Innovation and institutional change: the transition to a sustainable ...

Stability and transformation in the electricity system 119
Table 4.7 Waste treatment routes in kg waste
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Compost 1400 1500 1500 1500 1490 1568 1448 1444 1361
Incineration 2800 3550 4350 4550 4905 4982 4855 5087 5180
Disposal 9800 8450 7400 7100 7600 6550 6530 5157 4777
Source: VVAV, website, 2000 and 2005.
From the end of the eighties on also the other routes for biomass as an
energy source are increasingly explored. Gasification and fermentation are
currently technologically proven concepts, and have been commercially
applied. For gasification BTG has done pioneering work from the end of the
seventies on, through the development of small-scale gasification systems
applied in developing countries. Moreover, BTG is currently also involved
in upscaling of pyrolysis technology 44 . Know-how regarding fermentation
has been traditionally strong at the Agricultural University of Wageningen 45 .
The emergence of several programs for biomass R&D 46 initiated biomass
related energy projects at research institutes and led to strong competition
between the three major energy research institutes in the Netherlands, Kema,
ECN and TNO 47 (Veringa, 2000). At the end of the nineties biomass has
become the second largest beneficiary for R&D funding in renewable
energy, with 9 million euros in 1998 and an 11 million euros in 1999 48 .
From the various renewable energy sources, biomass has been the only
source also significantly applied by the electricity production sector. Cocombustion
of biomass is increasingly applied in coal fired plants. The main
reason is that coal-fired plants have become more and more unattractive
because of their high CO2 emissions. Government pressure to improve
environmental performance of power plants has increased in the end of the
nineties, even leading to suggestions that coal-fired power plants should be
closed down, see the text box on the following page. However, in 2000 an
agreement was reached to reduce CO2 emissions of coal-fired power plants
by 6 million tonnes in 2010 relative to 1990. This should be realised by co-
44
Based on the rotating cone reactor for flash pyrolysis for which BTG has a patent.
Exploiting economies of scale is the current focus of BTG’s projects. See website of BTG
at http://www.btgworld.com/.
45
At LUW professor Lettinga has been one of the early pioneers in this field from the
seventies on. Lettinga’s name is mainly associated with the development of anaerobic
water treatment systems, but is also involved in R&D on anaerobic digestion of waste.
46
The EWAB program (Energy from Waste and Biomass), started in 1989 and was managed
by NOVEM.
47
As of 1997 TNO is affiliated with BTG through a significant participation.
48
Overzicht van publiek gefinancierd energie onderzoek in Nederland, 1997, 1998, 1999,
Novem (2000).