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TABLE 1 Instructional Stages Stages Description 1. Pretest Students take pretest measuring strategy use. 2. Describe Instructor gives purpose and rationale for strategy and briefly previews each step. 3. Model Instructor directly and explicitly models each step of <strong>the</strong> PIRATES strategy. 4. Verbal rehearsal Instructor leads students in verbal repetition of each step and sub-step of <strong>the</strong> strategy to aid memorization and acquisition. 5. Controlled practice Students apply strategy to practice tests designed to measure strategy use. 6. Advanced practice and Students apply strategy to “real” tests. feedback 7. Posttest Students take posttest measuring strategy use. 8. Maintenance Instructor evaluates whe<strong>the</strong>r students have maintained strategy use at <strong>the</strong> end of 2-week post training on tests designed to measure strategy use. 9. Generalization Instructor teaches students to generalize strategy to o<strong>the</strong>r settings (e.g., different subjects or courses). In stage three participants were trained to apply <strong>the</strong> “PIRATES” first letter mnemonic test-taking strategy as listed below: The first author modeled each step of <strong>the</strong> strategy on a sample test while enlisting a cognitive think aloud strategy. First, students were instructed to write <strong>the</strong> acronym “PIRATES” on <strong>the</strong> front top of <strong>the</strong>ir test page. Then, in <strong>the</strong> “P” step of PIRATES, “Prepare to Succeed”, students were taught to write <strong>the</strong>ir names on each page of <strong>the</strong> test and count <strong>the</strong> number of sections and types of questions on <strong>the</strong> test. Next, students learned to order <strong>the</strong> sections of a test by level of difficulty to help <strong>the</strong>m determine where to start on a test. Participants were shown how to begin working on <strong>the</strong> test by starting with <strong>the</strong> section determined by <strong>the</strong> test-taker to be easiest (See Figure 1). In step two of PIRATES, participants were trained to “Inspect <strong>the</strong> Instructions” by reading <strong>the</strong> directions on <strong>the</strong> test and underlining <strong>the</strong> words that tell <strong>the</strong> test-taker what to do. In step three, participants learned to “Read, Remember, and Reduce” by reading each test item and eliminating answer choices that were clearly incorrect. In step four, “Answer or Abandon,” <strong>the</strong> participants were trained to answer <strong>the</strong> question if <strong>the</strong>y were sure of <strong>the</strong> answer, or abandon <strong>the</strong> question if <strong>the</strong>y were unsure of <strong>the</strong> answer. Participants learned to 402 / Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-September 2008 mark abandoned items with a symbol (e.g., a star). Participants were taught to repeat all previous steps for all remaining test items in <strong>the</strong> section <strong>the</strong>y were working on, <strong>the</strong>n to go on to <strong>the</strong> section <strong>the</strong>y indicated to complete next (based on order of difficulty). Participants were instructed to again “Inspect <strong>the</strong> Instructions” for <strong>the</strong> next section and continue <strong>the</strong> strategy for <strong>the</strong> remaining sections and test items. In step five, “Turn Back,” participants were trained to return to <strong>the</strong> beginning of <strong>the</strong> test, locate <strong>the</strong> symbol for abandoned items, and ei<strong>the</strong>r answer, or “Estimate.” Participants learned several estimating techniques including: avoiding absolute words, choosing <strong>the</strong> longest answer, and estimating similar choices. In <strong>the</strong> last step, “Survey,” participants were instructed to look over all <strong>the</strong> test items to make sure <strong>the</strong>y had answered each item, but not to change any answers unless <strong>the</strong>y were certain it was incorrect. During stage four, verbal rehearsal, participants repeated each step and sub-step of PI- RATES using flash cards and fading prompts until <strong>the</strong>y memorized it and had been individually checked for mastery using <strong>the</strong> checklist provided in <strong>the</strong> test-taking instructor’s manual. When participants reached 90% mastery on memorization, <strong>the</strong>y proceeded to stage five of instruction, which involved participants’ ap-
plication of <strong>the</strong> test-taking strategy to controlled practice tests. The first author scored <strong>the</strong> controlled practice tests and provided individual feedback to participants. Steps of <strong>the</strong> strategy were re-taught after each test if <strong>the</strong> participant failed to reach a 90% mastery level. Once participants reached 90% mastery on one controlled practice test, <strong>the</strong> training ended and participants proceeded to stage six. In stage six, advanced practice and feedback, participants applied <strong>the</strong> test-taking strategy to five achievement probes. Once a participant completed all five probes, <strong>the</strong>y completed <strong>the</strong> posttest (i.e., stage seven). During stage eight, <strong>the</strong> participants were evaluated at <strong>the</strong> end of 2-week post training to determine if <strong>the</strong>y maintained <strong>the</strong> use of strategy. During stage nine, <strong>the</strong> participants were taught to apply <strong>the</strong> test-taking strategy to a variety of regular classroom tests. Figure 1. “PIRATES” mnemonic test-taking strategy. Generalization probes. Generalization included an examination of <strong>the</strong> participants’ use of <strong>the</strong> test-taking strategy and <strong>the</strong>ir achievement on regular classroom tests. During generalization, <strong>the</strong> special education teacher administered two regular classroom reading and math tests. The first author scored <strong>the</strong> regular classroom tests and <strong>the</strong> participant’s use of <strong>the</strong> test-taking strategy. Maintenance. Maintenance included one additional achievement probe which was administered two weeks after each participant completed <strong>the</strong> training. Results The intervention of teaching <strong>the</strong> test-taking strategies was effective for all students in that <strong>the</strong> instruction increased <strong>the</strong> percent correct Teaching Test-taking Strategies / 403
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Education and Training in Developme
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Self-Determination in Relation to H
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ticipants (a) believed the<
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Field notes were used to document <
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ling information, medical history a
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Home. Jack lived with his mo<strong
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we felt strongly that we needed inf
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literature, mostly to do with <stro
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tion? The national consumer survey.
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Figure 1. Proposed intersection of
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teaching in each program for five y
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also used to support and challenge
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Despite Paula’s description of an
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The paraprofessionals at Harborvill
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Figure 2. Resultant intersection of
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learning opportunities relevant to
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Bouck, E. C. (2005). Service delive
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Thirty Year Review of Safety Skill
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TABLE 1 Safety Skill Studies Refere
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TABLE 1—(Continued) Reference Par
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found differences only in efficienc
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skill for integrating persons with
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treatment of a burn) may take sever
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created video programs to teach stu
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and on-schedule behavior and decrea
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TABLE 1—(Continued) Author(s) Mor
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trums, aggression) in a four-year-o
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(Quill, 1995). Furthe</stro
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following picture prompt training.
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medication, for example anticonvuls
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TABLE 1 Number of Facilities That U
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Snoezelen on a variety of behaviors
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Kapell, D., Nightingale, B., Rodrig
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ity being on the c
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communication turns (i.e., initiati
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Definitions of Target Behaviors and
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student gave the p
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Page 85 and 86: Figure 6. Jen’s performance data.
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Page 101 and 102: TABLE 3 Examples of Elements of a S
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Page 105 and 106: TABLE 4 Example Question Words, Thi
Page 107 and 108: Figure 4. Frequency of prompted and
Page 109 and 110: Figure 5. Frequency of unprompted s
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Page 119 and 120: TABLE 2 Leisure Activities Used in
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Page 125 and 126: Teaching Test-taking Strategies to
Page 127 and 128: ing experiences beginning at <stron
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Page 133 and 134: Figure 2. Percent correct on <stron
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