Exergy evolution of the mineral capital on earth - circe

More documents

Recommendations

Info

152 THERMODYNAMIC MODELS FOR THE EXERGY ASSESSMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES Ranz [276] updated <strong>the</strong> molecular mass <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper continental crust using more recent geochemical information and adopting not only a geochemical approach, but also a geological one. The methodology used was as follows: <strong>the</strong> international accepted norm CIPW [262] was applied to <strong>the</strong> mass fractions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> principal oxide groups obtained by Carmichael [49] for <strong>the</strong> cratonic and sedimentary layers, in order to redistribute <strong>the</strong> chemical components from <strong>the</strong> oxides to <strong>the</strong> <strong>mineral</strong> molecules that are representative in real <strong>mineral</strong>s appearing in a rock. Next, <strong>the</strong> <strong>mineral</strong>s <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> norm and <strong>the</strong>ir respective relative masses were modified to adjust <strong>the</strong>m to <strong>the</strong> real volumes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> principal groups <strong>of</strong> each rock. Finally, <strong>the</strong>ir molar fractions were calculated and <strong>the</strong> mean molecular mass <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> whole was obtained. The resulting MW cr was equal to 145,5 g/mole. Even though this methodology used better geochemical values than <strong>the</strong> ones in Szargut [334], and included <strong>the</strong> geological approach, we cannot forget that <strong>the</strong> CIPW norm is an artificial way to obtain <strong>the</strong> possible <strong>mineral</strong>s that can appear in a rock. It is <strong>the</strong>refore only an approximation as well. In <strong>the</strong> light <strong>of</strong> Grigor’ev’s analysis, a more accurate molecular weight <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper continental crust, based on experimental results ra<strong>the</strong>r than assumptions, can be easily obtained. The new calculated value is MW cr= 142,1 g/mole, which is very close to <strong>the</strong> estimation done by Ranz. Our model threw up a mean molecular weight <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> upper crust <strong>of</strong> MW cr=155,2 g/mole. 5.2.3.4 Update <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liquid reference substances Rivero and Garfias [281] have found <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> salinity <strong>of</strong> seawater on <strong>the</strong> calculated values <strong>of</strong> standard chemical exergy <strong>of</strong> elements calculated by means <strong>of</strong> reference substances dissolved in seawater. However, an increased salinity (greater than 35 per thousand) appears seldom (Red Sea), and <strong>the</strong> deviations are not large (usually less than 1,6%). Every introduction <strong>of</strong> solid reference substances can decrease <strong>the</strong> accuracy <strong>of</strong> calculations. Therefore we are assuming <strong>the</strong> solid reference substances only for <strong>the</strong> elements from <strong>the</strong> second column <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> periodic system. Following ionic and molecular reference substances dissolved in seawater have been accepted in <strong>the</strong> recent publication <strong>of</strong> Szargut [338] and will be used for this proposal: Cl − , AgCl − H gCl −2 4 , IO− Zn +2 . 2 , B(OH) 3 (aq), BiO + , Br − , CdCl 2 (aq), Cs + , Cu +2 , H PO −2 4 3 , K+ , Li + , M oO −2 4 , N a+ , N i +2 , P bCl 2 (aq), Rb + , SO −2 4 4 , HAsO−2 , SeO−2, W O−2 Major ions in seawater are ions with fractions greater than 1 ppm. The seawater reference environment taken into account in this proposal comprises <strong>the</strong> following major ions: N a + , K + , HAsO −2 4 , BiO+ , Cl − , SO −2 4 , Br− , B(OH) 3. Values <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> activity coefficients and molarity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se species basing on information presented in Millero [224], [225], Pilson [264] and Mottl [231] were reviewed and compared with those which Ranz and Rivero took into account. 4 , 4 ,
The reference environment 153 5.2.3.5 The updated reference environment. Results Table 5.4 shows <strong>the</strong> results obtained in this study for <strong>the</strong> chemical exergy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> elements with <strong>the</strong> geochemical information <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> crust (MW cr and z 0i) obtained in this PhD (This study 1) and <strong>the</strong> one provided by Grigor’ev [127] (This study 2). The solid R.S. assumed are those taken by Szargut [336], basing on <strong>the</strong> Szargut’s criterion mentioned before. Additionally, <strong>the</strong> values are compared to those given by Szargut [336], Valero, Ranz and Botero [371] and Rivero and Garfias [281]. The different reference substances divided into liquid, gaseous and solid R.S. and <strong>the</strong> values required for <strong>the</strong> calculations are shown in tables A.13, A.14 and A.15 in <strong>the</strong> appendix, page 384. The average difference between our study (1) and Szargut’s values is around 0,66% on average, while between study (2) with Grigor’ev’s model and Szarguts’, about 0,93%. Hence, in both cases, <strong>the</strong> average differences are very small. Never<strong>the</strong>less, small differences multiplied by huge numbers, such as <strong>the</strong> quantity <strong>of</strong> all <strong>mineral</strong>s on earth, make <strong>the</strong>se discrepancies to be not so insignificant. Next, each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> three subsystems (gaseous, liquid and solid R.S.) is analyzed, stressing <strong>the</strong> biggest differences found in <strong>the</strong> different models. The obtained values for gaseous R.S. are <strong>the</strong> same <strong>of</strong> those obtained by Szargut [336] and Valero, Ranz and Botero [371], since <strong>the</strong> methodology and <strong>the</strong> values used for this R.E. have been <strong>the</strong> same. The differences between this study (1) and (2) and that <strong>of</strong> Rivero and Garfias [281] are due to <strong>the</strong> different partial pressures in <strong>the</strong> atmosphere assumed. The new chemical exergies obtained differ in 0,5% in average for study (1) and 1% for study (2) with respect to <strong>the</strong> values obtained by Szargut in [336] for solid reference substances. Taking <strong>the</strong> empirical standard molar concentration <strong>of</strong> solid R.S. from our model instead <strong>of</strong> obtaining it with Eq. 5.3, implies a difference in <strong>the</strong> element chemical exergy <strong>of</strong> about 0,2% except for Au (9,5%) and F (6,7%). For <strong>the</strong> latter elements, <strong>the</strong> greater difference is due to <strong>the</strong> greater sensitivity <strong>of</strong> Au to x i (since its ∆G f is equal to zero) and <strong>the</strong> great proportion <strong>of</strong> atoms <strong>of</strong> Ca in <strong>the</strong> reference substance <strong>of</strong> F (CaF 2), respectively. It must be stressed that choosing a certain c j or ano<strong>the</strong>r a 100 times greater, throws less differences in <strong>the</strong> chemical exergy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> elements than choosing ano<strong>the</strong>r R.S., as can be seen in <strong>the</strong> models <strong>of</strong> Valero et al. [371] and Rivero et al. [281], when o<strong>the</strong>r R.S. are considered. The same thing happens with <strong>the</strong> molecular weight <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> earth’s crust. An MW cr <strong>of</strong> 142,1 or 155,2 only modifies <strong>the</strong> chemical exergy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> elements in 0,03%, and hence that parameter is not crucial at all. For <strong>the</strong> liquid R.S., with <strong>the</strong> exception <strong>of</strong> SO −2 4 <strong>the</strong> differences are negligible from <strong>the</strong> point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> influence on <strong>the</strong> final exergy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> considered element. In <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> SO − 4 , Szargut and Valero et al. assumed a value <strong>of</strong> mSO −2 = 1,17E-2, and 4 Rivero m −2 SO = 1,24E-2. The molarity calculated basing on <strong>the</strong> three independent 4 sources [225], [264] and [231] is estimated as m −2 SO = 2,93E-2 and is almost 2,5 4
Page 1:
Mechanical Engineering Ph.D. Thesis
Page 4 and 5:
Accordingly, in this work three imp
Page 7:
‘‘In the end w
Page 10 and 11:
The thermochemistr
Page 12 and 13:
Contents Contents . . . . . . . . .
Page 14 and 15:
3.4.34 Lanthanum . . . . . . . . .
Page 16 and 17:
II The thermodynam
Page 18 and 19:
7.7.1.1 Gold . . . . . . . . . . .
Page 21 and 22:
1.1 Introduction Chapter 1 Starting
Page 23 and 24:
Economic growth and the</st
Page 25 and 26:
Scarcity indicators 5 was used unti
Page 27 and 28:
Exergy and <strong
Page 29 and 30:
The Exergoecology approach 9 nous t
Page 31 and 32:
The Exergoecology approach 11 Solar
Page 33 and 34:
Scope, objectives and structure <st
Page 35:
Scientific papers derived from this
Page 39 and 40:
Chapter 2 The geochemistry
Page 41 and 42:
The atmosphere 21 Table 2.1. Compos
Page 43 and 44:
The hydrosphere 23 The atmosphere i
Page 45 and 46:
The hydrosphere 25 Table 2.3. Inven
Page 47 and 48:
The hydrosphere 27 Table 2.5. The c
Page 49 and 50:
The hydrosphere 29 Table 2.6: Predi
Page 51 and 52:
The hydrosphere 31 Table 2.7. Renew
Page 53 and 54:
The hydrosphere 33 the</str
Page 55 and 56:
The hydrosphere 35 Table 2.11. Area
Page 57 and 58:
The continental crust 37 2.5 The co
Page 59 and 60:
The continental crust 39 Table 2.13
Page 61 and 62:
Summary of <strong
Page 63 and 64:
Chapter 3 The mineral</stro
Page 65 and 66:
The classification of</stro
Page 67 and 68:
Grigor’ev’s mineral</st
Page 69 and 70:
Page 71 and 72:
Page 73 and 74:
Page 75 and 76:
A new model of <st
Page 77 and 78:
A new model of <st
Page 79 and 80:
A new model of <st
Page 81 and 82:
A new model of <st
Page 83 and 84:
A new model of <st
Page 85 and 86:
A new model of <st
Page 87 and 88:
A new model of <st
Page 89 and 90:
A new model of <st
Page 91 and 92:
A new model of <st
Page 93 and 94:
A new model of <st
Page 95 and 96:
A new model of <st
Page 97 and 98:
A new model of <st
Page 99 and 100:
A new model of <st
Page 101 and 102:
A new model of <st
Page 103 and 104:
A new model of <st
Page 105 and 106:
A new model of <st
Page 107 and 108:
A new model of <st
Page 109 and 110:
Mathematical repre
Page 111 and 112:
Results 91 • The orders o
Page 113 and 114:
Results 93 Table 3.5: Mineralogical
Page 115 and 116:
Page 117 and 118:
Page 119 and 120:
Page 121 and 122: Results 101 Table 3.6. Crustal abun
Page 123: Summary of <strong
Page 126 and 127: 106 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Tabl
Page 128 and 129: 108 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH nowa
Page 130 and 131: 110 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH exce
Page 132 and 133: 112 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Tida
Page 134 and 135: 114 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH al.
Page 136 and 137: 116 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH volu
Page 140 and 141: 120 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Coal
Page 142 and 143: 122 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Figu
Page 144 and 145: 124 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH In t
Page 152 and 153: 132 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH ing
Page 154 and 155: 134 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH •
Page 156 and 157: 136 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH •
Page 161 and 162: Chapter 5 Thermodynamic models for
Page 163 and 164: The reference environment 143 5.2.1
Page 165 and 166: The reference environment 145 envir
Page 167 and 168: The reference environment 147 where
Page 169 and 170: The reference environment 149 where
Page 171: The reference environment 151 As ex
Page 175 and 176: The reference environment 155 Table
Page 177 and 178: The exergy of <str
Page 193 and 194: Prediction of Enth
Page 205 and 206: Summary of <strong
Page 207 and 208: Chapter 6 The ther
Page 209 and 210: The properties of
Page 223 and 224:
The properties of
Page 225 and 226:
An approach to the
Page 227 and 228:
The exergy of <str
Page 229 and 230:
The exergy of <str
Page 231 and 232:
The exergy of <str
Page 233 and 234:
The exergy of <str
Page 235 and 236:
The exergy of <str
Page 237 and 238:
The exergy of <str
Page 239 and 240:
The exergy of <str
Page 241 and 242:
The exergy of <str
Page 243 and 244:
The exergy of <str
Page 245 and 246:
Summary of <strong
Page 247 and 248:
Chapter 7 The time factor in <stron
Page 249 and 250:
The exergy distance 229 However, an
Page 251 and 252:
The tons of <stron
Page 253 and 254:
The Hubbert peak applied to exergy
Page 255 and 256:
The exergy loss of
Page 257 and 258:
The exergy loss of
Page 259 and 260:
The exergy loss of
Page 261 and 262:
The exergy loss of
Page 263 and 264:
The exergy loss of
Page 265 and 266:
The exergy loss of
Page 267 and 268:
The exergy loss of
Page 269 and 270:
The exergy loss of
Page 271 and 272:
The exergy loss of
Page 273 and 274:
The exergy loss of
Page 275 and 276:
The exergy loss of
Page 277 and 278:
The exergy loss of
Page 279 and 280:
The exergy loss of
Page 281 and 282:
The exergy loss of
Page 283 and 284:
The exergy loss of
Page 285 and 286:
The exergy loss of
Page 287 and 288:
The exergy loss of
Page 289 and 290:
The exergy loss of
Page 291 and 292:
The exergy loss of
Page 293 and 294:
The exergy loss of
Page 295 and 296:
Conversion of exer
Page 297 and 298:
Summary of <strong
Page 299 and 300:
Summary of <strong
Page 301 and 302:
Chapter 8 The exergy evolut
Page 303 and 304:
The exergy loss of
Page 305 and 306:
The exergy loss of
Page 307 and 308:
The exergy loss of
Page 309 and 310:
The exergy loss of
Page 311 and 312:
The exergy loss of
Page 313 and 314:
The exergy loss of
Page 315 and 316:
The exergy loss of
Page 317 and 318:
The exergy loss of
Page 319 and 320:
The exergy loss of
Page 321 and 322:
The exergy loss of
Page 323 and 324:
The exergy loss of
Page 325 and 326:
The exergy loss of
Page 327 and 328:
A prediction of <s
Page 329 and 330:
A prediction of <s
Page 331 and 332:
A prediction of <s
Page 333 and 334:
A prediction of <s
Page 335 and 336:
A prediction of <s
Page 337 and 338:
A prediction of <s
Page 339 and 340:
A prediction of <s
Page 341 and 342:
Final reflections 321 consequently
Page 343 and 344:
Final reflections 323 problems are
Page 345 and 346:
Final reflections 325 8.5.3 The nee
Page 347 and 348:
Summary of <strong
Page 349:
Summary of <strong
Page 352 and 353:
332 CONCLUSIONS of
Page 354 and 355:
334 CONCLUSIONS In the</str
Page 356 and 357:
336 CONCLUSIONS is lost. Therefore,
Page 358 and 359:
338 CONCLUSIONS According to our ca
Page 360 and 361:
340 CONCLUSIONS which it is based w
Page 362 and 363:
342 CONCLUSIONS have associated an
Page 364 and 365:
344 CONCLUSIONS dation velocity, <s
Page 366 and 367:
346 CONCLUSIONS fuel composition th
Page 368 and 369:
348 CONCLUSIONS The main activity t
Page 371 and 372:
Appendix A Additional calculations
Page 373 and 374:
Input data. Mineralogical compositi
Page 375 and 376:
Page 377 and 378:
Page 379 and 380:
Page 381 and 382:
Page 383 and 384:
Page 385 and 386:
Page 387 and 388:
Page 389 and 390:
Page 391 and 392:
Page 393 and 394:
Page 395 and 396:
Page 397 and 398:
Calculation of ave
Page 399 and 400:
Calculation of ave
Page 401 and 402:
Calculation of ave
Page 403 and 404:
Calculation of ave
Page 405 and 406:
Calculation of <st
Page 407 and 408:
Estimation of <str
Page 409 and 410:
Estimation of <str
Page 411 and 412:
Estimation of <str
Page 413 and 414:
Estimation of <str
Page 415 and 416:
Estimation of <str
Page 417 and 418:
Exergy calculation
Page 419 and 420:
Exergy calculation
Page 421 and 422:
Exergy calculation
Page 423 and 424:
Australian fossil fuel production 4
Page 425 and 426:
World’s fuel production 405 % <st
Page 427 and 428:
World’s fuel production 407 A.8.4
Page 429 and 430:
The Hubbert peak applied to world p
Page 431 and 432:
Fuel consumption in the</st
Page 433:
Nomenclature, Figures, Tables and R
Page 436 and 437:
416 NOMENCLATURE ˙D : Minimum exer
Page 438 and 439:
418 NOMENCLATURE T : Temperature [K
Page 440 and 441:
420 NOMENCLATURE r w : River water
Page 442 and 443:
422 LIST OF FIGURES 7.1 Conceptual
Page 444 and 445:
424 LIST OF FIGURES 8.21 Actual exe
Page 446 and 447:
426 LIST OF TABLES 3.6 Crustal abun
Page 448 and 449:
428 LIST OF TABLES 8.6 Specific exe
Page 451 and 452:
References [1] Abare. Energy update
Page 453 and 454:
433 [29] BGS. Minerals - what makes
Page 455 and 456:
435 [59] C. Cleveland and M. Ruth.
Page 457 and 458:
437 [87] ESPASA, editor. Encicloped
Page 459 and 460:
439 [115] P. H. Gleick. The world
Page 461 and 462:
441 [142] R. Höll, M. Kling, and E
Page 463 and 464:
443 [171] K. S. Johnson. Industrial
Page 465 and 466:
445 [200] J. Lovelock. The revenge
Page 467 and 468:
447 [227] T. Miyano and N. J. Beuke
Page 469 and 470:
449 [253] A. Ortiz. Desarrollo econ
Page 471 and 472:
451 [281] R. Rivero and M. Garfias.
Page 473 and 474:
453 [306] D. Shaw, G. Reilly, J. Mu
Page 475 and 476:
455 [330] V. Stepanov. Chemical ene
Page 477 and 478:
457 [357] M. Tranter. Treatise on G
Page 479 and 480:
459 [380] P. Vieillard. Modèle de
Page 481:
461 [406] M. J. Wilhelm and K. C. W
show all

Exergy evolution of the mineral capital on earth - circe

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?