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and <strong>the</strong>n modified questions to fit <strong>the</strong> context of <strong>the</strong> story, becoming more creative with question generation. Similarly, Barry initially generated questions using only ‘why.’ This heavy reliance on ‘why’ questions during beginning sessions may signify familiarity with <strong>the</strong> form and function of <strong>the</strong>se questions. It is conceivable that as Barry became more comfortable with and began to comprehend <strong>the</strong> purpose and function of generating questions during reading, his creativity with question formation increased by expanding question word use (i.e., who, how, what). Also, all three participants increased <strong>the</strong> frequency of unprompted responses beyond answering using information directly stated in text or immediate recall to interpretation of events within text. Results Indicative of Age All participants with autism as well as <strong>the</strong>ir general education peers received variable levels of prompting when questions required interpretation of text beyond factual information. If <strong>the</strong> participant had to summarize information from <strong>the</strong> text or use prior knowledge or experience to generate or respond, instances of prompting were greater. For example, both children with ASD and <strong>the</strong>ir general education peers had more difficulty with questions and/or responses reflecting a problem in <strong>the</strong> story. To generate and/or respond to a question concerning a problem, one has to summarize and interpret what was read as a problem for <strong>the</strong> character(s) in <strong>the</strong> story often sequencing and summarizing information from within text, and linking it to what <strong>the</strong> participant already knows about <strong>the</strong> topic read. Although lower levels of prompting were recorded for all participants over <strong>the</strong> course of intervention, <strong>the</strong> abstract nature of <strong>the</strong> task may account for existence of prompting at <strong>the</strong> end of intervention. The ability to independently participate in higher order processing activities that involve abstract thought differs by age. During middle childhood years (ages 6-10) children have more limited capacity for abstract thought, and generally require <strong>the</strong> assistance of concrete materials and/or adult scaffolding to participate in activities that require abstract processing (Devitt & Ormrod, 2002). Therefore, developmentally all partici- pating children to varying degrees needed concrete supports as well as researcher prompting. Consequently, <strong>the</strong> intervention established a truly reciprocal relationship in which students with ASD learned alongside typically developing peers. Typically, question generation strategies including reciprocal teaching are used for students in third grade through adult years (Rosenshine & Meister, 1994; Rosenshine, et al., 1996). This does not mean that question generation is not an important strategy for students in early elementary grades. Children as young as kindergarten have increased <strong>the</strong> quality of questioning related to story comprehension (Glaubman, Glaubman, & Ofir, 1997). Moreover, research suggests that students reading/comprehending on grade level by third grade will not necessarily comprehend on grade level in future grades, indicating a need for explicit, systematic comprehension instruction beginning in primary grades (Snow, 2002). Fur<strong>the</strong>r, results from this study indicate that students began to generate more questions that required respondents to summarize information from within text and link it to independent knowledge and experiences. Over time increased experiences in generating and responding to such questions may increase <strong>the</strong> student’s ability to independently respond to like questions (Palincsar & Brown, 1984). Results of this study suggest that direct comprehension strategy instruction in <strong>the</strong> form of reciprocal questioning intervention has <strong>the</strong> potential to be a powerful tool for increasing question generation and responding of children with ASD during <strong>the</strong> context of storybook reading with peers. Results also show that both <strong>the</strong> children with ASD and <strong>the</strong>ir general education peers learned a new strategy simultaneously. Therefore, children with ASD can learn reading comprehension strategies suggested by NRP alongside <strong>the</strong>ir typical peers with <strong>the</strong> typical peers also benefiting from <strong>the</strong> intervention. Both <strong>the</strong> children with and without ASD enjoyed learning toge<strong>the</strong>r, and, as such, <strong>the</strong> integrated setting may increase motivation for learning. Limitations 384 / Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-September 2008 Results of <strong>the</strong> study, however, should be interpreted with caution. The small sample size
and lack of random selection makes it impossible to generalize <strong>the</strong> results to o<strong>the</strong>r children. Also, in a multiple baseline design it is preferred to vary <strong>the</strong> length of <strong>the</strong> baseline condition across participants (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 1987). Although baseline sessions were lagged between participants and <strong>the</strong> number of days spent in <strong>the</strong> baseline condition varied, <strong>the</strong> number of baseline sessions was three for all participants. However, data revealed stable or descending baseline behavior across all participants. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, because <strong>the</strong> proposed study incorporates a treatment package, when a change in behavior occurs, it is difficult to determine if <strong>the</strong> entire package or a component of <strong>the</strong> intervention impacted that change. Implications for Practice and Fur<strong>the</strong>r Research Research replicating <strong>the</strong> present study and examining <strong>the</strong> effects of direct comprehension strategy instruction on reading comprehension is needed. Not only should <strong>the</strong> effects of reciprocal questioning intervention on reading comprehension be studied, but <strong>the</strong> effects of o<strong>the</strong>r NRP strategies on <strong>the</strong> reading comprehension of learners with ASD should be researched. Outcomes of teaching students with ASD with <strong>the</strong>ir typical peers should be conducted. Studies should assess <strong>the</strong> longitudinal impact of reading comprehension interventions and <strong>the</strong> generalization of reading comprehension skills to o<strong>the</strong>r areas of development (i.e., expressive, receptive, social communication, and cognitive development), to comprehension in curriculum content areas, and to performance on question and answer assessments. Also, future studies should investigate <strong>the</strong> amount and intensity of instruction required for children with ASD to increase and maintain reading comprehension abilities. References Barlow, D. H., & Hersen, M. (1984). Single case experimental designs: Strategies for studying behavior change (2 nd ed). New York, NY: Pergamon Press. Calhoon, J. A. (2001). Factors affecting <strong>the</strong> reading of rimes in words and nonwords in beginning readers with cognitive disabilities and typically developing readers. <strong>Journal</strong> of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(5), 491–504. Cooper, H. & Hedges, L. V. (Eds.) (1994). Handbook of research syn<strong>the</strong>sis. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (1987). Applied behavior analysis. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Dugan, E., Kamps, D. M., & Leonard, B. (1995). Effects of cooperative learning groups during social studies for students with autism and fourthgrade peers. <strong>Journal</strong> of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 175–188. Frith, U. (2003). Autism: Explaining <strong>the</strong> enigma (2 nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Glaubman, R., Glaubman, H., & Ofir, L. (1997). Effects of self-directed learning, story comprehension, and self-questioning in kindergarten. <strong>Journal</strong> of Educational Research, 90, 361–374. Good, R. H., & Kaminski, R. A. (Eds.). (2002). Dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills (6 th ed.). Eugene, OR: Institute for <strong>the</strong> Development of Educational Achievement. Available: http:// dibels.uoregon.edu/ Heimann, M., Nelson, K. E., Tjus, T., & Gillberg, C. (1995). Increasing reading and communication skills in children with autism through an interactive multimedia computer program. <strong>Journal</strong> of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25, 459–480. Kamil, M. (1995). Statistical analysis procedures for single subject designs. In S. Neumann & S. Mc- Cormick, (Eds.). Single-subject experimental research: Applications for literacy (pp. 84–103). Newark, NJ: IRA. Kamps, D. M., Barbetta, P. M., Leonard, B. R., & Delquadri, J. (1994). Classwide peer tutoring: An integration strategy to improve reading skills and promote peer interactions among students with autism and general education peers. <strong>Journal</strong> of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 49–61. Kamps, D. M., Leonard, B., Potucek, J., & Garrison- Harrell, L. G. (1995). Cooperative learning groups in reading: An integration strategy for students with autism and general classroom peers. Behavioral Disorders, 21, 89–109. Kamps, D., Potucek, J., Dugan, E., Kravits, T., Gonzalez-Lopez, A., Garcia, J., et al. (2002). Peer training to facilitate social interaction for elementary students with autism and <strong>the</strong>ir peers. Exceptional Children, 68, 173–188. King, A. (1994). Guiding knowledge construction in <strong>the</strong> classroom: Effects of teaching children how to question and how to explain. American Educational Research <strong>Journal</strong>, 31, 338–368. King, A., & Rosenshine, B. (1993). Effects of guided cooperative-questioning on children’s knowledge construction. <strong>Journal</strong> of Experimental Education, 6, 127–148. Reciprocal Questioning / 385
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Education and Training in Developme
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Self-Determination in Relation to H
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learning opportunities relevant to
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