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Figure 1. Proposed intersecti<strong>on</strong> of factors impacting<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> enactment of a functi<strong>on</strong>al curriculum.<br />
variables, including federal policies, state st<strong>and</strong>ards,<br />
school factors, <strong>and</strong> teacher factors.<br />
Morris<strong>on</strong> emphasized a sphere of influence<br />
<strong>on</strong> curriculum decisi<strong>on</strong> making c<strong>on</strong>sisting of<br />
society, legislati<strong>on</strong>/policy, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> local school district,<br />
individual people, professi<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
business/industry, foundati<strong>on</strong>s/agencies,<br />
teachers, textbooks, lobbying/special<br />
interest groups, <strong>and</strong> testing.<br />
Instituti<strong>on</strong>al policies <strong>and</strong> legislati<strong>on</strong>. Federal<br />
policies affect curriculum enactment within<br />
special educati<strong>on</strong>, such as No Child Left Behind<br />
(NCLB) (2002) <strong>and</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Individuals with Disabilities<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> Act (IDEA) (1997, 2004).<br />
NCLB is built up<strong>on</strong> four pillars: str<strong>on</strong>ger accountability<br />
for results, more freedom for<br />
states <strong>and</strong> communities, encouraging <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> use<br />
of proven educati<strong>on</strong>al methods, <strong>and</strong> more<br />
choices for parents. This policy has led to a<br />
more rigorous general educati<strong>on</strong> curriculum<br />
<strong>and</strong> a presumed push towards using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> curriculum for students with<br />
disabilities. Under NCLB teachers are to be<br />
held accountable for students’ progress <strong>on</strong><br />
state st<strong>and</strong>ards, suggesting that curricula must<br />
reflect teaching to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> st<strong>and</strong>ards, or teaching<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> test (Karp, 2003; Patt<strong>on</strong>, Polloway, &<br />
Smith, 2000).<br />
The Individuals with Disabilities Educati<strong>on</strong> Improvement<br />
Act of 2004 is <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> reauthorizati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Individuals with Disabilities Educati<strong>on</strong> Act,<br />
<strong>and</strong> reflects <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> government’s attempt to align<br />
IDEA ’97 with NCLB. It is focused <strong>on</strong> greater<br />
accountability <strong>and</strong> having highly qualified special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> teachers in classrooms. IDEIA<br />
2004 has also been attributed to an increased<br />
focus <strong>on</strong> preparing students with disabilities<br />
for fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r educati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Curriculum materials. Morris<strong>on</strong> (1993) discussed<br />
textbooks’ deterministic influence <strong>on</strong><br />
curriculum enactment, indicating that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<br />
tend to cater to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lowest ability students in<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom, ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r than <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> average or <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
more able students. Dyck <strong>and</strong> Pembert<strong>on</strong><br />
(2002) claimed that textbooks represent a<br />
central feature of curricula, particularly at <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
higher grades.<br />
School <strong>and</strong> community factors. Schools can<br />
influence curriculum through a district’s curriculum<br />
<strong>and</strong> philosophy, as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> building’s<br />
climate (Milner, 2003; Waldrip & Giddings,<br />
1996). O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r school variables affecting<br />
curriculum are a school’s setting (rural, urban,<br />
<strong>and</strong> suburban) <strong>and</strong> size (see Bouck,<br />
2005; M<strong>on</strong>k & Haller, 1993). For example,<br />
rural schools are more likely to expose students<br />
to in-school jobs <strong>and</strong> work experience<br />
yet generally have fewer vocati<strong>on</strong>al educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
choices (Baer et al., 2003; Huds<strong>on</strong> &<br />
Shafer, 2002). Research has suggested that<br />
rural schools are more likely to have crosscategorical<br />
programs than urban or suburban<br />
schools (Bouck, 2005). School size research<br />
shows similar results, with smaller schools offering<br />
fewer educati<strong>on</strong>al opportunities than<br />
larger schools (M<strong>on</strong>k & Haller, 1993).<br />
Teacher factors. Teachers shape how curriculum<br />
is enacted in classrooms (Milner, 2003).<br />
Remillard (1997) suggested that teachers play<br />
a more direct role than textbooks in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> enacted<br />
curriculum as <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y make <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> final decisi<strong>on</strong><br />
about what gets taught. Teachers’ pedagogical<br />
approaches, beliefs about course<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tent, knowledge about <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> community in<br />
which students live, c<strong>on</strong>tent knowledge, <strong>and</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir own pers<strong>on</strong>al experiences all influence<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> delivery of curriculum (see Milner; Remillard<br />
& Bryans, 2003; Weiss, Pasley, Smith, Banilower,<br />
& Heck, 2003).<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>al Curriculum<br />
While literature has explored <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se factors in<br />
general educati<strong>on</strong> curricula, little has been<br />
Factors <strong>and</strong> Functi<strong>on</strong>al Curriculum / 295