Innovation and institutional change: the transition to a sustainable ...

146 Chapter 5
replaced the focus on a compartmental division of problems and solutions,
which had foremost implied end-of-pipe technologies for emissions to water,
air and soil (Hajer, 1995; Mol, 1995). In order to reach the targets set with
regard to energy saving and CO2 reduction, representatives of the Ministries
of Environmental Affairs and Economic Affairs at that time were convinced
of the importance of an intermediary actor, or implementation agency, to
reach and convince households, industries and other actors where energy
saving measures had to take place. The electricity distributors were an
obvious candidate although the Ministry also contemplated other options,
such as initiating alternative energy saving utilities. Discussions between
energy distributors and the Ministry took place during the preparation of the
first National Environmental Policy Plan (Dinkelman, 1995: 122;
Ligteringen, 1999). The distribution sector began to see opportunities of a
shift of strategy into a more environment friendly direction and started to
develop ideas, one of which was levying a surcharge to consumers that could
be used to finance investments in energy saving measures under the umbrella
of an environmental action plan (Ligteringen, 1999: 145). This idea was
further developed by the director of the association of energy distributors,
VEEN, and a steering group was set up to develop action plans for the
sector, later followed by individual environmental action plans by energy
distribution companies 21 . Support for the steering group was given by
consultancy McKinsey and their associate Winsemius, who had been
responsible as Minister of Environmental Affairs for the birth of the targetgroup
and theme oriented approach of the national environmental policy
plan (Hajer, 1995; De Jongh, 1999), played an important role as consultant
in the process 22 . In the first overall environmental action plan of the sector in
1991, based on individual action plans of 52 distribution companies, a CO2reduction
target for 11% was set for 2000 to be realised by a set of measures,
with cogeneration as a dominant option due to its relative high costeffectiveness
and its large impact on CO2 emissions. Also a set of
agreements was concluded with the Ministry of Economic Affairs, such as
the funding of the environmental action plans through a so-called MAP-levy
on electricity (Dinkelman, 1995: 225-226).
Breakthrough in cogeneration as change processes interlocked
An unprecedented boom in decentral cogeneration occurred in the nineties as
its share in domestic electricity generation rose from 15 to 36% (see figure
5.3) and decentral cogeneration capacity increased with 3500 MW from
21 The idea for an environmental action plan was also discussed with environmentral groups,
such as the Bezinningsgroep Energiebeleid in february 1990 (Dinkelman, 1995: 260).
22 Personal communication with ir. W.K.Wiechers, former chairman of PNEM and Essent,
April 2005.