Review: Phosphorus in Fish Nutrition
Review: Phosphorus in Fish Nutrition
Review: Phosphorus in Fish Nutrition
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1926-27 <strong>in</strong> which they fed salmon fry for 38 days with either cooked rice, shark meal, sard<strong>in</strong>e meal, or raw sard<strong>in</strong>e<br />
as a sole diet. One group of fish was starved dur<strong>in</strong>g the same period. A group of fish fed raw sard<strong>in</strong>e had the<br />
highest survival (97%) and growth. The fish fed rice did not grow, and the survival rate was lower than the starved<br />
group. However, both starved fish and the fish fed on rice <strong>in</strong>creased their body Ca content more than twice, while<br />
P content <strong>in</strong>creased only slightly and Mg content decreased markedly dur<strong>in</strong>g the period. The fish fed shark meal,<br />
sard<strong>in</strong>e meal, or raw sard<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>creased the weight and the retention of Ca, P, Mg, N, and lipids. Sek<strong>in</strong>e & Sato<br />
(1933) reported the results of a feed<strong>in</strong>g trial conducted <strong>in</strong> 1930-31 with sockeye salmon (body wt., <strong>in</strong>itial 0.17 g,<br />
f<strong>in</strong>al ca. 40 g; fed 391 days). The authors studied the supplemental effect of tricalcium phosphate (and Fe-citrate)<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g a diet conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g fish meat (sic), silkworm pupae, rice bran, flour and a small amount of cod liver oil. The<br />
basal non-supplemented diet conta<strong>in</strong>ed 23% prote<strong>in</strong>, 55% carbohydrate, 13% lipids, 0.45% Ca, 0.85% P, and<br />
0.035% Fe (dry basis). Five grams of Ca 3(PO 4) 2 and 0.2 g of Fe-citrate were added to 700 g (dry wt) of the basal<br />
diet. The fish fed the P and Fe supplemented diet grew markedly better than those fed the basal diet; however, the<br />
survival rates (mortality) did not differ. The fish fed the P and Fe supplemented diet had higher percentages of ash,<br />
Ca, P, Fe and Mg <strong>in</strong> the body (dry basis) than the fish fed the basal diet, whereas the percent ages of prote<strong>in</strong> and fat<br />
did not differ. Krockert (1938) fed brook trout with a diet conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 95% dried livestock blood, 4% dried<br />
potatoes, and 1% calcium phosphate. This diet was proven to support good growth of the fish, easily obta<strong>in</strong>able,<br />
and cheap. Increas<strong>in</strong>g the amounts of potatoes (to 17.5%) and calcium phosphate (to 2.5%), and supplement<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
diet with vitam<strong>in</strong>s were suggested to <strong>in</strong>crease the growth of the fish.<br />
Response criteria: Bones & Scales<br />
Gahn & Scheele (1770) found that the m<strong>in</strong>erals <strong>in</strong> bones consist of calcium phosphate. Lavoisier (1790) wrote,<br />
"<strong>Phosphorus</strong> is found <strong>in</strong> almost all animal substances, and <strong>in</strong> some plants which give a k<strong>in</strong>d of animal analysis."<br />
Bobba (1801) of Italy presented his theory on the cause of rickets. He thought, "by a derivation of the phosphat<br />
(sic) of lime from the bones to the jo<strong>in</strong>ts (<strong>in</strong> rickets), symptoms of gout are produced, at the same time a<br />
mollification of the bones, which complication is named arthritis rachitica." He thought, "bad quality of the milk<br />
with which children are nourished is likely to be a frequent remote cause of the rickets." Johnson (1803) reported<br />
that chickens fed Ca phosphate had harder bones, and that Ca phosphate had also been fed profitably to children and<br />
pregnant women as a means of improv<strong>in</strong>g soft bones and heal<strong>in</strong>g fractures. Lawrence (1829-30) wrote, "In cases<br />
of rachitis, . . . we f<strong>in</strong>d less earthy matter and a greater proportion of animal substance than is natural. We f<strong>in</strong>d that<br />
the bones, <strong>in</strong> rickets, often admit of be<strong>in</strong>g cut with the knife." Brodhurst (1868) wrote a similar account. Also,<br />
May Mellanby (1918) made a similar comment on rachitic puppies, "the deficiency <strong>in</strong> calcium salts (<strong>in</strong> teeth) may<br />
result <strong>in</strong> the teeth be<strong>in</strong>g so soft that they can be cut with a scalpel." Guer<strong>in</strong> (1839), a French surgeon, fed some<br />
puppies on meat, and reported that they developed rickets; whereas the control animals, which were suckled, did not<br />
develop rickets. Chossat (1842, 1843) found that pigeons fed on wheat alone died <strong>in</strong> 10 months, dur<strong>in</strong>g which<br />
period salts were gradually withdrawn from the bones, which thereby became fragile, and that this was prevented by<br />
giv<strong>in</strong>g a supplement of Ca carbonate. He mentioned that P <strong>in</strong> the wheat was not utilized because of defi ciency of<br />
Ca. Bibra (1844) published a book of 430 pages devoted to chemical analyses of bones of mammals, birds,<br />
reptiles and fishes. He showed deviations of ricketic, osteoporotic, and osteomalacic bones from the composition<br />
of normal bones <strong>in</strong> the proportion of organic to <strong>in</strong>organic constituents. Bishop (1848) wrote, "Dur<strong>in</strong>g the period of<br />
the <strong>in</strong>cubation of this disease (i.e., rickets) all the bones of the skeleton are more or less affected: they not only<br />
become soft and pliable, but their chemical and mechanical structure also undergoes a change." And further "They<br />
are lighter than natural, . . . be<strong>in</strong>g porous, soft, spongy, and compressible." Lehmann (1851) wrote, "In healthy<br />
human bones the phosphate of lime ranges from 48 to 59%; <strong>in</strong> soften<strong>in</strong>g of the bones it may s<strong>in</strong>k to 30%. It is,<br />
however, s<strong>in</strong>gular that <strong>in</strong> almost all diseases of the bones, whether the results of osteoporosis, osteomalacia, or<br />
osteopsathyrosis, we f<strong>in</strong>d a dim<strong>in</strong>ution of the phosphate of lime (p. 413)." Anderson (1878) wrote, "rickets, which<br />
clearly shows, on chemical exam<strong>in</strong>ation, is a defici ency disease of the <strong>in</strong>organic matter . . . either the food is want<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> phosphate of lime, or there is a defect <strong>in</strong> its assimilation." And, "In rickets, bone becomes soft and pliable,<br />
yield<strong>in</strong>g to any weight or stra<strong>in</strong> put upon it, so that the lower limbs become bowed, the sp<strong>in</strong>e curved, and the<br />
cranium enlarged; the skeleton, from its imperfect construction, fails to fulfil the duties which properly belong to it.<br />
In rickets the <strong>in</strong>organic deficiency is recogni zed, as productive of the disease, because the defici ency is obvious.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>organic material bears a large proportion to the organic, and as the construction of bone is known, any great<br />
alteration <strong>in</strong> the relative proportion of organic and <strong>in</strong>organic matter, is readily apparent; but <strong>in</strong> structures which show<br />
a small proportion of <strong>in</strong>organic matter, deficiency of this may readily be overlooked . . . (p. 122)." Anderson<br />
(1878) presented numerous data of P contents (and major bases) <strong>in</strong> various tissues (tendon, sk<strong>in</strong>, kidney, lung, bra<strong>in</strong>,<br />
heart, aorta, and spleen) <strong>in</strong> various animal species (ox, pig, sheep, human) under normal and diseased states. The<br />
© 2000, 2005. Shozo H. Sugiura. All rights reserved.<br />
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