Exergy evolution of the mineral capital on earth - circe

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Accordingly, in this work three imperative activities were carried out: • A systematic analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> main chemical components and <strong>the</strong> <strong>mineral</strong> resources on earth has been accomplished. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong> first composition in terms <strong>of</strong> <strong>mineral</strong>s <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper continental crust has been developed, through a procedure that assures chemical coherence between species and elements. The integration <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong>se data has provided a global overview <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> geochemistry <strong>of</strong> our planet with special attention to <strong>the</strong> substances that compose <strong>the</strong> earth’s outer spheres and to that part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> substances useful to man: <strong>the</strong> <strong>mineral</strong> resources. • The <strong>the</strong>rmodynamic tools required for <strong>the</strong> physical assessment <strong>of</strong> natural resources and particularly for <strong>mineral</strong>s have been provided. This way, <strong>the</strong> standard <strong>the</strong>rmodynamic properties <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> earth and its constituents (enthalpy, Gibbs free energy and exergy) have been calculated. Additionally, <strong>the</strong> exergy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>mineral</strong> resources <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> earth (<strong>of</strong> fuel and non-fuel origin) has been obtained and compared to that <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r energy resources. • With <strong>the</strong> help <strong>of</strong> different scarcity indicators developed in this PhD, an analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> state <strong>of</strong> our <strong>mineral</strong> resources has been accomplished. For that purpose <strong>the</strong> <strong>mineral</strong> exergy degradation throughout <strong>the</strong> 20th century has been studied. This has allowed to estimate when <strong>the</strong> peak <strong>of</strong> production <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> main <strong>mineral</strong> commodities is reached. Additionally, an outlook <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> scarcity degree <strong>of</strong> our <strong>mineral</strong> <strong>capital</strong> in <strong>the</strong> 21st century has been undertaken. The results <strong>of</strong> this study reveal that <strong>the</strong> exergy analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>mineral</strong>s could constitute a universal and transparent prediction tool for assessing <strong>the</strong> degradation degree <strong>of</strong> non-renewable resources, with dramatic consequences for <strong>the</strong> future management <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> earth’s physical stock. ii
To my beloved grandfa<strong>the</strong>r iii
Page 1: Mechanical Engineering Ph.D. Thesis
Page 7: ‘‘In the end w
Page 10 and 11: The thermochemistr
Page 12 and 13: Contents Contents . . . . . . . . .
Page 14 and 15: 3.4.34 Lanthanum . . . . . . . . .
Page 16 and 17: II The thermodynam
Page 18 and 19: 7.7.1.1 Gold . . . . . . . . . . .
Page 21 and 22: 1.1 Introduction Chapter 1 Starting
Page 23 and 24: Economic growth and the</st
Page 25 and 26: Scarcity indicators 5 was used unti
Page 27 and 28: Exergy and <strong
Page 29 and 30: The Exergoecology approach 9 nous t
Page 31 and 32: The Exergoecology approach 11 Solar
Page 33 and 34: Scope, objectives and structure <st
Page 35: Scientific papers derived from this
Page 39 and 40: Chapter 2 The geochemistry
Page 41 and 42: The atmosphere 21 Table 2.1. Compos
Page 43 and 44: The hydrosphere 23 The atmosphere i
Page 45 and 46: The hydrosphere 25 Table 2.3. Inven
Page 47 and 48: The hydrosphere 27 Table 2.5. The c
Page 49 and 50: The hydrosphere 29 Table 2.6: Predi
Page 51 and 52: The hydrosphere 31 Table 2.7. Renew
Page 53 and 54: The hydrosphere 33 the</str
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The hydrosphere 35 Table 2.11. Area
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The continental crust 37 2.5 The co
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The continental crust 39 Table 2.13
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Summary of <strong
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Chapter 3 The mineral</stro
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The classification of</stro
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Grigor’ev’s mineral</st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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Mathematical repre
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Results 91 • The orders o
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Results 93 Table 3.5: Mineralogical
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Results 101 Table 3.6. Crustal abun
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Summary of <strong
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106 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Tabl
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108 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH nowa
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110 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH exce
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112 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Tida
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114 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH al.
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116 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH volu
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120 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Coal
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122 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Figu
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124 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH In t
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132 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH ing
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134 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH •
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136 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH •
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Chapter 5 Thermodynamic models for
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The reference environment 143 5.2.1
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The reference environment 145 envir
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The reference environment 147 where
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The reference environment 149 where
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The reference environment 151 As ex
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The reference environment 153 5.2.3
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The reference environment 155 Table
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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Prediction of Enth
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Prediction of Enth
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Prediction of Enth
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Prediction of Enth
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Prediction of Enth
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Prediction of Enth
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Summary of <strong
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Chapter 6 The ther
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The properties of
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The properties of
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The properties of
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The properties of
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The properties of
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The properties of
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The properties of
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The properties of
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An approach to the
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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Summary of <strong
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Chapter 7 The time factor in <stron
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The exergy distance 229 However, an
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The tons of <stron
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The Hubbert peak applied to exergy
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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Conversion of exer
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Summary of <strong
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Summary of <strong
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Chapter 8 The exergy evolut
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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A prediction of <s
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A prediction of <s
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A prediction of <s
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A prediction of <s
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A prediction of <s
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A prediction of <s
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A prediction of <s
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Final reflections 321 consequently
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Final reflections 323 problems are
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Final reflections 325 8.5.3 The nee
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Summary of <strong
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Summary of <strong
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332 CONCLUSIONS of
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334 CONCLUSIONS In the</str
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336 CONCLUSIONS is lost. Therefore,
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338 CONCLUSIONS According to our ca
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340 CONCLUSIONS which it is based w
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342 CONCLUSIONS have associated an
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344 CONCLUSIONS dation velocity, <s
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346 CONCLUSIONS fuel composition th
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348 CONCLUSIONS The main activity t
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Appendix A Additional calculations
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Input data. Mineralogical compositi
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Calculation of ave
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Calculation of ave
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Calculation of ave
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Calculation of ave
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Calculation of <st
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Estimation of <str
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Estimation of <str
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Estimation of <str
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Estimation of <str
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Estimation of <str
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Exergy calculation
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Exergy calculation
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Exergy calculation
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Australian fossil fuel production 4
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World’s fuel production 405 % <st
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World’s fuel production 407 A.8.4
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The Hubbert peak applied to world p
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Fuel consumption in the</st
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Nomenclature, Figures, Tables and R
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416 NOMENCLATURE ˙D : Minimum exer
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418 NOMENCLATURE T : Temperature [K
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420 NOMENCLATURE r w : River water
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422 LIST OF FIGURES 7.1 Conceptual
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424 LIST OF FIGURES 8.21 Actual exe
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426 LIST OF TABLES 3.6 Crustal abun
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428 LIST OF TABLES 8.6 Specific exe
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References [1] Abare. Energy update
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433 [29] BGS. Minerals - what makes
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435 [59] C. Cleveland and M. Ruth.
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437 [87] ESPASA, editor. Encicloped
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439 [115] P. H. Gleick. The world
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441 [142] R. Höll, M. Kling, and E
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443 [171] K. S. Johnson. Industrial
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445 [200] J. Lovelock. The revenge
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451 [281] R. Rivero and M. Garfias.
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453 [306] D. Shaw, G. Reilly, J. Mu
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455 [330] V. Stepanov. Chemical ene
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457 [357] M. Tranter. Treatise on G
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459 [380] P. Vieillard. Modèle de
Page 481:
461 [406] M. J. Wilhelm and K. C. W
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Exergy evolution of the mineral capital on earth - circe

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