Innovation and institutional change: the transition to a sustainable ...

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Evolution of decentral cogeneration in the Netherlands 137 in the Netherlands and the disadvantageous position of industrial electricity generators with regard to delivering electricity to the grid. Concrete results were the covenant between industry and the electricity sector regarding the tariffs for connection of industrial producers to the grid, and a restitution by the Ministry of Economic Affairs compensating additional energy costs inflicted on industry due to higher prices relative to neighbouring countries (VKW, 1979; Buiter and Hesselmans, 1999: 126, 130, 140). Two further developments were crucial for the uptake of cogeneration. The gas turbine became an efficient and flexible device for electricity generation after the Second World War (Islas, 1999). With increasing concern over efficiency and the growing importance of energy saving the uptake of the gas turbine enabled increases in overall efficiency and reliability of the electricity system, by adopting it first as a device for peak generation, and later through hybridisation with the steam turbine. The gas turbine was also an attractive technology for Dutch process industry due to its high efficiency at lower scales for the combined utilisation of electricity and steam for process purposes. In the Netherlands the first gas turbines were installed in the chemical industry in 1968, at the same time when gas turbines were installed by some energy companies (Verbong, 2000: 230). The second development facilitating utilisation of the gas turbine and cogeneration was the availability of Dutch gas and its extensive infrastructure. Attention for cogeneration was triggered by a number of reinforcing factors. Foremost, the two oil crises turned attention towards potential for energy saving and towards alternative forms of electricity generation. Secondly, from the seventies on there is a continuous reduction in legitimacy and credibility of nuclear energy as the dominant future form of electricity generation. Thirdly, the role of high energy prices, especially after the second oil crisis, in combination with high energy intensity led Dutch industry to adopt a promising emerging technology, the gas turbine, for cogeneration purposes. And fourthly, the oil crisis, environmental and nuclear concerns led to the mobilisation of actors with alternative visions regarding the way the electricity system should evolve. The resulting fundamental patterns of institutional change became especially visible in the early eighties during the broad societal discussion on the future of the energy system and the position of nuclear energy. Four main issues were discussed 14 , challenging existing principles of the electricity system, and 14 Issue one was further development of nuclear energy or not. Issue two involved a focus on energy saving or facilitating growth of energy consumption. Issue three questioned a further centralisation of the system or the uptake of decentralised alternatives. Issue four focussed on allowing for private parties for the production and sale of electricity, implying corrosion of monopolistic organisation of the sector (SMDE, 1983).
138 Chapter 5 signalling significant corrosion of the legitimacy and credibility of the dominant technological and organisational form in the electricity system. Table 5.1 Overview of main policy (P), electricity sector (E), and other (O) milestones regarding energy saving, cogeneration, and climate policy (1972- 1983) Year Milestones 1972 White Paper on Nuclear Energy prognoses 35000 MWe nuclear power capacity in 2000 on total of 70000 MWe (P) Dutch publication of Club of Rome report (O) 1973 Introduction of Kalkar-levy (P) First oil crisis (O) 1974 ‘Rethink Energy Policy Group’ initiated (O) First White Paper on Energy (P) 1975 Commission installed for advice on district heating (P) 1976 Various councils installed for energy research and energy policy (P) Electricity optimisation realised by Southern production companies (E) Final decision postponed on construction of nuclear power plants (P) Reactor Centre Netherlands (RCN) renamed to Energy Centre Netherlands (ECN) (P) 1977 General energy council (AER) presents advice on energy saving in companies with strong focus on cogeneration (P) Policy note on intensification of energy saving, three new subsidies announced (P) Report of committee for district heating (P) 1978 Commission installed for concentration of utilities (CoCoNut) (P) Center for Energy Saving initiated (O) Subsidy scheme for industrial investment in energy saving (P) 1979 Second white paper on energy policy: energy efficiency improvement targets set: 10% for 1979-1985 and 40% for 1973-2000 (P) Covenant between electricity sector and self producers regarding connection to the grid (E) First district heating projects initiated (E) First World Climate Conference in Geneva puts CO2 problem on political agendas (P) Second oil crisis leads to steep increases in oil prices (O) 1980 Commission installed to investigate impediments for industrial cogeneration (P) Report of commission coconut (P) 1982 Follow-up report from 1980 commission as industrial cogeneration stalls (P) National energy optimisation realised (LEO) by the power producers (E) Investment subsidy for cogeneration increased from 10 to 20% (P) 1983 Final Report of the Broad Societal Energy Discussion (P/O) In overview, a number of processes of change unfolded in the course of the seventies that effectively disrupted existing institutional logics in the electricity sector. (1) Traditional objectives of long-term security of supply
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INNOVATION AND INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE
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In de reeks Schone Technologie en M
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Contents Preface v Chapter 1 Transi
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Contents iii 6.4 Liberalisation of
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vi Chapter This dissertation was fa
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2 Chapter 1 systems of production a
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4 Chapter 1 1995: 25). A basic tene
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6 Chapter 1 and be a member of natu
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8 Chapter 1 specific momentum for p
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10 Chapter 1 Chapter eight summaris
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12 Chapter 2 derive some general pr
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14 Chapter 2 emerges because of cha
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16 Chapter 2 ways things were done
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18 Chapter 2 multinational producer
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20 Chapter 2 increasing scale and r
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22 Chapter 2 of alternative views o
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24 Chapter 2 exchange of knowledge
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26 Chapter 2 multidirectional flux
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28 Chapter 2 systems are located at
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30 Chapter 2 - Misadaptation betwee
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32 Chapter 2 of these concepts and
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34 Chapter 2 New institutionalism i
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36 Chapter 2 production and consump
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38 Chapter 2 Figure 2.3 Model of an
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40 Chapter 2 traditional forms of d
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42 Chapter 2 2.4 Integrating insigh
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44 Chapter 2 2.4.1 Innovation as a
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46 Chapter 2 composition of the net
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48 Chapter 2 its diffusion, to crea
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50 Chapter 2 materials, and the pro
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52 Chapter 2 - specificity: as an e
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54 Chapter 2 often represents the p
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56 Chapter 2 that the introduction
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58 Chapter 2 2.5 Concluding remark
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60 Chapter 3 society. A further sec
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62 Chapter 3 perceptions and soluti
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64 Chapter 3 Linkages involve conne
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66 Chapter 3 Table 3.1 Typology of
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68 Chapter 3 185). Institutional lo
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70 Chapter 3 invested (Hughes, 1983
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72 Chapter 3 analysts of, the elect
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74 Chapter 4 energy saving and effi
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76 Chapter 4 In their analysis of t
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78 Chapter 4 Hughes’ basic model
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80 Chapter 4 improving the system a
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82 Chapter 4 Figure 4.3 Technology
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84 Chapter 4 by pollution, problems
Page 97 and 98: 86 Chapter 4 4.5 The development of
Page 99 and 100: 88 Chapter 4 energy sources. Safegu
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Page 103 and 104: 92 Chapter 4 - The government and t
Page 105 and 106: 94 Chapter 4 military-industrial co
Page 107 and 108: 96 Chapter 4 hardware” (Hirsh, 19
Page 109 and 110: 98 Chapter 4 In conclusion, the int
Page 111 and 112: 100 Chapter 4 government 25 . Never
Page 113 and 114: 102 Chapter 4 - Both economic incen
Page 115 and 116: 104 Chapter 4 organisation of the e
Page 117 and 118: 106 Chapter 4 industry could delive
Page 119 and 120: 108 Chapter 4 More robust plans for
Page 121 and 122: 110 Chapter 4 Table 4.4 Evolution o
Page 123 and 124: 112 Chapter 4 4.11 The development
Page 125 and 126: 114 Chapter 4 Table 4.6 Evolution o
Page 127 and 128: 116 Chapter 4 Parties involved are
Page 129 and 130: 118 Chapter 4 Figure 4.5 Conversion
Page 131 and 132: 120 Chapter 4 combustion of biomass
Page 133 and 134: 122 Chapter 4 The focus on biomass
Page 135 and 136: 124 Chapter 4 Let us consider other
Page 137 and 138: 126 Chapter 4 varying processes of
Page 139 and 140: 128 Chapter 5 technological and ins
Page 141 and 142: 130 Chapter 5 Figure 5.3: Share of
Page 143 and 144: 132 Chapter 5 and search routines i
Page 145 and 146: 134 Chapter 5 solutions is main con
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Page 151 and 152: 140 Chapter 5 Table 5.2 Main change
Page 153 and 154: 142 Chapter 5 1982; Blok, 1991; Bui
Page 155 and 156: 144 Chapter 5 10-12). The third iss
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Page 159 and 160: 148 Chapter 5 from 220 MWe in 1990
Page 161 and 162: 150 Chapter 5 and supply. Only afte
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Page 175 and 176: 164 Chapter 6 a liberalised market.
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Page 179 and 180: 168 Chapter 6 in the municipality o
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Page 183 and 184: 172 Chapter 6 Table 6.1 Milestones
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Page 187 and 188: 176 Chapter 6 After the opening of
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188 Chapter 7 meaning, infrastructu
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190 Chapter 7 Figure 7.2 Social gro
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192 Chapter 7 Figure 7.3 A dynamic
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194 Chapter 7 7.3 Strengths and wea
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196 Chapter 7 Table 7.3 shows that
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198 Chapter 7 The process of libera
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200 Chapter 7 towards resource inde
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202 Chapter 7 improvement of cable
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204 Chapter 7 project. The high ene
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206 Chapter 7 of the promising nich
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208 Chapter 7
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210 Chapter 8 gain stability as a c
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212 Chapter 8 with the application
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214 Chapter 8 Table 8.2 Institution
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216 Chapter 8 growth rates of insta
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218 Chapter 8 This involved changes
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220 Chapter 8 contributes to a bett
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222 Chapter 8 decisions and rates o
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224 Chapter 8 The applicability of
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226 Chapter 8 8.5 Lessons for trans
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228 Chapter 8 ideas. Moreover, the
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230 Chapter 8 and decentral cogener
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232 Chapter 8
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234 References Arentsen, M.J., and
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236 References Bressers, H.Th.A. an
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238 References De Jong, J.J., E. We
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240 References EPRI (1999) Electric
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242 References Geels, F.W. (2002b)
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244 References Henderson, R.M. and
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246 References Islas, J. (1999) The
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248 References Dependence and Creat
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250 References Nelson, R.R. (1995a)
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252 References Quarles van Ufford,
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254 References Schmidheiny S. (1992
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256 References SNM (2000) Frisse Wi
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258 References Van de Ven, A.H. and
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260 References VROM (1993) National
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262 References
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264 Samenvatting analytisch kader d
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266 Samenvatting maar toch een grot
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268 Samenvatting
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