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sual and auditory cues on an Axim 30 handheld computer by Dell. In the first study four students completed four separate communitybased tasks (i.e., stocking milk, making subrolls) with each subsequent task increasing in the number of steps required for completion. The PDA, used in conjunction with a least-tomost prompting system delivered by the instructor, was an effective tool for delivering prompts to students and task performance was maintained up to 9 weeks. In the second study, four of the same tasks were used from the first study, along with six additional tasks, to evaluate independent transitions between tasks by four students with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities. Similar results indicated that the handheld prompting system was an effective tool for increasing independent task transitions and skills were once again maintained for up to 9 weeks. In summary, although similar to picturebased booklets, the presentation of pictures on electronic PDAs, may provide a more efficient and effective means for delivering prompts whereby students may find the traditional form of presentation to be more cumbersome to manipulate and may lose their place in the sequence (Lancioni et al., 2000). Electronic picture-based systems with and without voice recordings were both found to be effective in this review. In light of research which indicates that students with ASD may be stronger visual than auditory learners (Quill, 1995; West, 2008), what remains unanswered is whether it is necessary to include voice recordings in conjunction with pictures. In addition to examining the need for voice recordings, future research should also continue the line of investigation initiated by Lancioni et al. concerning clustering multiple pictures into fewer pictures (2000) and clustering individual verbal prompts of steps into longer streams of auditory recordings (2001) as tasks are acquired. Research will need to examine not only students’ abilities to use these features, but the flexibility of systems for making these adjustments with regards to preparation time. The line of research initiated by Davies et al. (2003) into the capabilities of PDAs to function in a non-linear format also warrants more attention. With such programming, pictures on one screen can be linked to a different sequence of pictures depending on the choice or decision made by the user (i.e., which recipe to cook, laundry load size for a washing machine). PDA with video cues and handheld video players. In a recent literature review of assistive technology devices (including PDAs) used as selfmanagement tools for prompting students with ID, no studies were available (through 2005) evaluating the use of video presented on handhelds (Mechling, 2007). The current review identified eight studies between the years 2007 and 2010 addressing use of video modeling or prompting presented on portable handheld devices as intervention tools for students with moderate ID and ASD. Video modeling, watching an entire video recording demonstrating how to perform a task prior to completing the task, was used in three of the eight identified studies utilizing video on handheld devices. Van Laarhoven, Van Laarhoven-Myers, and Zurita (2007) worked with two high school aged males with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities in two employment settings (Red Robin and Applebee’s) using video modeling presented on an HP iPAQ hg2700 series Pocket PC. Each student completed three different tasks (i.e., rolling silverware, portioning recipes) using video modeling and video feedback (re-watching the video after errors occurred) in conjunction with a least-to-most prompting system delivered by the instructor. Both students demonstrated an increase in independent responding and a decrease in external adult prompting while using the device. Taber-Doughty, Patton, and Brennan (2008) used a 30GB Apple video iPod (Figure 6) to deliver simultaneous prompting in a library whereby students watched an entire video task chain, with audio instructions, while simultaneously completing each step. This format was used for locating books and DVDs and using a computer to obtain call numbers by three middle school students with moderate intellectual disabilities. This study compared simultaneous video modeling and delayed video modeling in which a student watched a video model at least one hour prior to traveling to the library and locating the items. The delayed video modeling was presented on a VCR/DVD player. Both systems were found to be effective and students were able to generalize the skills to a second library, Twenty-First Century Portable Electronic Devices / 491
Figure 6. Video iPod. Apple, Inc. however, when using the video iPod with simultaneous prompting, acquisition and generalization of skills was slightly greater for two students for the computer task and for all three students when locating DVDs and books. Of further interest was the preference of two of the students for using the video iPod. A video iPod, with video modeling was also used by Cihak, Fahrenkrog, Ayres, and Smith (2010) to increase independent transition behaviors of four elementary students diagnosed with ASD within a general education classroom. A combination of video self-modeling without audio (video clips of the student as the model lining up, walking in the hallway, and entering the next area of the school) and person first point-of-view (students’ vantage point as if they were walking to the next area) were used to create the video models of ten daily transitions. At the beginning of each transition the student watched the video model on the video iPod followed by a teacher prompt to “line up” and begin the transition. Students experienced an increase in independent transitions when using the handheld video device paired with a least-to-most prompting system delivered by the instructor and descending trends in performance when the device was removed. A third study also used a video iPod, but compared to the previously reviewed studies, the researchers used video prompting and feedback on the device rather than video modeling (Van Laarhoven, Johnson, Van Laarhoven-Myers, Grider & Grider, 2009). Video prompting requires the user to watch one video segment on the device, complete the corresponding step, return to the device, watch the next video segment in the task sequence and so forth. Van Laarhoven and others used video prompting and feedback to present steps to a 17-year-old young man for completing work-related tasks in a no-kill animal shelter. Compared to the Van Laarhoven et al. (2007) study, the participant referred back to individual video segments (rather than the entire video) when an error occurred on a particular step The program also contained still photographs at the beginning of each video clip to present critical features of steps and a title screen at the end of each video clip to prompt the student to stop the device and complete the step. Voice over narration was also uploaded to the video iPod. Introduction of the video-based materials resulted in an increase in correct responding by the participant across three job-related tasks and a decrease in adult prompting for error correction and use of the device. In the final three studies identified in this review, PDAs were used to present multiple media options to the users including: voice recordings, digital photographs, and digital video. Unlike the other studies reviewed which incorporated video onto handheld devices, each of these studies used a specialized assistive technology device rather than a mainstream, commercially available product. The studies used a Cyrano Communicator TM (Kiba Technologies, LLC.) which was originally designed as a portable augmentative communication device. The device operated using specially designed software on a commercially available PDA (Hewlett Packard iPAQ Pocket PC or Pidion BM-150R) with multimedia features that allowed the user to 492 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-December 2011
Page 1 and 2: Education and Training in Autism an
Page 3 and 4: March 2012 Manuscripts Accepted for
Page 5 and 6: new line of research, the review ho
Page 7 and 8: TABLE 1—(Continued) Overview of H
Page 9 and 10: TABLE 1—(Continued) Overview of H
Page 11 and 12: Figure 1. MP3 Player (Model: SM-320
Page 13 and 14: Figure 3. Sony-Ericsson K800. Retri
Page 15: computer with three middle school s
Page 19 and 20: example, in contrast to previous st
Page 21 and 22: using public transportation. Device
Page 23 and 24: accessible software to increase ind
Page 25 and 26: (14.3%), a unique curriculum (13.8%
Page 27 and 28: TABLE 1 Student Characteristics Stu
Page 29 and 30: eos” was highlighted. Students th
Page 31 and 32: ment was 100% for baseline and main
Page 33 and 34: Figure 3. Percentage of independent
Page 35 and 36: how to program and operate the equi
Page 37 and 38: Individuals with Disabilities Educa
Page 41 and 42: TABLE 1 Video Prompting Studies Con
Page 43 and 44: TABLE 1—(Continued) Video Prompti
Page 45 and 46: Length of video clips. Researchers
Page 47 and 48: to learn three cooking tasks. Resul
Page 49 and 50: Van Laarhoven and Van Laarhoven-Mye
Page 51 and 52: Dogoe, M., & Banda, D. R. (2009). R
Page 55 and 56: TABLE 1 Summary of Demographic and
Page 57 and 58: TABLE 2 Summary of Outcome Variable
Page 59 and 60: with students in preschool (Akmanog
Page 61 and 62: with MoID acquiring some of their p
Page 63 and 64: Vocational task. To date one study
Page 65 and 66: ed; thereby adding to the amount of
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Retardation and Developmental Disab
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Education and Training in Autism an
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TABLE 1 Student Demographic Informa
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Figure 1. Example of the mini-poste
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Experimental Design This study empl
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intervention sessions was 75.55% de
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help continue maximum skill profici
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at the same time, or did not respon
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Figure 1. Correct responses for Joe
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sponses for each skill. No trends w
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then be used as a template for quic
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2007). Choice making initiates the
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making choices is clearly not in th
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epeated until stable choice pattern
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transportation, commitment) to prov
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can be made. Last, because consumer
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Page 103 and 104:
TABLE 1 Studies Listed According to
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TABLE 1—(Continued) Studies Liste
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(i.e., MSW) and duration-based (i.e
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2008), and increasing adaptive beha
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port difficulty implementing the in
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of a preferred item while continuin
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Kreiner, J., & Flexer, R. (2009). A
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autism on the CARS. Regarding socia
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other effect size measures and with
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quests during baseline sessions. Du
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ulation was generally clear and he
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communication training as a treatme
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encing allergy symptoms (one partic
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Assessments Preference assessment.
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Interobserver agreement. A second o
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challenging behavior in the presess
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tion of the preferred item signaled
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ior: An analysis of the literature.
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moderate intellectual disabilities
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Effects of the STAR intervention pr
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Copeland, S. R. (2002). See citatio
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126. Ezell, D., & Klein, C. (2003).
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computer-based instruction program.
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sight words to students with mental
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Mastropieri, M. A. (2009). See cita
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262. Noyes, D. A., & Sax, C. L. (20
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Rispoli, M. (2009). See citation #1
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Sparks, S. (2010). See citation #87
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Vlaskamp, C. (2008). See citation #
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INDEX—VOLUME 46,
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Runes, Sandra. See Hausmann-Stabile
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Review of video prompting studies w
Page 173 and 174:
Look! I'm in College! DVD Look, I
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13th International Conference on Au
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