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efore beginning instruction (Christensen et al., 1996). Simulated instruction is one alternative for providing teaching examples when care is taken to provide multiple examples which replicate functional contexts in which <strong>the</strong>y will be used (Horner, McDonell, & Bellamy, 1986). Simulations increase opportunities for training trials and increase <strong>the</strong> number of trials that can be presented during one session. The difficulty identified in <strong>the</strong> reviewed studies is providing realistic teaching examples that will promote generalization to real life situations. While <strong>the</strong> majority of <strong>the</strong> reviewed studies support use of simulations, some studies reported limited results when attempting to simulate real life scenarios. For example, Matson (1980a) provided classroom instruction using a scale model of intersections with small dolls representing “pedestrians” that were moved by students. Results indicate that inclusion of simulated street crossing on <strong>the</strong> hospital grounds were more effective than <strong>the</strong> scaled model when generalization was measured in community settings. Marchetti et al. (1983) likewise found community training more effective than a scale model when teaching pedestrian skills. Collins et al. (1993) found little effects of simulated classroom instruction presented prior to in vivo instruction when compared to in vivo instruction alone. Gast et al. (1993) reported that students failed to generalize safe responses to <strong>the</strong> lures of strangers until taught in vivo. An important consideration when designing instructional programs may be <strong>the</strong> features of stimuli and how readily <strong>the</strong>y can be simulated. Instructors may find representation of realistic injuries, using artificial blisters or au<strong>the</strong>ntic blood, (Marchand-Martell & Martella, 1990) to be more realistic than attempts to create a dangerous household fire or a busy intersection. Ethical issues must also be considered when conducting safety research. Fear tactics or threatening personal harm are unacceptable and will not pass a review board when planning for students to respond to situations such as child abduction. Setting actual fires or crossing busy intersections may pose danger beyond <strong>the</strong> scope of ethical research, yet how do teachers teach <strong>the</strong> natural consequences of potentially dangerous scenarios (Collins, 1992)? Collins suggests 320 / Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-September 2008 reading of newspaper articles or watching television to witness aversive consequences. Video technology is ano<strong>the</strong>r possible means for providing realistic examples of difficult to represent stimuli. Video technology includes video modeling—watching o<strong>the</strong>rs perform a skill and completing <strong>the</strong> skill later and video prompting—watching a video segment and immediately performing a physical response before advancing to <strong>the</strong> next segment. A number of skills have been taught to students with disabilities using video instruction (Mechling, 2005), and video technology has been used to teach students without disabilities to respond safely to potential abductors (Caroll-Rowan & Miltenberger, 1994; Poche, Yoder, & Miltenberger, 1988), yet, Branham et al. (1999) was <strong>the</strong> only identified study which included videotapes to teach safety skills to students with disabilities. Video technology appears to address <strong>the</strong> need for: repeated practice; sufficient teaching trials; over learning of skills; and presenting dangerous or emergency scenarios that occur infrequently (Cless & Gast, 1994; Mazzucchelli, 2001). Collins, Wolery, and Gast (1992) fur<strong>the</strong>r identify individualization as an important component when teaching safety skills to students with disabilities. Video instruction can provide examples to meet <strong>the</strong> specific safety skill needs of each student (i.e. video tape of <strong>the</strong> student’s kitchen at home). Use of video technology shows promise in providing real-life examples of dangerous or difficult to simulate examples, yet remains a relatively unexplored area when teaching safety skills to persons with disabilities. Measures of Generalization and Maintenance In general, while studies evaluating safety skills do not support <strong>the</strong> use of simulation over community-based instruction, difficulties of providing instruction solely in community settings is recognized. In order to be functional, safety skills must be generalized across settings and situations where <strong>the</strong>y will be required, <strong>the</strong>refore programs need to at least evaluate generalization in natural settings even if <strong>the</strong> majority of instruction has occurred in simulation (Bevil & Gast, 1998; Gast et al., 1993; Hasselton & Miltenberger, 1990). Evaluation of actual emergency situations (i.e.
treatment of a burn) may take several months to occur, but appears necessary when measuring <strong>the</strong> effectiveness of procedures to teach preventative or reactionary skills to real life events. Following procedures of Marchand-Martella and Martella (1990) researchers and practitioners may need to rely on follow-up reports from parents of participants to assess performance when real injuries occur. Given <strong>the</strong> critical nature of <strong>the</strong> skills being taught and <strong>the</strong> ability to use <strong>the</strong>m over an extended period of time, <strong>the</strong> importance of maintenance measures is apparent. A difficulty addressed in <strong>the</strong> literature is how to maintain skills that are seldom needed or practiced. Collins (1992) suggests that this issue is similar to renewing a first aid certificate or conducting fire drills and that retraining or follow-up is needed. Spooner et al. (1989) recommend retraining at periodic intervals similar to refresher CPR courses for persons without disabilities. Winterling et al. (1992) fur<strong>the</strong>r recommend that persons in <strong>the</strong> student’s natural environment should be made aware of his/her competencies in performing safety skills so that <strong>the</strong>y can reinforce use and provide additional training. Summary Results show that persons with disabilities have <strong>the</strong> ability to learn to react to and prevent potential emergencies when presented with systematic, behavioral approaches to instruction. A number of preferred instructional strategies were identified in addition to future challenges to researchers and practitioners. Increased independence and <strong>the</strong> freedom to make decisions about one’s own life come with additional risks. It is important that persons with disabilities learn to recognize, prevent, and react to potential emergencies and unsafe situations in order to promote human dignity through <strong>the</strong> right to experience risk. It is of interest to note that of <strong>the</strong> 36 studies identified, only two were conducted after <strong>the</strong> year 2000. The thrust in <strong>the</strong> area of safety skill research appears to have occurred in <strong>the</strong> 80’s (38.9% of identified studies) and 90’s (47.2% of identified studies). Perhaps, due to technology advancements and increased availability of assisitive technology in recent years, special education and related fields should revisit this line of research as it relates to new and innovative technologies. Evaluation of technologies for: tracking and locating persons and destinations; wireless communication; alerting devices; and virtual environments for simulation, offer new opportunities to teach and provide safety information to persons with disabilities. References Bevill, A. R., & Gast, D. L. (1998). Social safety for young children: A review of <strong>the</strong> literature on safety skills instruction. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 18, 222–234. Branham, R. S., Collins, B. C., Schuster, J. W., & Kleinert, H. (1999). Teaching community skills to students with moderate disabilities: Comparing combined techniques of classroom simulation, videotape modeling, and community-based instruction. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 34, 170–181. Carroll-Rowan, L. A., & Miltenberger, R. G. (1994). A comparison of procedures for teaching abduction prevention to preschoolers. Education and Treatment of Children, 17, 113–129. Christensen, A. M., Lignugaris/Kraft, B., & Fiechtl, B. J. (1996). Teaching pairs of preschoolers with disabilities to seek adult assistance in response to simulated injuries: Acquisition and promotion of observational learning. Education and Ttreatment of Children, 19, 3–18. Christensen, A. M., Marchand-Martella, N. E., Martella, R. C., Fiechtl, B. J., & Christensen, B. R. (1993). Teaching preschoolers with disabilities to seek adult assistance in response to simulated injuries. <strong>Journal</strong> of Behavioral Education, 3, 109– 123. Clees, T. J., & Gast, D. L. (1994). Social safety skills instruction for individuals with disabilities: A sequential model. Education and Treatment of Children, 17, 163–185. Collins, B. C., (1992). Reflections on “Teaching a generalized response to <strong>the</strong> lure of strangers to adults with severe handicaps”. Exceptionality, 3, 117–120. Collins, B. C., & Griffen, A. K. (1996). Teaching students with moderate disabilities to make safe responses to product warning labels. Education and Treatment of Children, 19, 30–45. Collins, B. C., Hall, M., Rankin, S. W., & Branson, T. A. (1999). Just say “no” and walk away: Teaching students with mental disabilities to resist peer pressure. Teaching Exceptional Children, 31, 48–52. Collins, B. C., Schuster, J. W., & Nelson, C. M. (1992). Teaching a generalized response to <strong>the</strong> Safety Skill Instruction / 321
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TABLE 3 Examples of Elements of a S
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TABLE 4 Example Question Words, Thi
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