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of food, cooking supplies needed, and preparation steps. Pretraining. Prior to data collection, students were introduced to the iPod Nanos and taught how to use the device to watch videos. A sample video illustrating a simple task was created. To ensure each student was able to successfully use the iPod prior to beginning the study, each watched the video and completed the tasks (i.e., raised their right hand as the model on the video did, drew a blue star, drew a pink circle, etc.). Each student was required to complete the tasks with 80% accuracy before beginning baseline. Baseline. During this condition, students were given a paper copy of a recipe and instructed to make the assigned recipe. The students were observed while cooking and a member of the research team used the system of least prompts to correct the students, as needed. The percent of steps each student completed independently were recorded per session. Students continued in the baseline condition based on the order they were selected to begin the intervention. Brittany began intervention first while Rose and Wes continued baseline phase using traditional instruction. Rose began intervention second; Wes continued in the baseline phase using the traditional instruction and was the last student to begin the intervention. Students only began the intervention phase once baseline stability was established. Intervention. This condition consisted of two treatments: video modeling and video prompting. Six pairs (12 recipes total) of matched recipes were used and each student completed one of the matched recipes using video modeling and the other recipe using video prompting. During video modeling sessions, students were individually presented with the iPod set to start on the selected video. Each was then instructed to watch the entire video at his/her desk. Once each student finished watching the video, he or she remained seated for 5 minutes (5-minute time delay) prior to beginning the cooking activity. At that time, students were asked to move to the cooking area. Once there, students were presented with a paper copy of the recipe and directed to begin cooking. Throughout each session, the system of least prompts was used when the student required assistance with a task step. During video prompting sessions, each student immediately moved to the table in the kitchen area where he or she was given the iPod set to start at the selected video. Each was then instructed to pause the video after each step and complete that step before pressing, “Play,” to move on to the next step. Students were also instructed to rewind the video if a step needed to be viewed again before moving on to the next step. Finally, each student was provided a paper copy of the recipe. As during video modeling sessions, the system of least prompts was used to assist the students as they completed each cooking step. Follow-up. Two separate probes over a twoweek period were collected during this condition in which students completed two additional matched recipes. The first probe recorded the student’s level of independence as he or she continued to use his/her more effective intervention used during the previous condition. The second follow-up probe was conducted one week later where neither video system was used. The purpose of this final probe was to determine if student performance would return to baseline levels. As in baseline and intervention, the percent of steps completed independently by students were recorded and the system of least prompts was implemented as needed. Interobserver Agreement and Treatment Integrity Interobserver agreement data were collected by a trained second observer for each student across all three conditions. The second observer recorded whether the student completed steps independently or with prompts. Interobserver data were collected by the second observer at the same time as the first observer. The percent agreement for steps completed independently by students was calculated by dividing the number of agreements by the total of agreements plus disagreements and multiplying those by 100. For Rose, data were recorded during 33% of the baseline sessions, 58% of the intervention sessions, and 100% of the maintenance sessions. Agreement was 100% for baseline and maintenance and 97% for intervention. For Brittany, data were recorded during 60% of the baseline sessions, 50% of the intervention sessions, and 100% of the maintenance sessions. Agree- Video Modeling and Prompting / 505
ment was 100% for baseline and maintenance and was 96% for intervention. For Wes, data were recorded during 63% of baseline, 67% of intervention, and 100% of maintenance sessions. Agreement was 100% during baseline and maintenance and 95% during intervention. A checklist was developed to assess treatment integrity during the intervention condition to ensure that the student began each session by meeting with the researcher(s), watching the appropriate video depending on the intervention they were receiving for a given session (this included having the students receive the time delay and prompts as needed), and completing the recipe. Treatment integrity was collected for 33% of the sessions for all three students and was 100% for all of the sessions for all three of the students Results Figure 1. Percentage of independent correct steps per session (Brittany). Figures 1, 2 and 3 demonstrate the number of steps each student was able to complete independently using video modeling or video prompting while engaged in cooking tasks. Visual analysis revealed all students increased the number of steps they completed independently when using video prompting and modeling over baseline levels. Visual analysis indicated Brittany’s level of independence was higher when using video prompting, while Rose and Wes cooked more independently when using video modeling. Brittany. Figure 1 illustrates the percentage of steps Brittany completed independently while engaged in cooking tasks. She completed 58.5% of the steps independently during baseline 77.8% of during intervention using video prompting and 74.3% independently using video modeling. The difference between the percentages of steps completed using the two independent variables was 3.5% with video prompting resulting in slightly greater independent performance. A nonparametric analysis (standardized mean difference effect size) was used to verify these intervention findings and confirmed the positive effect of video prompting over video modeling for Brittany (d 0.285, r 0.14). During the follow-up probe using video prompting, Brittany completed 100% of steps independently. When video prompting was then withdrawn, her level of cooking independence dropped to 90%. 506 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-December 2011
Page 1 and 2: Education and Training in Autism an
Page 3 and 4: March 2012 Manuscripts Accepted for
Page 5 and 6: new line of research, the review ho
Page 7 and 8: TABLE 1—(Continued) Overview of H
Page 9 and 10: TABLE 1—(Continued) Overview of H
Page 11 and 12: Figure 1. MP3 Player (Model: SM-320
Page 13 and 14: Figure 3. Sony-Ericsson K800. Retri
Page 15 and 16: computer with three middle school s
Page 17 and 18: Figure 6. Video iPod. Apple, Inc. h
Page 19 and 20: example, in contrast to previous st
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Page 23 and 24: accessible software to increase ind
Page 25 and 26: (14.3%), a unique curriculum (13.8%
Page 27 and 28: TABLE 1 Student Characteristics Stu
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Page 33 and 34: Figure 3. Percentage of independent
Page 35 and 36: how to program and operate the equi
Page 37 and 38: Individuals with Disabilities Educa
Page 41 and 42: TABLE 1 Video Prompting Studies Con
Page 43 and 44: TABLE 1—(Continued) Video Prompti
Page 45 and 46: Length of video clips. Researchers
Page 47 and 48: to learn three cooking tasks. Resul
Page 49 and 50: Van Laarhoven and Van Laarhoven-Mye
Page 51 and 52: Dogoe, M., & Banda, D. R. (2009). R
Page 55 and 56: TABLE 1 Summary of Demographic and
Page 57 and 58: TABLE 2 Summary of Outcome Variable
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Page 75 and 76: Experimental Design This study empl
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Education and Training in Autism an
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at the same time, or did not respon
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Figure 1. Correct responses for Joe
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sponses for each skill. No trends w
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then be used as a template for quic
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2007). Choice making initiates the
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making choices is clearly not in th
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epeated until stable choice pattern
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transportation, commitment) to prov
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can be made. Last, because consumer
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TABLE 1 Studies Listed According to
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TABLE 1—(Continued) Studies Liste
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(i.e., MSW) and duration-based (i.e
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2008), and increasing adaptive beha
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port difficulty implementing the in
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of a preferred item while continuin
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Kreiner, J., & Flexer, R. (2009). A
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autism on the CARS. Regarding socia
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other effect size measures and with
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quests during baseline sessions. Du
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ulation was generally clear and he
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communication training as a treatme
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encing allergy symptoms (one partic
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Assessments Preference assessment.
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Interobserver agreement. A second o
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challenging behavior in the presess
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tion of the preferred item signaled
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ior: An analysis of the literature.
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moderate intellectual disabilities
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Effects of the STAR intervention pr
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Copeland, S. R. (2002). See citatio
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126. Ezell, D., & Klein, C. (2003).
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computer-based instruction program.
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sight words to students with mental
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Mastropieri, M. A. (2009). See cita
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262. Noyes, D. A., & Sax, C. L. (20
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Rispoli, M. (2009). See citation #1
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Sparks, S. (2010). See citation #87
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Vlaskamp, C. (2008). See citation #
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INDEX—VOLUME 46,
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Runes, Sandra. See Hausmann-Stabile
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Review of video prompting studies w
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Look! I'm in College! DVD Look, I
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13th International Conference on Au
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