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skills to persons with disabilities. Clees and Gast (1994) defined social safety skills as verbal or nonverbal behaviors which may be primarily preventative or reactionary. Preventative measures serve to avoid potentially dangerous situations before <strong>the</strong>y occur while reactionary measures allow escape from or termination of presently occurring situations. This review included studies that focus on ei<strong>the</strong>r preventative or reactionary personal safety skills. Method The period of review extended over 30 years (1976-2006). Although a review of this extent risks inclusion of methods that are outdated, it also helps to assure <strong>the</strong> inclusion of effective strategies that may not have been conducted in recent years. An electronic search of ERIC included <strong>the</strong> keywords: safety skills, safety, safety instruction, fire safety, pedestrian skills, street crossing, telephone skills, first aid, accident prevention, lures of strangers, crime prevention, child abduction, and molestation. An ancestral search was <strong>the</strong>n conducted of <strong>the</strong> table of contents of <strong>the</strong> following journals: American <strong>Journal</strong> of Mental Retardation, Behavior Modification, Exceptionality, Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, Exceptional Children, Focus on Autism and O<strong>the</strong>r Developmental Disabilities, Focus on Exceptional Children, <strong>Journal</strong> of Applied Behavior Analysis, <strong>Journal</strong> of <strong>the</strong> Association for Persons with Severe Disabilities, <strong>Journal</strong> of Autism and Developmental Disabilities, <strong>Journal</strong> of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, <strong>Journal</strong> of Early Intervention, <strong>Journal</strong> of Special Education, <strong>Journal</strong> of Special Education Technology, Mental Retardation, Remedial and Special Education, Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, followed by a manual search of all reference lists of identified articles. In order to be included in <strong>the</strong> review, studies met <strong>the</strong> following criteria: 1. Use of experimental design 2. Publication in peer-reviewed journal 3. Evaluation of safety skill instruction 4. Participants were diagnosed with an intellectual disability 5. Article published in English Results Thirty six studies (Table 1) and two literature reviews were identified. Both literature reviews focused on abduction prevention. The review by Bevill and Gast (1998) narrowed its focus to young children, <strong>the</strong> lures of strangers, and sexual abuse while <strong>the</strong> Miltenberger and Olsen (1996) review included research with children without disabilities and adults with intellectual disabilities. While some of <strong>the</strong> 36 studies evaluated multiple skills, each addressed at least one of <strong>the</strong> following personal safety skills: (a) pedestrian/street crossing safety (7); (b) home accident prevention (6); (c) application of first aid (including identification and reporting of illnesses (7); (d) response to lures or advancements of strangers (6); (e) fire safety (6); and (f) emergency use of telephones (5). Pedestrian/Street Crossing Safety 312 / Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-September 2008 While <strong>the</strong> inability to safely move around one’s community can hinder independence, a single error while crossing a street can have crucial consequences (Matson, 1980a). Community pedestrian movement and street crossing were addressed in eight identified studies. Among <strong>the</strong> skills taught were: proper sidewalk behavior (ie. walk on right side, do not bump into pedestrians) (Matson); recognition of intersections (Matson); crossing streets with stop signs (look in both directions; use of crosswalks) (Horner, Jones, & Williams, 1985; Vogelsburg & Rusch, 1979); crossing streets with traffic lights (Horner et al.; Page, Iwata, & Neef, 1976); and crossing uncontrolled streets (Branham, Collins, Schuster, & Kleinert, 1999; Horner et al.) and parking lots (Spears, Rusch, York, & Lilly, 1981). Three of <strong>the</strong> studies conducted all sessions with community streets (Horner et al. (1985; Spears et al., 1981; Vogelsburg & Rusch, 1979). Two of <strong>the</strong> studies (Matson, 1980a; Page et al., 1976) used only simulated instruction, and three studies (Branham et al., 1999; Collins, Stinson, & Land, 1993; Marchetti et al., 1983) used both simulation and community instruction. Results of <strong>the</strong> Collins et al. study indicated that teaching first in simulation did not facilitate or inhibit later instruction within <strong>the</strong> community. Branham et al.
TABLE 1 Safety Skill Studies Reference Participants Safety Skill Setting/Simulation Design Results Generalization Maintenance Novel settings No report All formats effective. Classroom CBI more efficient Multiple probe across behaviors Pedestrian Classroom CBI, Video Model CBI, Classroom Video n 3 CA 14–20yrs Moderate ID Branham, Collins, Schuster, & Kleinert (1999) 8wk generalization to follow-up 2 of 3 pairs generalized home & school playground after 2 wks. Generalization reported for real injuries - 2 students Generazation to playground & children’s homes School and community settings Students learned to seek help through direct instruction & observational learning Multiple probe across 3 pairs of students Model CBI Simulation, school bathroom First Aid, seek adult assistance n 6 CA pre-school Mild ID Moderate ID Christensen, Lignugaris/ Kraft, & Fiechtl (1996) 100% maintenance after 1 month Maintained Time period not provided 1 week, mixed results Rapid increase in performance using social modeling Multiple baseline across students Simulation, social modeling, kitchen area of classroom First Aid, seek adult assistance CTD effective in teaching reading of Multiple probe across participants Read words on product labels (classroom) Product warning labels words Mixed results 1 participant consistently generalized Students learned Words on target words and actual some incidental and products observational words No significant Community difference across streets & pay two conditions phones Parents performed Performance child-care, home measured at safety skills using parents’ checklist task homes analysis Each group achieved Some use of gains in 6 social skill skills across areas peer “confederate” Acquisition in Failure to simulation generalize until training in vivo Multiple probe across participants CTD using multiple exemplars in vivo Response to lures of strangers Maintained 2 wks Read words on flash cards. Product Warning Labels Incidental learning of definitions Pedestrian, Pay phone Christensen, Marchand- n 4 Martella, Martella, CA pre-school Fiechtl, & Christensen Developmental (1993) delays Collins, & Griffen (1996) n 4 CA 8–11yrs Moderate ID Collins, Schuster, & n 3 Nelson (1992) CA 38–48yrs Severe ID Collins, & Stinson (1994– n 4 1995) CA 16–20yrs Moderate ID Maintained 1 month Multiple probe across word pairs, replicated across participants Adapted multiple probe across participants Multiple baseline across participants In vivo vs Simulation In vivo n 4 CA 15–19yrs Moderate ID Collins, Stinson, & Land (1993) No report Self-instruction with audiovisual child care manuals Home accident prevention Feldman, & Case (1999) n 10 CA 23–37yrs Mild ID No report Multiple baseline across groups Adapted board game and verbal response Response to sexual advancements n 6 CA 24–26yrs Mild, Moderate ID n 4 CA preschool Developmental delays Foxx, McMorrow, Storey, & Rogers (1984) Maintained 2–4 wks after in vivo training Multiple probe across subjects CTD, multiple examples, simulated preschool setting Response to lures of strangers Gast, Collins, Wolery, & Jones (1993) Safety Skill Instruction / 313
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Figure 1. Intervention results for
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sions, he engaged in hand mouthing
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Effects of a Reciprocal Questioning
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4-45). Because the
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TABLE 2 Codes of Student Question G
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TABLE 3 Examples of Elements of a S
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Figure 2. Self-monitoring checklist
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TABLE 4 Example Question Words, Thi
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Figure 4. Frequency of prompted and
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Figure 5. Frequency of unprompted s
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their children to
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and lack of random selection makes
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prehension-monitoring activities. C
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all three participants who passed b
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TABLE 2 Leisure Activities Used in
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papers were removed and the
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was 68% (range 42% to 83%). In <str
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Teaching Test-taking Strategies to
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ing experiences beginning at <stron
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short essay question. Items were ei
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plication of the t
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Figure 2. Percent correct on <stron
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aseline probes, data were highly va
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