Innovation and institutional change: the transition to a sustainable ...

108 Chapter 4
More robust plans for wind energy
Rising attention to the climate change problem in the nineties increased
momentum for wind energy. Both wind energy production and capacity has
grown rapidly in the 1990s. Electricity distributors have played an important
role in this development, fostered by an environmental action plan (MAP)
set up as a part of an environmental agreement in 1991 with government to
reduce CO2 emissions by the distributors. The MAP came as a reaction on
the task set in the NEPP and Energy Saving Act of 1990 for the electricity
sector. Part of the MAP was a 250 MW Windplan, set up by eight
distributors. The implementation of the plan however experienced
difficulties, such as spatial integration of the wind turbines. According to
Wolsink (1996: 1084) the distributors lacked experience with small-scale
physical planning and local politics. Although the ambitious goals of the
windplan were not reached, wind capacity steadily increased. According to
van Zuylen et al. (1999: 22) this can be explained by the cumulative effect of
the measures available at the time, which illustrates the sensitivity of wind
energy implementation to the subsidies; subsidy, green funds and standard
remuneration for electricity generated from wind. In 1996 all wind subsidies
were abolished and replaced by fiscal measures. Anticipation of this shift
from subsidies to fiscal measure led to a peak of implementation in wind
energy capacity in 1995 (with 100 MW installed that year by mainly energy
distributors and small private investors) what was twice as high as in the
years that were to come. Apparently, entrepreneurs were able to introduce a
higher level of urgency within lengthy permitting procedures with regard to
time deadlines set and this led to a peak of projects being forced through
(Agterbosch et al., 2004). The shortage of locations for wind energy has long
been considered to be the main problem hampering wind energy
development and introduction (EZ, 1999). The wind turbines are considered
(especially by local actors) to have a negative visual impact on the
landscape, a negative impact on birds and to produce noise and by this do
not meet the expectations (or goals) of actors involved. However, recent
studies in a number of municipalities indicate that the attitude of the majority
of citizens towards wind energy in general is positive. Environmental groups
also pointed out feasible locations for wind energy, taking into account
impacts on landscape and nature. In their plan, published in 2000, it is
concluded that ample locations for wind energy exist where public resistance
is likely to be low and with the scope to quadruple wind capacity (SNM,
2000). Also Wolsink (2000) argues that public acceptance is not the main
problem for wind energy development, but that slow development mostly
related to structure and dominance of the utility sector, ineffective planning
of wind sites, and the top-down orientation in energy policy with lack of
local participation and commitment in goal-setting, policy formulation and