficits be apparent<br />
in more than <strong>on</strong>e setting, psychologists<br />
<strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r professi<strong>on</strong>als should c<strong>on</strong>tinue to<br />
follow best practices by ensuring that such<br />
deficits are c<strong>on</strong>sidered from an ecological perspective<br />
through assessment in multiple settings.<br />
Similarly, despite what is known about<br />
inc<strong>on</strong>sistencies in measurement due to r<strong>and</strong>om<br />
influences <strong>on</strong> test performance, fewer<br />
than half of states recommend attenti<strong>on</strong> to<br />
unreliability of IQs though use of SE M <strong>and</strong><br />
associated score ranges. Although some psychologists<br />
<strong>and</strong> o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r professi<strong>on</strong>als may place<br />
emphasis <strong>on</strong> part scores that are <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>oretically<br />
based <strong>and</strong> reliable measures from recently<br />
published intelligence tests, less than a quarter<br />
of states recommend c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>m during eligibility. We urge those c<strong>on</strong>ducting<br />
such assessments <strong>and</strong> policy makers to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sider best practices <strong>and</strong> advancements in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ory <strong>and</strong> measurement of intelligence <strong>and</strong><br />
adaptive behaviors during upcoming revisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir state guidelines for MR.<br />
References<br />
Alf<strong>on</strong>so, V. C., Flanagan, D. P., & Radwan, S. (2005).<br />
The impact of <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cattell–Horn–Carroll <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ory<br />
<strong>on</strong> test development <strong>and</strong> interpretati<strong>on</strong> of cognitive<br />
<strong>and</strong> academic abilities. In D. P. Flanagan & P.<br />
Harris<strong>on</strong> (Eds.), C<strong>on</strong>temporary intellectual assessment<br />
(2nd ed., pp., 185–202). New York: Guilford<br />
Press.<br />
American Associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
(2002). Mental retardati<strong>on</strong>: Definiti<strong>on</strong>, classificati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> systems of supports (10 th ed.). Washingt<strong>on</strong>, DC:<br />
Author.<br />
American Psychiatric Associati<strong>on</strong>. (2000). Diagnostic<br />
<strong>and</strong> statistical manual of mental disorders (4 th ed.,<br />
text revisi<strong>on</strong>). Washingt<strong>on</strong>, DC: Author.<br />
Brody, N. (1997). Intelligence, schooling, <strong>and</strong> society.<br />
American Psychologist, 52, 1046–1050.<br />
Daniel, M. H. (1997). Intelligence testing. American<br />
Psychologist, 52, 1038–1045.<br />
Denning, C. B., Chamberlain, J. A., & Polloway,<br />
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Received: 23 August 2006<br />
Initial Acceptance: 11 October 2006<br />
Final Acceptance: 20 January 2007<br />
Eligibility Guidelines / 131