Innovation and institutional change: the transition to a sustainable ...

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Evolution of decentral cogeneration in the Netherlands 141 industrial branches 15 (Buiter and Hesselmans, 1999: 133). This was also the year that the first small-scale industrial gas turbine (3.2 MW) came into operation for continuous use. VKW conducted sector studies for the paper and textiles industries and organized around ten regional meetings on energy saving and energy management, with average participation of forty businesses (Buiter and Hesselmans, 1999: 133). Furthermore, a large amount of research reports, feasibility studies, evaluations, and market research studies regarding cogeneration for a wide range of applications are published in the first half of the eighties 16 . The potential of cogeneration as an alternative to nuclear and coal-fired power plants was also prominent in the broad societal discussion in the early eighties (SMDE, 1983). In a reaction to the outcomes of the discussion, the AER pointed at the potential of cogeneration, but also at institutional constraints such as connection conditions and financial regulations in the electricity sector, and at disappointing growth figures relative to expectations (AER, 1984). See also Table 5.3 for an overview of main policy documents and other developments impacting the course of cogeneration in the period 1985-1997. Uptake of cogeneration in process industries In the first half of the eighties investments in decentral cogeneration slowly started to pick up, mainly because investments were undertaken in a range of process industries whereas in the period of 1968 until 1978 virtually all investments in cogeneration took place in the chemical industry where cogeneration capacity expanded from 300 to 830 MW during that period (Blok, 1991: 132). In terms of actual investment several cogeneration units were installed in the period 1980-1985 in refineries, the paper industry, the food industry, and the chemical industry, with overall annual investments ranging from 40 to 110 MW (Blok, 1991: 134). Relevant economic factors for the uptake were improved electricity tariffs for cogeneration due to the 1979 negotiated agreement between self-producing industries and the electricity sector, and subsidies on investment in energy saving that also applied for cogeneration initiated in 1977. Investment grants were increased from 10 to 20% in 1982 after advice in the second report of the committee on industrial cogeneration and the General Energy Council (EZ, 1982; AER, 15 In previous years Potma had also pointed out the lack of knowledge regarding cogeneration in government circles and the dominant orientation towards centralised largescale power plants (Potma, 1979). 16 See for example the references in the advice on cogeneration by AER (1987), the work by VKW and a range of studies undertaken by the Centre for Energy Saving. While the studies originate from different segments of the electricity sector, government, and industry, the prominent roles of VKW and the Centre for Energy Saving (initiated by Potma, author of the forgotten scenario) stand out.
142 Chapter 5 1982; Blok, 1991; Buiter and Hesselmans, 1999: 132). Both Van der Doelen (1989: 262) and Blok (1991: 154) find a significant but small positive effect of these grants on investment behaviour of industries. The advisory committee had also quantified a cogeneration target of 2000 MW installed capacity in the year 2000 and gave recommendations on several issues, among others, the type of fuel base (at first coal and synthesized gases because of restrictions on gas sales, but later natural gas as preferred choice), the type of technology, the tariff-structure for electricity deliverance to the national grid, the so-called wheeling of cogenerated power among private corporations and policy measures to support CHP investments. Table 5.3 Overview of main milestones regarding energy saving, cogeneration, climate policy, and the electricity sector (1985-1997) Milestones: policy (P), electricity sector (E) and other (O) developments Year 1985 EU formulates energy objectives for 1995 (P) Report by commission regarding reorganisation of the distribution sector (E) Policy Note on Electricity Supply in the Nineties: decision to allow expansion of nuclear energy ao taking into account the results of the Broad Societal Discussin (P) 1986 Draft electricity act submitted in parliament (P) Sixteen electricity producers bundled in four regional production companies (E) Nuclear accident in Tsjernobyl (O) Government decides to suspend expansion of nuclear energy (P) 1987 AER advice on cogeneration Brundtland commission publishes Our Common Future (WCED, 1987) (O) Policy stimulation program for cogeneration (P) 1988 EU report on internal energy market (P) RIVM publishes ‘Zorgen voor Morgen’ with a worrisome picture of the environmental state (O/P) 1989 Electricity Act 1989 (P) First National Environmental Policy Plan: specific energy efficiency and CO2 reduction targets per target group (P) Distribution sector installs steering group for integral environmental policy plan (E) 1990 Second World Climate Conference in Geneva with EC countries reaching agreement on stabilisation target for CO2 for 2000 relative to 1990 (O/P) National Environmental Policy Plan Plus sharpens CO2 reduction targets (P) Gasunie introduces special gas tariffs for cogeneration (O/P) First White Paper on Energy Saving: Energy efficiency itarget of 20% improvement for 1989- 2000, effectively 2% annual (P) 1991 First White Paper on Climate Change Ministry of Economic of Affairs signs set of agreements regarding energy saving with distribution sector (P) First overall environmental action plan (MAP) of the distribution sector published, and MAPlevy introduced (E) EnergieNed founded as association for distribution companies, through a fusion of VEEN (energy distributors), VEGIN (gas), and VESTIN (heat) (E) 1992 UNCED conference in Rio de Janeiro develops Agenda 21; Climate treaty is signed (O/P)
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INNOVATION AND INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE
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In de reeks Schone Technologie en M
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Contents Preface v Chapter 1 Transi
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Contents iii 6.4 Liberalisation of
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vi Chapter This dissertation was fa
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2 Chapter 1 systems of production a
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4 Chapter 1 1995: 25). A basic tene
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6 Chapter 1 and be a member of natu
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8 Chapter 1 specific momentum for p
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10 Chapter 1 Chapter eight summaris
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12 Chapter 2 derive some general pr
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14 Chapter 2 emerges because of cha
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16 Chapter 2 ways things were done
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18 Chapter 2 multinational producer
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20 Chapter 2 increasing scale and r
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22 Chapter 2 of alternative views o
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24 Chapter 2 exchange of knowledge
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26 Chapter 2 multidirectional flux
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28 Chapter 2 systems are located at
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30 Chapter 2 - Misadaptation betwee
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32 Chapter 2 of these concepts and
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34 Chapter 2 New institutionalism i
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36 Chapter 2 production and consump
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38 Chapter 2 Figure 2.3 Model of an
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40 Chapter 2 traditional forms of d
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42 Chapter 2 2.4 Integrating insigh
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44 Chapter 2 2.4.1 Innovation as a
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46 Chapter 2 composition of the net
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48 Chapter 2 its diffusion, to crea
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50 Chapter 2 materials, and the pro
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52 Chapter 2 - specificity: as an e
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54 Chapter 2 often represents the p
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56 Chapter 2 that the introduction
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58 Chapter 2 2.5 Concluding remark
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60 Chapter 3 society. A further sec
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62 Chapter 3 perceptions and soluti
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64 Chapter 3 Linkages involve conne
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66 Chapter 3 Table 3.1 Typology of
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68 Chapter 3 185). Institutional lo
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70 Chapter 3 invested (Hughes, 1983
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72 Chapter 3 analysts of, the elect
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74 Chapter 4 energy saving and effi
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76 Chapter 4 In their analysis of t
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78 Chapter 4 Hughes’ basic model
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80 Chapter 4 improving the system a
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82 Chapter 4 Figure 4.3 Technology
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84 Chapter 4 by pollution, problems
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86 Chapter 4 4.5 The development of
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88 Chapter 4 energy sources. Safegu
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Page 103 and 104: 92 Chapter 4 - The government and t
Page 105 and 106: 94 Chapter 4 military-industrial co
Page 107 and 108: 96 Chapter 4 hardware” (Hirsh, 19
Page 109 and 110: 98 Chapter 4 In conclusion, the int
Page 111 and 112: 100 Chapter 4 government 25 . Never
Page 113 and 114: 102 Chapter 4 - Both economic incen
Page 115 and 116: 104 Chapter 4 organisation of the e
Page 117 and 118: 106 Chapter 4 industry could delive
Page 119 and 120: 108 Chapter 4 More robust plans for
Page 121 and 122: 110 Chapter 4 Table 4.4 Evolution o
Page 123 and 124: 112 Chapter 4 4.11 The development
Page 125 and 126: 114 Chapter 4 Table 4.6 Evolution o
Page 127 and 128: 116 Chapter 4 Parties involved are
Page 129 and 130: 118 Chapter 4 Figure 4.5 Conversion
Page 131 and 132: 120 Chapter 4 combustion of biomass
Page 133 and 134: 122 Chapter 4 The focus on biomass
Page 135 and 136: 124 Chapter 4 Let us consider other
Page 137 and 138: 126 Chapter 4 varying processes of
Page 139 and 140: 128 Chapter 5 technological and ins
Page 141 and 142: 130 Chapter 5 Figure 5.3: Share of
Page 143 and 144: 132 Chapter 5 and search routines i
Page 145 and 146: 134 Chapter 5 solutions is main con
Page 147 and 148: 136 Chapter 5 and was triggered by
Page 149 and 150: 138 Chapter 5 signalling significan
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Page 155 and 156: 144 Chapter 5 10-12). The third iss
Page 157 and 158: 146 Chapter 5 replaced the focus on
Page 159 and 160: 148 Chapter 5 from 220 MWe in 1990
Page 161 and 162: 150 Chapter 5 and supply. Only afte
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Page 165 and 166: 154 Chapter 5 Prospects for cogener
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Page 169 and 170: 158 Chapter 5 add, not a sufficient
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Page 175 and 176: 164 Chapter 6 a liberalised market.
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Page 179 and 180: 168 Chapter 6 in the municipality o
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Page 183 and 184: 172 Chapter 6 Table 6.1 Milestones
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Page 199 and 200: 188 Chapter 7 meaning, infrastructu
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192 Chapter 7 Figure 7.3 A dynamic
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194 Chapter 7 7.3 Strengths and wea
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196 Chapter 7 Table 7.3 shows that
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198 Chapter 7 The process of libera
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200 Chapter 7 towards resource inde
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202 Chapter 7 improvement of cable
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204 Chapter 7 project. The high ene
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206 Chapter 7 of the promising nich
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208 Chapter 7
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210 Chapter 8 gain stability as a c
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212 Chapter 8 with the application
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214 Chapter 8 Table 8.2 Institution
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216 Chapter 8 growth rates of insta
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218 Chapter 8 This involved changes
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220 Chapter 8 contributes to a bett
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222 Chapter 8 decisions and rates o
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224 Chapter 8 The applicability of
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226 Chapter 8 8.5 Lessons for trans
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228 Chapter 8 ideas. Moreover, the
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230 Chapter 8 and decentral cogener
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232 Chapter 8
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234 References Arentsen, M.J., and
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236 References Bressers, H.Th.A. an
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238 References De Jong, J.J., E. We
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240 References EPRI (1999) Electric
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242 References Geels, F.W. (2002b)
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244 References Henderson, R.M. and
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246 References Islas, J. (1999) The
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248 References Dependence and Creat
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250 References Nelson, R.R. (1995a)
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252 References Quarles van Ufford,
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254 References Schmidheiny S. (1992
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256 References SNM (2000) Frisse Wi
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258 References Van de Ven, A.H. and
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260 References VROM (1993) National
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262 References
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264 Samenvatting analytisch kader d
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266 Samenvatting maar toch een grot
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268 Samenvatting
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