etadd_46(4) - Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities

example, in contrast to previous studies examining
video and transitions, students in the
Cihak et al. (2010) study did not have to return
to a “home base” in order to view the
video on a television or computer screen. Instead,
the portable device moved with the students
across environments. Similarly, in the
Mechling and Seid (2011) and Van Laarhoven
et al. (2009) studies, students were able to
walk with the PDA while locating destinations
and completing job tasks within an animal
shelter.
Although the results have all been positive
when using PDAs with different presentation
modes (i.e., picture, video), accessibility issues
remain with these mainstream devices. Stock
et al. (2006) identified and affectively addressed
some of these barriers by developing
and evaluating a simplified multimedia software
system, Pocket Voyager (AbleLink Technologies)
for use with a PDA. With their prototype,
they created: (a) oversized icons to
address the issue of physical access with small
icons; (b) digital pictures for identification of
contacts in the address book for persons who
had difficulty reading text; (c) audio messages
to assist understanding of what applications
were represented by each icon; (d) recorded
audio files for reading phone numbers in the
address book; and (e) numbers in larger fonts
for persons who had difficulty recognizing
and dialing numbers. They further identified
the problems persons have with complex PDA
operating systems and provided greater consistency
across steps for starting different applications
in the system. When compared to
use of a standard Windows CE operating system
and Pocket PC, 32 participants with intellectual
disabilities (mean IQ score 56.1) required
fewer prompts and committed fewer
errors when using the specially designed software
program.
In addition to access when using handheld
computers, further research and development
should continue to investigate the following:
● use of video prompting compared to video
modeling on portable handheld devices.
● comparative effects of different systems
(i.e., picture-based and video-based systems;
self-operated auditory prompting and video
prompting) (Taber-Doughty et al., 2008).
● importance of verbal/voice over recordings
when using picture-based and video-based
systems (Rayner, Denholm, & Sigafoos,
2009).
● effects of handheld devices on different
types of task (i.e., fine motor compared to
gross motor) (Furniss et al., 1999).
● provision of high-tech handheld systems
during acquisition of skills followed by use
of light-tech (picture or auditory) systems
during review or continuous performance
of skills.
● provision of multiple prompt levels (text,
audio, picture, and video) on one device or
one screen of a device.
● ability of users to self-adjust the prompt levels
used on devices and development of systems
that permit this adjustment (Van Laarhoven
& Van Laarhoven-Myers, 2006).
● effects of clustering multiple pictures of
steps into fewer pictures (Lancioni et al.,
2000), lengthening or shortening verbal recordings
(Lancioni et al., 2001), and adjusting
the length of video recordings (Cannella-Malone
et al., 2006) as tasks are
learned and repeated.
● use of wide screen or zoom shots with photographs
and videos when presenting different
components of tasks (Van Laarhoven et
al., 2007).
● comparative effects of screen size and images
for delivering information through pictures
and video (Stock et al., 2008).
Discussion and Recommendations for Future
Research
Research into the potential benefits of portable
electronic technologies for persons with a
diagnosis of moderate intellectual disabilities
and autism spectrum disorders is in its initial
stages. Studies to date support the use of these
technologies across environments including
work, school, and community settings and
across skills including functional multi-step
skills, transitioning between tasks and environments,
and time and task management.
In spite of the positive results reported in
the studies reviewed, persons with intellectual
disabilities have traditionally accessed cutting
edge technologies far less often than those
without disabilities (Carey et al., 2005). In
their survey of 83 adults with intellectual disabilities,
Carey and colleagues found that only
494 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-December 2011