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41% used a computer, 25.3% used the Internet, 27.7 used cell phones, and 10.8% used electronic organizers on a regular basis. They reported that primary barriers to use included lack of access, lack of training and support, and expense. They further found that age, employment status, and self-perceived ability to perform fine motor tasks, significantly affected use of these technologies. More specifically, younger persons used more technology; those employed in competitive employment and those unemployed used more technology than those in sheltered workshops: and persons who were manually able to copy information (i.e., write/copy an address from a business card) used more technology. To address the issues of availability and expense, some researchers support the use of mainstream, generic devices that are designed for the general population in mass quantities (Cihak et al., 2008). In developing these generic devices, commercial producers are increasingly following the principles of universal design which allow accessibility to all users (as much as possible) without incorporation of special designs or customization (Cihak et al.). Wehmeyer et al. (2008) recommend future research and development across a wide range of technologies, including newer electronic and information systems which employ aspects of universal design to determine their applicability to persons with intellectual disabilities. In addition to being readily available and less expensive, mainstream handheld devices and phones are reported to be non-stigmatizing means for providing assistance to persons with intellectual disabilities because they are predominantly used by the general public (Davies et al., 2002b; Gentry et al., 2010; Gillette & DePompei, 2008; Myles, Ferguson, & Hagiwara, 2007). Results of the reviewed studies further indicate that students like handheld devices and are motivated to use them (Cihak et al., 2010; Mechling & Seid, 2011; Taber et al., 2003; Taber-Doughty et al., 2008; Van Laarhoven et al., 2007). However, the old saying, “one size does not fit all” may also apply to the use of portable electronic devices. For many users, cognitive and physical accessibility are concerns and there continues to be a need to modify mainstream software which operates portable electronic devices in order to increase their accessibility and use by persons with intellectual disabilities (Stock et al., 2006; 2008). Researchers may wish to evaluate commercial mainstream products such as the video iPod to determine if they are as effective as those made specifically for persons with disabilities (i.e., Ablelink Technologies, Kiba Technologies, LLC.) in delivering information and providing access. Other directions for future research center around the need to explore the application of currently available features offered by PDAs and smartphones (Gentry et al., 2010) These include: ● text to speech features on portable devices so that information (i.e., emails, contact information) can be read to the user. Fonix VoiceCentral 3.1 (Fonix Speech, 2008) has built-in text-to-speech software that allows a Pocket PC to read information and Voice- Central Black Swan, available for iPhones (Riverturn, Inc., 2009–2010), has this capability. ● voice recognition for operating applications, making phone calls etc. Features are now being offered through products such as Dragon Pdsay (Nuance Communications, Inc., 2010) which provides voice input as well as text to speech features. ● video telephoning to increase skills and opportunities such as social, communication (Renblad, 1999), and safety skills. ● video playback on smartphones to prompt task completion. In addition to these directions, it appears that special education and related fields should also explore development of applications that will afford the following: ● use of electronic readers on a PDA or smartphone which would allow instant photographs to be taken of text which could be converted to speech to allow ready access to print materials. This feature, which is available on the Intel Reader (Intel Corporation) would allow persons with moderate ID or ASD to take a photograph in a community setting (i.e., street sign, grocery aisle) and have the information read to them. ● simple to use GPS systems which provide pictorial, auditory, and video information to users with moderate intellectual disabilities who are walking (Mechling & Seid, 2011) or Twenty-First Century Portable Electronic Devices / 495
using public transportation. Devices such as the Trekker Breeze (HumanWare, 2005– 2009) are currently used by persons who are blind to provide auditory information about locations, directions, routes, and landmarks. While considering these listed features, it appears relevant to individually evaluate them as independent variables as well as to evaluate them in conjunction with each other such as using a single device for prompting step-bystep task completion, providing reminders to complete a task, and serving as a travel aid. It is important to recognize that future technologies that merge functions into one device, mainstream or customized, will be made available so that students will have access to multiple features on one device. Finally, while it is important to realize these portable electronic devices may not be appropriate for everyone, and that persons in more restrictive settings with fewer task demands may have less need for PDAs and smartphones (DePompei et al., 2008), it is also possible that these innovations will create opportunities for access and engagement in living, work, and recreational environments that are currently not available to persons with more significant disabilities. References Abbell, M., Bauder, D., Simmons, T., & Sharon, D. (2003). Using personal digital assistants (PDA) to connect students with special needs to the general curriculum. Closing the Gap, 22(1), 20. AbleLink Technologies. www.ablelinktech.com Ayres, K. M., & Langone, J. (2008). Video supports for teaching students with developmental disabilities and autism: Twenty-five years of research and development. Journal of Special Education Technology, 23(3), 1–8. Bryen, D. N., Carey, A., & Friedman, M. (2007). Cell phone use by adults with intellectual disabilities. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 45, 1–9. Cannella-Malone H., Sigafoos, J., O’Reilly, M., De La Cruz, B., Edrisinha, C., & Lancioni, G. E. (2006). Comparing video prompting to video modeling for teaching daily livings skills to six adults with developmental disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 41, 344– 356. Carey, A. C., Friedman, M. G., & Bryen, D. N. (2005). Use of electronic technologies by people with intellectual disabilities. Mental Retardation, 43, 322–333. Cell Phones.org (2008). Cell phone history. Retrieved from www.cellphones.org/cell-phone history.html on June 23, 2010. Cihak, D., Fahrenkrog, C., Ayres, K. M., & Smith, C. (2010). The use of video modeling via a video iPod and a system of least prompts to improve transitional behaviors for students with autism spectrum disorders in the general education classroom. Journal of Positive Behavior Intervention, 12, 103–115. Cihak, D. F., Kessler, K. B., & Alberto, P. A. (2007). Generalized use of a handheld prompting system. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 28, 397–408. Cihak, D. F., Kessler, K. B., & Alberto, P. A. (2008). Use of a handheld prompting system to transition independently through vocational tasks for students with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 43, 102–110. Cihak, D. F., Wright, R., & Ayres, K. M. (2010). Use of self-modeling static-picture prompts via a handheld computer to facilitate self-monitoring in the general education classroom. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 45, 136–149. Davies, D. K., Stock, S. E., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2003). A palmtop computer-based intelligent aid for individuals with intellectual disabilities to increase independent decision making. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28, 182– 193. Davies, D. K., Stock, S. E., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2002a). Enhancing independent time-management skills to individuals with mental retardation using a palmtop personal computer. Mental Retardation, 5, 358–365. Davies, D. K., Stock, S. E., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2002b). Enhancing independent task performance for individuals with mental retardation through use of a handheld self-directed visual and audio prompting system. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 37, 209–218. DePompei, R., Gillette, Y., Goetz, E., Xenopoulos- Oddsson, A., Bryen, D., & Dowds, M. (2008). Practical applications for use of PDAs and smartphones with children and adolescents who have traumatic brain injury. NeuroRehabilitation, 23, 487–499. Fonix Speech. (2008). Fonix VoiceCentral 3.1. Retrieved from www.fonixspeech.com June 26, 2010 Furniss, F., Ward, A., Lancioni, G., Rocha, N., Cunha, B., Seedhouse, et al. (1999). A palmtopbased job aid for workers with severe intellectual disabilities. Technology and Disability, 10, 53–67. Gentry, T., Wallace, C., Kvarfordt, C., & Lynch, K. B. 496 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-December 2011
Page 1 and 2: Education and Training in Autism an
Page 3 and 4: March 2012 Manuscripts Accepted for
Page 5 and 6: new line of research, the review ho
Page 7 and 8: TABLE 1—(Continued) Overview of H
Page 9 and 10: TABLE 1—(Continued) Overview of H
Page 11 and 12: Figure 1. MP3 Player (Model: SM-320
Page 13 and 14: Figure 3. Sony-Ericsson K800. Retri
Page 15 and 16: computer with three middle school s
Page 17 and 18: Figure 6. Video iPod. Apple, Inc. h
Page 19: example, in contrast to previous st
Page 23 and 24: accessible software to increase ind
Page 25 and 26: (14.3%), a unique curriculum (13.8%
Page 27 and 28: TABLE 1 Student Characteristics Stu
Page 29 and 30: eos” was highlighted. Students th
Page 31 and 32: ment was 100% for baseline and main
Page 33 and 34: Figure 3. Percentage of independent
Page 35 and 36: how to program and operate the equi
Page 37 and 38: Individuals with Disabilities Educa
Page 41 and 42: TABLE 1 Video Prompting Studies Con
Page 43 and 44: TABLE 1—(Continued) Video Prompti
Page 45 and 46: Length of video clips. Researchers
Page 47 and 48: to learn three cooking tasks. Resul
Page 49 and 50: Van Laarhoven and Van Laarhoven-Mye
Page 51 and 52: Dogoe, M., & Banda, D. R. (2009). R
Page 55 and 56: TABLE 1 Summary of Demographic and
Page 57 and 58: TABLE 2 Summary of Outcome Variable
Page 59 and 60: with students in preschool (Akmanog
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Page 63 and 64: Vocational task. To date one study
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TABLE 1 Student Demographic Informa
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Figure 1. Example of the mini-poste
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Experimental Design This study empl
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intervention sessions was 75.55% de
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help continue maximum skill profici
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Education and Training in Autism an
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at the same time, or did not respon
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Figure 1. Correct responses for Joe
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sponses for each skill. No trends w
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then be used as a template for quic
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2007). Choice making initiates the
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making choices is clearly not in th
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epeated until stable choice pattern
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transportation, commitment) to prov
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can be made. Last, because consumer
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TABLE 1 Studies Listed According to
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TABLE 1—(Continued) Studies Liste
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(i.e., MSW) and duration-based (i.e
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2008), and increasing adaptive beha
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port difficulty implementing the in
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of a preferred item while continuin
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Kreiner, J., & Flexer, R. (2009). A
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autism on the CARS. Regarding socia
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other effect size measures and with
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quests during baseline sessions. Du
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ulation was generally clear and he
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communication training as a treatme
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encing allergy symptoms (one partic
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Assessments Preference assessment.
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Interobserver agreement. A second o
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challenging behavior in the presess
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tion of the preferred item signaled
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ior: An analysis of the literature.
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moderate intellectual disabilities
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Effects of the STAR intervention pr
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Copeland, S. R. (2002). See citatio
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126. Ezell, D., & Klein, C. (2003).
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computer-based instruction program.
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sight words to students with mental
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Mastropieri, M. A. (2009). See cita
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262. Noyes, D. A., & Sax, C. L. (20
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Rispoli, M. (2009). See citation #1
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Sparks, S. (2010). See citation #87
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Vlaskamp, C. (2008). See citation #
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INDEX—VOLUME 46,
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Runes, Sandra. See Hausmann-Stabile
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Review of video prompting studies w
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Look! I'm in College! DVD Look, I
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13th International Conference on Au
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