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Limitations This study presented several limitations. One limitation involved <strong>the</strong> cases, as <strong>the</strong> study consisted of two programs, and hence generalizability is limited. Ano<strong>the</strong>r limitation is that <strong>the</strong> two cases were observed for a bounded period of time, although <strong>the</strong> data did become saturated prior to ending observations. Additionally, <strong>the</strong> cases were not observed for <strong>the</strong> same amount of time. More hours of observation were recorded at Harborville High School in Katie’s program than at River Bend High School in Paula’s room. This resulted from <strong>the</strong> teacher at River Bend getting sick, <strong>the</strong> school having snow days, and students being away on field trips. Limitations also arose in <strong>the</strong> data collection. Not every student in both programs returned approved parental consent forms, and/or gave student assent. The enactment of a functional curriculum in <strong>the</strong> programs was left to be understood by only those students for whom consent was granted. Little is known regarding <strong>the</strong> students for whom consent was not obtained, in terms of <strong>the</strong>ir personal and school data as well as <strong>the</strong>ir perspective of <strong>the</strong> enactment of a functional curriculum. A limitation also existed with <strong>the</strong> student interviews. Some students had difficulty understanding some of <strong>the</strong> interview questions. Even when students appeared to understand <strong>the</strong> questions, <strong>the</strong>ir responses consisted of a few words ra<strong>the</strong>r than expansion of <strong>the</strong>ir thoughts. Future Directions Research needs to continue to explore not only <strong>the</strong> relationship between factors and a functional curriculum, but between factors and <strong>the</strong> influence of curriculum in special education in general. The field needs to better understand what is occurring curriculumwise in its service-delivery options as well as what factors are affecting <strong>the</strong> enactment. Future research should examine <strong>the</strong> enactment of a functional curriculum given o<strong>the</strong>r factors, such as urban or suburban self-contained cross-categorical programs. It should also examine <strong>the</strong> enactment with o<strong>the</strong>r types of service delivery models, such as resource rooms and general education classes, if applicable. As this study was limited to functional curriculum models that were “piece-mealed” by <strong>the</strong> teachers, as opposed to formal commercially available functional curricula, research needs to be undertaken to understand <strong>the</strong> enactment of commercially available functional curricula as well. Exploring <strong>the</strong> enactment with different teacher characteristics may also lead to understanding. The role of teacher preparation on <strong>the</strong> enactment was under-explored in this study and additional research is needed regarding <strong>the</strong> impact of preservice education and experience on inservice actions and decisions. Variations in o<strong>the</strong>rs factors should also be analyzed, such as studying enactment across categorical versus cross-categorical programs or <strong>the</strong> influence of <strong>the</strong> lack of paraprofessionals. Given <strong>the</strong> factors that were found to be influential in this study, <strong>the</strong> next step is to manipulate <strong>the</strong> factors and study <strong>the</strong> relationship between <strong>the</strong> intersection and union of <strong>the</strong> various factors and students’ in-school and post-school success, such as employment, independent living, and life satisfaction. References 308 / Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-September 2008 Alper, S., & Mills, K. (2001). Nonstandardized assessment in inclusive school settings. In S. Alper, D. L., Ryndak, & C. N. Schloss (Eds.) Alternate assessment of students with disabilities in inclusive settings. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Ashbaker, B. Y., & Morgan, J. (2001). Growing roles for teachers’ aides. The Education Digest. Retrieved February 10, 2005, from www.eddigest.com. Baer, R. M., Flexer, R. W., Beck, S., Amstutz, N., Hoffman, L., Bro<strong>the</strong>rs, J., et al. (2003). A collaborative followup study on transition service utilization and post-school outcomes. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 26, 7–25. Bigge, J. (1988). Curriculum based instruction for special education students. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Bigge, J. L., Stump, C. S., Spagna, M. E., & Silberman, R. K. (1999). Curriculum, assessment, and instruction for students with disabilities. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Billingsley, F. F., & Albertson, L. R. (1999). Finding a future for functional skills. The <strong>Journal</strong> of <strong>the</strong> Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 298–302. Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2003). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to <strong>the</strong>ories and methods (4 th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education Group.
Bouck, E. C. (2005). Service delivery and instructional programming in rural, suburban, and urban secondary special education: An exploratory study. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 24(4), 18– 25. Bouck, E. C. (2004). Exploring secondary special education for mild mental impairment: A program in search of its place. Remedial and Special Education, 25, 367–382. Brolin, D. E. (1997). Life centered career education: A competency based approach. Arlington, VA: The Council for Exceptional Children. Brown, L., McLean, M. B., Hamre-Nietupski, S., Pumpian, I., Creto, N. & Gruenewald, L. (1979). A strategy for developing chronological age-appropriate and functional curricular content for severely handicapped adolescents and young adults. <strong>Journal</strong> of Special Education, 13, 81–90. Clark, G. M. (1994). Is a functional curriculum approach compatible with an inclusive education model? Teaching Exceptional Children, 26(2), 36– 39. Cronin, M. E. (1996). Life skills curriculum for students with learning disabilities. <strong>Journal</strong> of Learning Disabilities, 29, 53–68. Cuban, L. (1992). Curriculum stability and change. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of research on curriculum: A project of <strong>the</strong> American Education Research Association. New York: MacMillian. Dever, R. B., & Knapczyk, D. R. (1997). Teaching persons with mental retardation: A model for curriculum development and teaching. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark. Duke, N. K., Bennett-Armistead, V. S., & Roberts, E. M. (2003). Bridging <strong>the</strong> gap between learning to read and reading to learn. In D. M. Barone & L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Literacy and young children: Research based practices (pp. 226–262). New York: Guildford Press. Dyck, N., & Pemberton, J. B. (2002). A model for making decisions about text adaptations. Intervention in School and Clinic, 38, 28–35. Eisenman, L. T. (2001). Conceptualizing <strong>the</strong> contribution of career-oriented schooling to self-determination. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 24, 3–17. Falvey, M. (1989). Community-based curriculum: Instructional strategies for students with severe handicaps. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Ford, A., Schnorr, R., Meyer, L., Davern, L., Black, J., & Dempsey, P. (1989). The Syracuse communityreferenced curriculum guide: For students with moderate and severe disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Hudson, L. & Shafer, L. (2002). Vocational education offerings in rural high schools. NCES Fall 2002 Quarterly. Retrieved January 16, 2003, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2003/quarterly/fall/3_2. asp IDEA. (1997). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments 1997. Retrieved January 4, 2004 from http://www.ed.gov/office/OSERS/ Policy/IDEA/<strong>the</strong>_law.html Karp, S. (2003). Equity claims for NCLB don’t pass <strong>the</strong> test. 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Curricular implications of transition: Life skills as an integral part of transition education. Remedial and Special Education, 18, 294–306. Patton, J. R., Polloway, E. A., & Smith, T. E. C. (2000). Educating students with mild mental retardation. Focus on Autism and O<strong>the</strong>r Developmental Disabilities, 15, 80–89. Patton, M. Q. (1980). Qualitative Education Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Peha, S. (2005, April 25). Teach-to-<strong>the</strong>-test culture could be hindering workforce. Larta.Retrieved August 29, 2005, from Factors and Functional Curriculum / 309
Page 1 and 2: Education and Training in Developme
Page 7 and 8: Self-Determination in Relation to H
Page 9 and 10: ticipants (a) believed the<
Page 11 and 12: Field notes were used to document <
Page 13 and 14: ling information, medical history a
Page 15 and 16: Home. Jack lived with his mo<strong
Page 17 and 18: we felt strongly that we needed inf
Page 19 and 20: literature, mostly to do with <stro
Page 21 and 22: tion? The national consumer survey.
Page 23 and 24: Figure 1. Proposed intersection of
Page 25 and 26: teaching in each program for five y
Page 27 and 28: also used to support and challenge
Page 29 and 30: Despite Paula’s description of an
Page 31 and 32: The paraprofessionals at Harborvill
Page 33 and 34: Figure 2. Resultant intersection of
Page 35: learning opportunities relevant to
Page 39 and 40: Thirty Year Review of Safety Skill
Page 41 and 42: TABLE 1 Safety Skill Studies Refere
Page 43 and 44: TABLE 1—(Continued) Reference Par
Page 45 and 46: found differences only in efficienc
Page 47 and 48: skill for integrating persons with
Page 49 and 50: treatment of a burn) may take sever
Page 51 and 52: created video programs to teach stu
Page 53 and 54: and on-schedule behavior and decrea
Page 55 and 56: TABLE 1—(Continued) Author(s) Mor
Page 57 and 58: trums, aggression) in a four-year-o
Page 59 and 60: (Quill, 1995). Furthe</stro
Page 61 and 62: following picture prompt training.
Page 63 and 64: medication, for example anticonvuls
Page 65 and 66: TABLE 1 Number of Facilities That U
Page 67 and 68: Snoezelen on a variety of behaviors
Page 69 and 70: Kapell, D., Nightingale, B., Rodrig
Page 71 and 72: ity being on the c
Page 73 and 74: communication turns (i.e., initiati
Page 75 and 76: Definitions of Target Behaviors and
Page 77 and 78: student gave the p
Page 79 and 80: Figure 2. Bob’s performance data.
Page 81 and 82: contact increased 41% from baseline
Page 83 and 84: Figure 5. Eric’s performance data
Page 85 and 86: Figure 6. Jen’s performance data.
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to students with severe disabilitie
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The use of arm splints has been suc
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Figure 1. Intervention results for
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sions, he engaged in hand mouthing
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Effects of a Reciprocal Questioning
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4-45). Because the
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TABLE 2 Codes of Student Question G
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TABLE 3 Examples of Elements of a S
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Figure 2. Self-monitoring checklist
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TABLE 4 Example Question Words, Thi
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Figure 4. Frequency of prompted and
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Figure 5. Frequency of unprompted s
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their children to
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and lack of random selection makes
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prehension-monitoring activities. C
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all three participants who passed b
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TABLE 2 Leisure Activities Used in
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papers were removed and the
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was 68% (range 42% to 83%). In <str
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Teaching Test-taking Strategies to
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ing experiences beginning at <stron
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short essay question. Items were ei
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plication of the t
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Figure 2. Percent correct on <stron
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aseline probes, data were highly va
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