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and without voice over instructions or video prompting with or without text display, etc. (see Mechling et al., 2003). Results show that few studies have attempted to fade the video prompts. An exemplary model developed by Sigafoos et al. (2007) can be replicated. In addition, it should be worth examining whether video prompts can be faded to picture prompts and, later, to verbal prompts which are natural. Also, researchers in few studies successfully trained the participants in using hand-held devices such as PDA or video iPOD to deliver video prompts (Mechling et al., 2009; Van Laarhoven et al., 2009). Training persons with developmental disabilities to operate video devices on their own is likely to decrease the need for prompts and likely to improve independent functioning. This study indicates that only 5 of 18 studies have assessed for generalization. The importance of generalization is very essential when skills are taught to persons with developmental disabilities because they have difficulties generalizing tasks across behaviors, settings, and/or persons. Thus, it is important for future researchers to incorporate generalization training using various strategies (e.g., multiple exemplars, using natural contexts, varying stimuli) and to assess for generalization when video prompting studies are conducted. Although video prompting is an appealing intervention, in only 4 of 18 studies was social validity assessed. Thus, it is difficult to conclude whether video prompting interventions are easy to develop, easy to implement, and feasible in applied settings. Similar concerns appear in other studies (see Grice & Blampied, 1994; Van Laarhoven et al., 2009). It is essential for practitioners to select a functional skill, task analyze the skill, video tape the sequence, edit, consider whether to use prompts, operate a video device (e.g., DVD, iPod, PDA), collect data, monitor, and assess for maintenance and generalization. Also, some tasks may involve too many steps and it may be cumbersome to present each step to the participant as a video prompt (e.g., having 30 or more steps in a complex cooking skill). Future investigators should include such social validity components of video prompting interventions or the strategy may not sustain in practitioner community. Conclusions This review supports the findings that persons with developmental disabilities can learn various domestic and independent living skills through the video prompting strategy. Video prompts appear to be more effective when compared to picture prompts. The strategy is also effective in the maintenance and generalization of learned skills. Because of the robust research findings, it is important for future researchers to continually assess social validity and make it more accessible for teachers and practitioners working with persons with developmental disabilities. References Ayres, K. M., & Langone, J. (2005). Intervention and instruction with video for students with autism: A review of the literature. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 40, 183–196. Baker, S. D., Lang, R., & O’Reilly, M. (2009). Review of video modeling with students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Education & Treatment of Children, 32, 403–420. Bellini, S., & Akullian, J. (2007). A meta-analysis of video modeling and video self-modeling interventions for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Exceptional Children, 73, 264– 287. Bryan, L. C., & Gast, D. L. (2000). Teaching on-task and on-schedule behaviors to high-functioning children with autism via picture activity schedules. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 553–567. Cannella-Malone, H., Sigafoos, J., O’Reilly, M., de la Cruz, B., Edrisinha, C., & Lancioni, G. E. (2006). Comparing video prompting to video modeling for teaching daily living skills to six adults with developmental disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 41, 344–356. Cihak, D., Alberto, P. A., Taber-Doughty, T., & Gama, R. I. (2006). A comparison of static picture prompting and video prompting simulation strategies using group instructional procedures. Focus on Autism & Other Developmental Disabilities, 21, 89–99. Collins, B. C. (2007). Moderate and severe disabilities: A foundational approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Delano, M. E. (2007). Video modeling interventions for individuals with autism. Remedial & Special Education, 28, 33–42. Video Prompting and Developmental Disabilities / 525
Dogoe, M., & Banda, D. R. (2009). Review of recent research using constant time delay to teach chained tasks to persons with developmental disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 44, 177–186. Giangreco, M. F. (2011). Educating students with severe disabilities: Foundational concepts and practices. In M. E. Snell & F. Brown (Eds.), Instruction of students with severe disabilities (7th ed., pp. 1–30). Boston: Pearson. Goodson, J., Sigafoos, J., O’ Reilly, M., Cannella, H., & Lancioni, G. E. (2007). Evaluation of a videobased error correction procedure for teaching a domestic skill to individuals with developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 28, 458–<strong>46</strong>7. Graves, T. B., Collins, B. C., Schuster, J. W., & Kleinert, H. (2005). Using video prompting to teach cooking skills to secondary students with moderate disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 40, 34–<strong>46</strong>. Horn, J. A., Miltenberger, R. G., Weil, T., Mowery, J., Conn, M., & Sams, L. (2008). Teaching laundry skills to individuals with developmental disabilities using video prompting. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation & Therapy, 4, 279–286. Le Grice, B., & Blampied, N. M. (1994). Training pupils with intellectual disability to operate educational technology using video prompting. Education & Training in Mental Retardation & Developmental Disabilities, 29, 321–330. McCoy, K., & Hermarisen, E. (2007). Video modeling for individuals with autism: A review of model types and effects. Education & Treatment of Children, 30, 183–213. Mechling, L. C., Gast, D. L., & Barthold, S. (2003). Multimedia computer-based instruction to teach students with moderate intellectual disabilities to use a debit card to make purchases. Exceptionality, 11, 239–254. Mechling, L. C., Gast, D. L., & Fields, E. A. (2008). Evaluation of a portable DVD player and system of least prompts to self-prompt cooking task completion by young adults with moderate intellectual disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 42, 179–190. Mechling, L. C., Gast, D. L., & Seid, N. H. (2009). Using a personal digital assistant to increase independent task completion by students with autism spectrum disoders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 1420–1434. Mechling, L. C., & Gustafson, M. (2008). Comparison of static picture and video prompting on the performance of cooking-related tasks by students with autism. Journal of Special Education Technology, 23, 31–45. Mechling, L. C., & Gustafson, M. (2009). Comparison of the effects of static picture and video prompting on completion of cooking related tasks by students with moderate intellectual disabilities. Exceptionality, 17, 103–116. Mechling, L. C., & Stephens, E. (2009). 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Evaluating the effectiveness of video instruction on social and communication skills training for children with autism spectrum disorders: A review of the literature. Focus on Autism & Other Developmental Disabilities, 25, 23–36. Sigafoos, J., O’Reilly, M., Cannella, H., Edrisinha, C., de la Cruz, B., Upadhyaya, M., et al. (2007). Evaluation of a video prompting and fading procedure for teaching dish washing skills to adults with developmental disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 16, 93–109. Sigafoos, J., O’Reilly, M., Cannella, H., Upadhyaya, M., Edrisinha, C., Lancioni, G. E., et al. (2005). Computer-presented video prompting for teaching microwave oven use to three adults with developmental disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 14, 189–201. Snell, M. E. (2007). Advances in instruction. In S. L. Odom, R. H. Horner, M. E. Snell & J. Blacher (Eds.), Handbook of developmental disabilities (pp. 249–268). NY: The Guilford Press. Tiong, S. J., Blampied, N. M., & le Grice, B. (1992). Training community-living, intellectually handicapped people in fire safety using video prompting. Behaviour Change, 9(2), 65–72. Van Laarhoven, T., Johnson, J. W., Van Laarhoven- Myers, T., Grider, K. L., & Grider, K. M. (2009). The effectiveness of using a video iPod as a prompting device in employment settings. Journal of Behavioral Education, 18, 119–141. Van Laarhoven, T., & Van Laarhoven-Myers, T. (2006). Comparison of three video-based instructional procedures for teaching daily living skills to persons with developmental disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 41, 365– 381. Wolery, M., Ault, M. J., & Doyle, P. M. (1992). 526 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-December 2011
Page 1 and 2: Education and Training in Autism an
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Page 5 and 6: new line of research, the review ho
Page 7 and 8: TABLE 1—(Continued) Overview of H
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Page 11 and 12: Figure 1. MP3 Player (Model: SM-320
Page 13 and 14: Figure 3. Sony-Ericsson K800. Retri
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Page 23 and 24: accessible software to increase ind
Page 25 and 26: (14.3%), a unique curriculum (13.8%
Page 27 and 28: TABLE 1 Student Characteristics Stu
Page 29 and 30: eos” was highlighted. Students th
Page 31 and 32: ment was 100% for baseline and main
Page 33 and 34: Figure 3. Percentage of independent
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Page 37 and 38: Individuals with Disabilities Educa
Page 41 and 42: TABLE 1 Video Prompting Studies Con
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Page 45 and 46: Length of video clips. Researchers
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Page 49: Van Laarhoven and Van Laarhoven-Mye
Page 55 and 56: TABLE 1 Summary of Demographic and
Page 57 and 58: TABLE 2 Summary of Outcome Variable
Page 59 and 60: with students in preschool (Akmanog
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Page 63 and 64: Vocational task. To date one study
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Page 67 and 68: Retardation and Developmental Disab
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Page 73 and 74: Figure 1. Example of the mini-poste
Page 75 and 76: Experimental Design This study empl
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Page 85 and 86: Figure 1. Correct responses for Joe
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Education and Training in Autism an
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TABLE 1 Studies Listed According to
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TABLE 1—(Continued) Studies Liste
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(i.e., MSW) and duration-based (i.e
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2008), and increasing adaptive beha
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port difficulty implementing the in
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of a preferred item while continuin
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Kreiner, J., & Flexer, R. (2009). A
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Education and Training in Autism an
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autism on the CARS. Regarding socia
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other effect size measures and with
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quests during baseline sessions. Du
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ulation was generally clear and he
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communication training as a treatme
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encing allergy symptoms (one partic
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Assessments Preference assessment.
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Interobserver agreement. A second o
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challenging behavior in the presess
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tion of the preferred item signaled
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ior: An analysis of the literature.
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moderate intellectual disabilities
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Effects of the STAR intervention pr
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Copeland, S. R. (2002). See citatio
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126. Ezell, D., & Klein, C. (2003).
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computer-based instruction program.
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sight words to students with mental
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Mastropieri, M. A. (2009). See cita
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262. Noyes, D. A., & Sax, C. L. (20
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Rispoli, M. (2009). See citation #1
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Sparks, S. (2010). See citation #87
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Vlaskamp, C. (2008). See citation #
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INDEX—VOLUME 46,
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Runes, Sandra. See Hausmann-Stabile
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Review of video prompting studies w
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Look! I'm in College! DVD Look, I
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13th International Conference on Au
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