Exergy evolution of the mineral capital on earth - circe

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30 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE EARTH. KNOWN FACTS 2.4.2 Renewable water resources: surface and ground waters The renewable water resources are <strong>the</strong> total amount <strong>of</strong> a country’s water resources, both surface water and ground water, which are generated through <strong>the</strong> hydrological cycle. It is mainly <strong>the</strong> river run<strong>of</strong>f estimated in <strong>the</strong> volume referred to a unit <strong>of</strong> time (as for instance km 3 /year) and formed in <strong>the</strong> region at issue or incoming from outside, including <strong>the</strong> ground water inflow to <strong>the</strong> river network. This kind <strong>of</strong> water resources includes also <strong>the</strong> yearly renewable upper aquifer ground water not drained by <strong>the</strong> river systems. Despite <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir relative low abundance, renewable water resources on earth (see table 2.3) in forms <strong>of</strong> lakes, streams 3 , rivers and ground water play an important role for life and especially for human-beings, since <strong>the</strong>y are <strong>the</strong> main sources <strong>of</strong> freshwater. They are also an important source <strong>of</strong> water for agricultural and industrial consumption. Rivers and flows are comparatively small but essential source <strong>of</strong> energy. Many rivers are avenues <strong>of</strong> transportation. They have also a great scenic and recreational value. The mean renewable global water resources are estimated at 42.785 km 3 /year, and <strong>the</strong>y are very variable with space and time. Table 2.7 presents <strong>the</strong> distribution <strong>of</strong> water resources and availability by <strong>the</strong> earth’s continents. This information is based on a water balance approach by Shiklomanov [311], who provided country data for 51 countries on available water resources. O<strong>the</strong>r comprehensive world renewable publications are <strong>the</strong> early work <strong>of</strong> L’vovich [204], Gleick [115] and <strong>the</strong> World Resources Institute [410]. By an absolute value <strong>the</strong> largest water resources are characteristic <strong>of</strong> Asia and South America. The smallest are typical for Europe and Australia with Oceania. Due to rapid earth’s population, growth since 1970 to 1994, <strong>the</strong> potential water availability <strong>of</strong> earth’s population decreased form 12,9 to 7,6 km 3 per year and person. 2.4.2.1 Stream, river and lake waters The nature <strong>of</strong> aqueous solutions that are produced or modified by <strong>the</strong> processes <strong>of</strong> wea<strong>the</strong>ring is determined by several factors, including chemical controls such as reaction rate, solubility and interface reactions, as well as environmental controls such as climate, geology and <strong>the</strong> hydrologic cycle. The solutions from wea<strong>the</strong>ring may mix with o<strong>the</strong>r waters that effectively have not been involved in a wea<strong>the</strong>ring process. In turn, <strong>the</strong> mixed waters may be modified by fur<strong>the</strong>r reactions such as by some cation exchange with clay or o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>mineral</strong> phases, or by <strong>the</strong> activities <strong>of</strong> man. 3 Stream is defined as a body <strong>of</strong> water that carries rock particles and dissolved substances, and flows down a slope along a clearly defined path.
The hydrosphere 31 Table 2.7. Renewable water resources and potential water availability by continents [311]. Continent Area, Population, Water resources, Water availability, M km2 Millions 1995 km3 /year 1000m3 /year Average Max. Min. per km2 per capita Europe 10,46 685 2900 3410 2254 277 4,23 North America 24,3 453 7890 8917 6895 324 17,4 Africa 30,1 708 4050 5082 3073 134 5,72 Asia 43,5 3445 13510 15008 11800 311 3,92 South America 17,9 315 12030 14350 10320 672 38,2 Australia 8,95 28,7 2404 2880 1891 269 83,7 and niaOcea- World 135 5633 42785 44751 39775 317 7,6 There is <strong>the</strong>refore a great variation in <strong>the</strong> concentrations <strong>of</strong> dissolved materials in lake, stream and river water. None<strong>the</strong>less an extensive amount <strong>of</strong> available data allowed Livingstone [197] to estimate <strong>the</strong> mean composition <strong>of</strong> world river water (see table 2.8). Table 2.8. Mean chemical contents <strong>of</strong> world river water [197] Substance Concentration µg/g HCO − 3 SO 58,4 2− 4 Cl 11,2 − 7,8 1 NO− 3 Ca 2+ 15 M g2+ 4,1 N a + 6,3 K + 2,3 Fe2+ 0,67 SiO2 13,1 Sum 120 Different compilations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> average concentration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> main trace elements found in rivers were later done by Li [196] and Gaillardet et al. [102]. The composition <strong>of</strong> Li is lited in table 2.9. Lake waters also vary greatly in composition, not only from lake to lake but <strong>of</strong>ten within a lake where marked temperature and compositional stratifications can occur. Reducing conditions <strong>of</strong>ten exist in <strong>the</strong> lower, more saline level <strong>of</strong> stratified lakes and
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Page 27 and 28: Exergy and <strong
Page 29 and 30: The Exergoecology approach 9 nous t
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Page 33 and 34: Scope, objectives and structure <st
Page 35: Scientific papers derived from this
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Page 41 and 42: The atmosphere 21 Table 2.1. Compos
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Page 57 and 58: The continental crust 37 2.5 The co
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Results 91 • The orders o
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Results 93 Table 3.5: Mineralogical
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Results 101 Table 3.6. Crustal abun
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106 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Tabl
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108 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH nowa
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110 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH exce
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112 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Tida
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114 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH al.
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116 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH volu
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120 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Coal
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122 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Figu
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124 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH In t
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132 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH ing
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134 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH •
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136 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH •
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Chapter 5 Thermodynamic models for
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The reference environment 143 5.2.1
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The reference environment 145 envir
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The reference environment 147 where
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The reference environment 149 where
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The reference environment 151 As ex
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The reference environment 153 5.2.3
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The reference environment 155 Table
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Prediction of Enth
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Summary of <strong
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Chapter 6 The ther
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The properties of
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The properties of
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An approach to the
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Summary of <strong
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Chapter 7 The time factor in <stron
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The exergy distance 229 However, an
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The tons of <stron
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The Hubbert peak applied to exergy
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The exergy loss of
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Conversion of exer
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Summary of <strong
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Summary of <strong
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Chapter 8 The exergy evolut
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A prediction of <s
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Final reflections 321 consequently
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Final reflections 323 problems are
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Final reflections 325 8.5.3 The nee
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Summary of <strong
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Summary of <strong
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332 CONCLUSIONS of
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334 CONCLUSIONS In the</str
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336 CONCLUSIONS is lost. Therefore,
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338 CONCLUSIONS According to our ca
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340 CONCLUSIONS which it is based w
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342 CONCLUSIONS have associated an
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344 CONCLUSIONS dation velocity, <s
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346 CONCLUSIONS fuel composition th
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348 CONCLUSIONS The main activity t
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Appendix A Additional calculations
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Input data. Mineralogical compositi
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Calculation of ave
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Estimation of <str
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Estimation of <str
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Estimation of <str
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Estimation of <str
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Exergy calculation
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Exergy calculation
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Exergy calculation
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Australian fossil fuel production 4
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World’s fuel production 405 % <st
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World’s fuel production 407 A.8.4
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The Hubbert peak applied to world p
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Fuel consumption in the</st
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Nomenclature, Figures, Tables and R
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416 NOMENCLATURE ˙D : Minimum exer
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418 NOMENCLATURE T : Temperature [K
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420 NOMENCLATURE r w : River water
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422 LIST OF FIGURES 7.1 Conceptual
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424 LIST OF FIGURES 8.21 Actual exe
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426 LIST OF TABLES 3.6 Crustal abun
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428 LIST OF TABLES 8.6 Specific exe
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References [1] Abare. Energy update
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433 [29] BGS. Minerals - what makes
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435 [59] C. Cleveland and M. Ruth.
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437 [87] ESPASA, editor. Encicloped
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439 [115] P. H. Gleick. The world
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441 [142] R. Höll, M. Kling, and E
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443 [171] K. S. Johnson. Industrial
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445 [200] J. Lovelock. The revenge
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451 [281] R. Rivero and M. Garfias.
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453 [306] D. Shaw, G. Reilly, J. Mu
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455 [330] V. Stepanov. Chemical ene
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457 [357] M. Tranter. Treatise on G
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459 [380] P. Vieillard. Modèle de
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461 [406] M. J. Wilhelm and K. C. W
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Exergy evolution of the mineral capital on earth - circe

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