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assistants within <strong>the</strong> natural contexts of a participant’s daily schedule. References Ball, T. S., Campbell, R., & Barkemeyer, R. (1980). Air splints applied to control self-injurious finger sucking in profoundly retarded individuals. <strong>Journal</strong> of Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 11, 267–271. Barmann, B. C. (1980). Use of contingent vibration in <strong>the</strong> treatment of self-stimulatory hand-mouthing and ruminative vomiting behavior. <strong>Journal</strong> of Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 11, 307–311. Case-Holden, V., & Hupp, S. C. (1989). Reducing stereotypic handmouthing of a child with severe/ profound retardation. <strong>Journal</strong> of Early Intervention, 13, 165–172. Favell, J. E., McGimsey, J. F., & Schell, R. M. (1982). Treatment of self-injury by providing alternate sensory activities. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 2, 83–104. Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G., Hanley, G. P., & Adelinis, J. D. (1997). Direct and collateral effects of restraints and restraint fading. <strong>Journal</strong> of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 105–119. Foxx, R. M., & Azrin, N. H. (1973). The elimination of autistic self-stimulatory behavior by overcorrection. <strong>Journal</strong> of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 1–14. Kazdin, A. E. (1982). Single-case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Lockwood, K., & Williams, D. E. (1994). Treatment and extended follow-up of chronic hand mouthing. <strong>Journal</strong> of Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 25, 161–169. Luiselli, J. K. (1989). Behavioral assessment and treatment of pediatric feeding disorders in developmental disabilities. In M. Hershen, & R. Eisler (Eds.), Progress in Behavior Modification, Vol. 24. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Luiselli, J. K., & Waldstein, N. (1994). Evaluation of restraint-elimination interventions for students with multiple disabilities in a pediatric nursing care setting. Behavior Modification, 18, 352–365. Mazaleski, J. L., Iwata, B. A., Rodgers, T. A., Vollmer, T. R., & Zarcone, J. R. (1994). Protective equipment as treatment for stereotypic hand mouthing: Sensory extinction or punishment effects? <strong>Journal</strong> of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 345– 355. McClure, J. T., Moss, R. A., McPeters, J. W., & Kirkpatrick, M. A. (1986). Reduction of hand mouthing by a boy with profound mental retardation. Mental Retardation, 24, 219–222. Minness, P. M. (1980). Treatment of compulsive hand in mouth behaviour in a profoundly retarded child using a sharp pinch as <strong>the</strong> aversive stimulus. Australian <strong>Journal</strong> of Developmental Disabilities, 6, 5–10. Oliver, C., Murphy, G., Hall, S., Arron, K., & Leggett, J. (2003). Phenomenology of self-restraint. American <strong>Journal</strong> of Mental Retardation, 108, 71–81. Pelios, L., Morren, J., Tesch, D., & Axelrod, S. (1999). The impact of functional analysis methodology on treatment choice for self-injurious and aggressive behavior. <strong>Journal</strong> of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 185–195. Rast, J., & Jack, S. (1992). Mouthing. In E. A. Konarski, J. E. Favell, & J. E. Favell (Eds.). Manual for <strong>the</strong> assessment and treatment of <strong>the</strong> behavior disorders of people with mental retardation (pp. 1–11). Morganton, NC: Western Carolina Center Foundation. Realon, R. E., Favell, J. E., & Cacace, S. (1995). An economical, humane, and effective method for short-term suppression of hand mouthing. Behavioral Interventions, 10, 141–147. Touchette, P. E., MacDonald, R. F., & Langer, S. N. (1985). A scatter plot for identifying stimulus control of problem behavior. <strong>Journal</strong> of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 343–351. Vollmer, T. R., Marcus, B. A., & LeBlanc, L. (1994). Treatment of self-injury and hand mouthing following inconclusive functional analyses. <strong>Journal</strong> of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 331–344. Wallace, M. D., Iwata, B. A., Zhou, L., & Goff, G. A. (1999). Rapid assessment of <strong>the</strong> effects of restraint on self-injury and adaptive behavior. <strong>Journal</strong> of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 525–528. Received: 14 February 2007 Initial Acceptance: 12 April 2007 Final Acceptance: 6 June 2007 366 / Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-September 2008
Effects of a Reciprocal Questioning Intervention on <strong>the</strong> Question Generation and Responding of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Kelly Whalon The College of William and Mary Mary Frances Hanline Florida State University Abstract: A multiple baseline design across participants was used to investigate <strong>the</strong> effects of reciprocal questioning strategy instruction delivered in cooperative pairs on <strong>the</strong> question generation and responding of children with autism spectrum disorder. Three children with autism spectrum disorder and nine general education peers participated in <strong>the</strong> study. Following intervention, children with autism increased frequency of question generation and responding using a story map framework. Social validity data indicated children with autism spectrum disorder and <strong>the</strong>ir general education peers found <strong>the</strong> intervention helpful, and parents perceived a change in <strong>the</strong>ir child’s reading and language skills. “Learning to read builds on cognitive, linguistic, and social skills that have developed from <strong>the</strong> earliest age” (Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg, 2001, p. 34). Basic to reading development is a child’s proficiency in language (Rayner et al.). For children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), however, <strong>the</strong> reliance on language development to facilitate reading skills is problematic, as children with ASD typically experience difficulty in acquiring <strong>the</strong> linguistic skills needed for effective reading (Myles et al., 2002; Norbury & Bishop, 2002). Because of <strong>the</strong> variability in acquisition of cognitive, linguistic and social skills, it is likely that learning to read will present a range of challenges for children with ASD. In comparison to typically developing peers, children with autism generally acquire speech late, and “a substantial minority” fail to develop fluent speech by adolescence or adulthood (Lord & Paul, 1997, p. 204). Children with ASD that develop speech, typically demonstrate good mechanics of language Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kelly Whalon, The College of William and Mary, P.O. Box 8795, Williamsburg, VA 23187-8795. Email: kjwhal@wm.edu Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2008, 43(3), 367–387 © <strong>Division</strong> on Developmental Disabilities (Minshew, Goldstein, & Siegel, 1995) with accurate articulation, and phonological development similar to that of <strong>the</strong>ir general education peers (Tager-Flusberg, Paul, & Lord, 2005), yet have difficulty with more complex syntax and semantics as well as pragmatic aspects of language (Tager-Flusberg & Joesph, 2003). Some children with ASD appear to only have difficulties with social aspects of language ra<strong>the</strong>r than syntactic or semantic difficulties, and o<strong>the</strong>rs may make gains in social aspects of language but continue to have limited spoken language (Tager-Flusberg et al.). The scale of difficulties children with ASD experience with language can potentially impact <strong>the</strong> reading process. Evidence suggests that we can only comprehend text to <strong>the</strong> degree we comprehend language (Rayner et al., 2001). Although many children with ASD can develop average or better decoding skills, <strong>the</strong>se decoding strengths generally accompany problems with reading comprehension (Frith, 2003; Mayes & Calhoon, 2003a; 2003b; Calhoon, 2001; Lord & Paul, 1997; Minshew, Goldstein, Taylor, & Seigel, 1994; Nation, Clarke, Wright, & Williams, 2006); however, extreme variability has been noted in reading development across <strong>the</strong> autism spectrum (Nation et al., 2006). Despite variability in reading Reciprocal Questioning / 367
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Education and Training in Developme
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Self-Determination in Relation to H
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Figure 2. Resultant intersection of
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learning opportunities relevant to
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Thirty Year Review of Safety Skill
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TABLE 1 Safety Skill Studies Refere
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