etadd_46(4) - Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities
etadd_46(4) - Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities
etadd_46(4) - Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities
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example, in c<strong>on</strong>trast to previous studies examining<br />
video <strong>and</strong> transiti<strong>on</strong>s, students in the<br />
Cihak et al. (2010) study did not have to return<br />
to a “home base” in order to view the<br />
video <strong>on</strong> a televisi<strong>on</strong> or computer screen. Instead,<br />
the portable device moved with the students<br />
across envir<strong>on</strong>ments. Similarly, in the<br />
Mechling <strong>and</strong> Seid (2011) <strong>and</strong> Van Laarhoven<br />
et al. (2009) studies, students were able to<br />
walk with the PDA while locating destinati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>and</strong> completing job tasks within an animal<br />
shelter.<br />
Although the results have all been positive<br />
when using PDAs with different presentati<strong>on</strong><br />
modes (i.e., picture, video), accessibility issues<br />
remain with these mainstream devices. Stock<br />
et al. (2006) identified <strong>and</strong> affectively addressed<br />
some of these barriers by developing<br />
<strong>and</strong> evaluating a simplified multimedia software<br />
system, Pocket Voyager (AbleLink Technologies)<br />
for use with a PDA. With their prototype,<br />
they created: (a) oversized ic<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
address the issue of physical access with small<br />
ic<strong>on</strong>s; (b) digital pictures for identificati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tacts in the address book for pers<strong>on</strong>s who<br />
had difficulty reading text; (c) audio messages<br />
to assist underst<strong>and</strong>ing of what applicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were represented by each ic<strong>on</strong>; (d) recorded<br />
audio files for reading ph<strong>on</strong>e numbers in the<br />
address book; <strong>and</strong> (e) numbers in larger f<strong>on</strong>ts<br />
for pers<strong>on</strong>s who had difficulty recognizing<br />
<strong>and</strong> dialing numbers. They further identified<br />
the problems pers<strong>on</strong>s have with complex PDA<br />
operating systems <strong>and</strong> provided greater c<strong>on</strong>sistency<br />
across steps for starting different applicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
in the system. When compared to<br />
use of a st<strong>and</strong>ard Windows CE operating system<br />
<strong>and</strong> Pocket PC, 32 participants with intellectual<br />
disabilities (mean IQ score 56.1) required<br />
fewer prompts <strong>and</strong> committed fewer<br />
errors when using the specially designed software<br />
program.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to access when using h<strong>and</strong>held<br />
computers, further research <strong>and</strong> development<br />
should c<strong>on</strong>tinue to investigate the following:<br />
● use of video prompting compared to video<br />
modeling <strong>on</strong> portable h<strong>and</strong>held devices.<br />
● comparative effects of different systems<br />
(i.e., picture-based <strong>and</strong> video-based systems;<br />
self-operated auditory prompting <strong>and</strong> video<br />
prompting) (Taber-Doughty et al., 2008).<br />
● importance of verbal/voice over recordings<br />
when using picture-based <strong>and</strong> video-based<br />
systems (Rayner, Denholm, & Sigafoos,<br />
2009).<br />
● effects of h<strong>and</strong>held devices <strong>on</strong> different<br />
types of task (i.e., fine motor compared to<br />
gross motor) (Furniss et al., 1999).<br />
● provisi<strong>on</strong> of high-tech h<strong>and</strong>held systems<br />
during acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of skills followed by use<br />
of light-tech (picture or auditory) systems<br />
during review or c<strong>on</strong>tinuous performance<br />
of skills.<br />
● provisi<strong>on</strong> of multiple prompt levels (text,<br />
audio, picture, <strong>and</strong> video) <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e device or<br />
<strong>on</strong>e screen of a device.<br />
● ability of users to self-adjust the prompt levels<br />
used <strong>on</strong> devices <strong>and</strong> development of systems<br />
that permit this adjustment (Van Laarhoven<br />
& Van Laarhoven-Myers, 2006).<br />
● effects of clustering multiple pictures of<br />
steps into fewer pictures (Lanci<strong>on</strong>i et al.,<br />
2000), lengthening or shortening verbal recordings<br />
(Lanci<strong>on</strong>i et al., 2001), <strong>and</strong> adjusting<br />
the length of video recordings (Cannella-Mal<strong>on</strong>e<br />
et al., 2006) as tasks are<br />
learned <strong>and</strong> repeated.<br />
● use of wide screen or zoom shots with photographs<br />
<strong>and</strong> videos when presenting different<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents of tasks (Van Laarhoven et<br />
al., 2007).<br />
● comparative effects of screen size <strong>and</strong> images<br />
for delivering informati<strong>on</strong> through pictures<br />
<strong>and</strong> video (Stock et al., 2008).<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for Future<br />
Research<br />
Research into the potential benefits of portable<br />
electr<strong>on</strong>ic technologies for pers<strong>on</strong>s with a<br />
diagnosis of moderate intellectual disabilities<br />
<strong>and</strong> autism spectrum disorders is in its initial<br />
stages. Studies to date support the use of these<br />
technologies across envir<strong>on</strong>ments including<br />
work, school, <strong>and</strong> community settings <strong>and</strong><br />
across skills including functi<strong>on</strong>al multi-step<br />
skills, transiti<strong>on</strong>ing between tasks <strong>and</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>ments,<br />
<strong>and</strong> time <strong>and</strong> task management.<br />
In spite of the positive results reported in<br />
the studies reviewed, pers<strong>on</strong>s with intellectual<br />
disabilities have traditi<strong>on</strong>ally accessed cutting<br />
edge technologies far less often than those<br />
without disabilities (Carey et al., 2005). In<br />
their survey of 83 adults with intellectual disabilities,<br />
Carey <strong>and</strong> colleagues found that <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
494 / Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>and</strong> Training in <strong>Autism</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-December 2011