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ecipes and improving their accuracy over baseline levels. Increased independence was evident for each student between baseline and intervention conditions. For students, baseline levels ranged from 42.8% to 58.5%. During intervention when video prompting was used, independent performance increased from 65.3% to 78.5%. However, a somewhat higher percentage was found for students when video modeling was used with percentages of independence ranging from 74.3% to 87%. While video modeling resulted in slightly greater task performance, upon closer examination of data, slight differences in student performance were measured between the two video instructional methods. For example, both Wes and Rose were able to complete cooking tasks more independently when using video modeling whereas Brittany’s performance was greater when using video prompting. Interestingly, while each student indicated their preferred video instructional system, only Rose performed better with her nonpreferred system, video modeling. Previous studies examining student’s preferred instructional methods indicate some correlation between preference and performance (Taber- Doughty, 2005; Taber-Doughty et al., 2008). However, this remains an area in need of further validation. Two separate follow-up probes were conducted to determine students’ ongoing level of cooking independence. The first probe was conducted to confirm the effectiveness of the more effective intervention used during the previous condition. The second probe examined whether each student’s level of independence when cooking would return to baseline levels following withdrawal of the video system. All three students demonstrated a continued level of independence as observed during intervention when using their more effective video system. When those systems were removed during the follow-up probe, the level of independent functioning decreased slightly for both Brittany and Wes while Rose increased in her performance level. Thus, students either improved in their cooking skills or some carry-over effect existed as a result of the similarity to the previous recipe completed when using the video system. Future research may seek to expand this condition over more sessions to confirm the effects of the video systems on student performance. In addition, a more accurate measure of student learning might compare student performance on similar recipes (e.g., similar number of steps, type of food, equipment needed, and preparation steps) previously completed using a video system as well as novel recipes requiring only a few similarities. While students in the present investigation demonstrated increased independence in cooking and following recipes when using video modeling or video prompting, only three students served as participants. Replication is needed to confirm these results when used by students who experience mild intellectual disabilities. In addition, further studies are needed to validate the use of video prompting and video modeling by students who experience high and low incidence disabilities. While there is a growing body of literature demonstrating the effectiveness of these video strategies with students who experience low incidence disabilities (e.g., Cihak et al., 2006; Van Laarhoven et al., 2009) and autism spectrum disorders (e.g., Charlop- Christy & Daneshvar, 2003; Charlop-Christy, Le, & Freeman, 2000), this research is still in its infancy. When used by students who experience mild intellectual disabilities, the present investigation may represent the first to involve this student population. Although students in the current study were generally successful in using video prompting and modeling, one possible limitation to their immediate success and independence may be attributed to the equipment used to deliver the videos. While lightweight and portable, the iPod Nanos contained an extremely small viewing screen. Students may have experienced limitations while completing cooking activities due to an inability to see video details. As such, future studies may need to introduce similar forms of portable equipment yet with larger screens for delivering video models and prompts. Another potential limitation involves the teacher’s knowledge and comfort level with the technology being used to deliver the intervention. During the present study, the teacher expressed enthusiasm about using video prompts and modeling with her students yet was hesitant about using the iPods dues to her own lack of knowledge in Video Modeling and Prompting / 509
how to program and operate the equipment. As such, future studies should examine how interventions are selected and used based on the teacher’s knowledge and comfort level. In addition, a second area of study might examine the amount of training a teacher receives in the use of technology and its subsequent use in the classroom. More empirical studies are needed examining strategies for teaching functional skills to students who experience mild intellectual disabilities. While acquisition of functional skills leads to a greater likelihood for future independence and success in school, home and community settings (Browder et al., 2004; Brown et al., 1979), the declining curricular focus for students with mild intellectual disabilities may result in individuals who struggle to complete basic life skills (Bouck, 2004b). This study represents one recent attempt to address functional programming with students who experience mild intellectual disabilities while concurrently incorporating socially desirable technology during intervention. Future studies should examine how to integrate new technologies in addressing skills for students who continue to demonstrate a need for functional programming. Additionally, noted throughout this investigation were numerous positive comments from peers who indicated their desire to use the iPod Nanos to assist them in completing their work beyond the tasks targeted for intervention. Future studies may also examine the social validity associated with the various technologies used to deliver video prompts and models to students in an effort to find the most effective and those considered most socially valid. Finally, investigators should examine whether or not the video systems are associated with the types of tasks targeted for intervention. For example, does video prompting or video modeling work better with discrete trial tasks or those less precise? Can they be used for tasks with less clear outcomes such as social interactions where appropriate responses may vary? Prospective studies might investigate whether a linkage exists between the video system used and type of task to be completed. References Agran, M., Blanchard, C., Wehmeyer, M., & Hughes, C. (2002). Increasing the problem-solving skills of students with developmental disabilities participating in general education. Remedial and Special Education, 23, 279–288. Alberto, P. A., Cihak, D. F., & Gama, R. I. (2005). Use of static picture prompts versus video modeling during simulation instruction. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 26, 327–339. Alwell, M., & Cobb, B. (2009). Functional life skills curricular interventions for youth with disabilities. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 32, 82–93. Anderson, C., Coxson, L., Britt, M., Haugen- McLane, J., & Mullins, B. (1999). Cooking to learn: Integrating reading and writing activities. San Antonio, TX: PCI Educational Publishing. Anderson, C., Coxson, L., Lamontagne, C., Buteyn, L., & Chapman, D. (2008). Cooking to learn 3: Recipes from around the world. San Antonio, TX: PCI Educational Publishing. Apple Inc. (2010). iMovie (version 8.0.6). Cupertino, CA: Apple Inc. Arnold-Reid, G. S., Schloss, P. J., & Alper, S. (1997). Teaching meal planning to youth with mental retardation in natural settings. Remedial and Special Education, 18, 166–173. Bechard, S. (2000, Oct.). Students with disabilities and standards-based reform. Policy Brief: Mid-Continent Research for Education and Learning, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, pp. 1–8. Belmont, J. M. (1966). Long-term memory in mental retardation. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation (Vol. 7). New York: Academic. Billingsley, F. (1997, December). The problem and place of functional skills in inclusive settings. In G. Singer (Chair), The role of functional skills and behavior instructional methods in inclusive education. The Annual Meeting for Persons with Severe Handicaps. Boston, MA. Billingsley, F. F., & Albertson, L. R. (1999). Finding a future for functional skills. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 298–302. Blackorby, J., & Wagner, M. (1996). Longitudinal post school outcomes of youth with disabilities: Findings from the national longitudinal transition study. Exceptional Children, 62, 399–413. Bouck, E. C. (2004a). Exploring secondary special education for mild mental impairment: A program in search of its place. Remedial and Special Education, 25, 367–382. Bouck, E. C. (2004b). The state of curriculum for secondary students with mild mental retardation. 510 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-December 2011
Page 1 and 2: Education and Training in Autism an
Page 3 and 4: March 2012 Manuscripts Accepted for
Page 5 and 6: new line of research, the review ho
Page 7 and 8: TABLE 1—(Continued) Overview of H
Page 9 and 10: TABLE 1—(Continued) Overview of H
Page 11 and 12: Figure 1. MP3 Player (Model: SM-320
Page 13 and 14: Figure 3. Sony-Ericsson K800. Retri
Page 15 and 16: computer with three middle school s
Page 17 and 18: Figure 6. Video iPod. Apple, Inc. h
Page 19 and 20: example, in contrast to previous st
Page 21 and 22: using public transportation. Device
Page 23 and 24: accessible software to increase ind
Page 25 and 26: (14.3%), a unique curriculum (13.8%
Page 27 and 28: TABLE 1 Student Characteristics Stu
Page 29 and 30: eos” was highlighted. Students th
Page 31 and 32: ment was 100% for baseline and main
Page 33: Figure 3. Percentage of independent
Page 37 and 38: Individuals with Disabilities Educa
Page 41 and 42: TABLE 1 Video Prompting Studies Con
Page 43 and 44: TABLE 1—(Continued) Video Prompti
Page 45 and 46: Length of video clips. Researchers
Page 47 and 48: to learn three cooking tasks. Resul
Page 49 and 50: Van Laarhoven and Van Laarhoven-Mye
Page 51 and 52: Dogoe, M., & Banda, D. R. (2009). R
Page 55 and 56: TABLE 1 Summary of Demographic and
Page 57 and 58: TABLE 2 Summary of Outcome Variable
Page 59 and 60: with students in preschool (Akmanog
Page 61 and 62: with MoID acquiring some of their p
Page 63 and 64: Vocational task. To date one study
Page 65 and 66: ed; thereby adding to the amount of
Page 67 and 68: Retardation and Developmental Disab
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Page 75 and 76: Experimental Design This study empl
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Figure 1. Correct responses for Joe
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sponses for each skill. No trends w
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then be used as a template for quic
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2007). Choice making initiates the
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making choices is clearly not in th
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epeated until stable choice pattern
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transportation, commitment) to prov
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can be made. Last, because consumer
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Education and Training in Autism an
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TABLE 1 Studies Listed According to
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TABLE 1—(Continued) Studies Liste
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(i.e., MSW) and duration-based (i.e
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2008), and increasing adaptive beha
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port difficulty implementing the in
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of a preferred item while continuin
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Kreiner, J., & Flexer, R. (2009). A
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Education and Training in Autism an
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autism on the CARS. Regarding socia
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other effect size measures and with
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quests during baseline sessions. Du
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ulation was generally clear and he
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communication training as a treatme
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encing allergy symptoms (one partic
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Assessments Preference assessment.
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Interobserver agreement. A second o
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challenging behavior in the presess
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tion of the preferred item signaled
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ior: An analysis of the literature.
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moderate intellectual disabilities
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Effects of the STAR intervention pr
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Copeland, S. R. (2002). See citatio
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126. Ezell, D., & Klein, C. (2003).
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computer-based instruction program.
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sight words to students with mental
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Mastropieri, M. A. (2009). See cita
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262. Noyes, D. A., & Sax, C. L. (20
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Rispoli, M. (2009). See citation #1
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Sparks, S. (2010). See citation #87
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Vlaskamp, C. (2008). See citation #
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INDEX—VOLUME 46,
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Runes, Sandra. See Hausmann-Stabile
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Review of video prompting studies w
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Look! I'm in College! DVD Look, I
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13th International Conference on Au
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