etadd_46(4) - Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities
etadd_46(4) - Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities
etadd_46(4) - Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities
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sual <strong>and</strong> auditory cues <strong>on</strong> an Axim 30 h<strong>and</strong>held<br />
computer by Dell. In the first study four<br />
students completed four separate communitybased<br />
tasks (i.e., stocking milk, making subrolls)<br />
with each subsequent task increasing in<br />
the number of steps required for completi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The PDA, used in c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong> with a least-tomost<br />
prompting system delivered by the instructor,<br />
was an effective tool for delivering<br />
prompts to students <strong>and</strong> task performance was<br />
maintained up to 9 weeks. In the sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
study, four of the same tasks were used from<br />
the first study, al<strong>on</strong>g with six additi<strong>on</strong>al tasks,<br />
to evaluate independent transiti<strong>on</strong>s between<br />
tasks by four students with moderate to severe<br />
intellectual disabilities. Similar results indicated<br />
that the h<strong>and</strong>held prompting system<br />
was an effective tool for increasing independent<br />
task transiti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>and</strong> skills were <strong>on</strong>ce<br />
again maintained for up to 9 weeks.<br />
In summary, although similar to picturebased<br />
booklets, the presentati<strong>on</strong> of pictures<br />
<strong>on</strong> electr<strong>on</strong>ic PDAs, may provide a more efficient<br />
<strong>and</strong> effective means for delivering<br />
prompts whereby students may find the traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
form of presentati<strong>on</strong> to be more cumbersome<br />
to manipulate <strong>and</strong> may lose their<br />
place in the sequence (Lanci<strong>on</strong>i et al., 2000).<br />
Electr<strong>on</strong>ic picture-based systems with <strong>and</strong><br />
without voice recordings were both found to<br />
be effective in this review. In light of research<br />
which indicates that students with ASD may be<br />
str<strong>on</strong>ger visual than auditory learners (Quill,<br />
1995; West, 2008), what remains unanswered<br />
is whether it is necessary to include voice recordings<br />
in c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong> with pictures. In additi<strong>on</strong><br />
to examining the need for voice recordings,<br />
future research should also c<strong>on</strong>tinue the<br />
line of investigati<strong>on</strong> initiated by Lanci<strong>on</strong>i et al.<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerning clustering multiple pictures into<br />
fewer pictures (2000) <strong>and</strong> clustering individual<br />
verbal prompts of steps into l<strong>on</strong>ger<br />
streams of auditory recordings (2001) as tasks<br />
are acquired. Research will need to examine<br />
not <strong>on</strong>ly students’ abilities to use these features,<br />
but the flexibility of systems for making<br />
these adjustments with regards to preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
time. The line of research initiated by Davies<br />
et al. (2003) into the capabilities of PDAs to<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> in a n<strong>on</strong>-linear format also warrants<br />
more attenti<strong>on</strong>. With such programming, pictures<br />
<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e screen can be linked to a different<br />
sequence of pictures depending <strong>on</strong> the<br />
choice or decisi<strong>on</strong> made by the user (i.e.,<br />
which recipe to cook, laundry load size for a<br />
washing machine).<br />
PDA with video cues <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>held video players.<br />
In a recent literature review of assistive technology<br />
devices (including PDAs) used as selfmanagement<br />
tools for prompting students<br />
with ID, no studies were available (through<br />
2005) evaluating the use of video presented<br />
<strong>on</strong> h<strong>and</strong>helds (Mechling, 2007). The current<br />
review identified eight studies between the<br />
years 2007 <strong>and</strong> 2010 addressing use of video<br />
modeling or prompting presented <strong>on</strong> portable<br />
h<strong>and</strong>held devices as interventi<strong>on</strong> tools for<br />
students with moderate ID <strong>and</strong> ASD.<br />
Video modeling, watching an entire video<br />
recording dem<strong>on</strong>strating how to perform a<br />
task prior to completing the task, was used in<br />
three of the eight identified studies utilizing<br />
video <strong>on</strong> h<strong>and</strong>held devices. Van Laarhoven,<br />
Van Laarhoven-Myers, <strong>and</strong> Zurita (2007)<br />
worked with two high school aged males with<br />
mild <strong>and</strong> moderate intellectual disabilities in<br />
two employment settings (Red Robin <strong>and</strong><br />
Applebee’s) using video modeling presented<br />
<strong>on</strong> an HP iPAQ hg2700 series Pocket PC. Each<br />
student completed three different tasks (i.e.,<br />
rolling silverware, porti<strong>on</strong>ing recipes) using<br />
video modeling <strong>and</strong> video feedback (re-watching<br />
the video after errors occurred) in c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong><br />
with a least-to-most prompting system<br />
delivered by the instructor. Both students<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated an increase in independent resp<strong>on</strong>ding<br />
<strong>and</strong> a decrease in external adult<br />
prompting while using the device.<br />
Taber-Doughty, Patt<strong>on</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Brennan<br />
(2008) used a 30GB Apple video iPod (Figure<br />
6) to deliver simultaneous prompting in a<br />
library whereby students watched an entire<br />
video task chain, with audio instructi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
while simultaneously completing each step.<br />
This format was used for locating books <strong>and</strong><br />
DVDs <strong>and</strong> using a computer to obtain call<br />
numbers by three middle school students with<br />
moderate intellectual disabilities. This study<br />
compared simultaneous video modeling <strong>and</strong><br />
delayed video modeling in which a student<br />
watched a video model at least <strong>on</strong>e hour prior<br />
to traveling to the library <strong>and</strong> locating the<br />
items. The delayed video modeling was presented<br />
<strong>on</strong> a VCR/DVD player. Both systems<br />
were found to be effective <strong>and</strong> students were<br />
able to generalize the skills to a sec<strong>on</strong>d library,<br />
Twenty-First Century Portable Electr<strong>on</strong>ic Devices / 491