Exergy evolution of the mineral capital on earth - circe

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3.4.34 Lanthanum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.4.35 Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.4.36 Lithium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.4.37 Lutetium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.4.38 Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.4.39 Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.4.40 Mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.4.41 Molybdenum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.4.42 Neodymium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.4.43 Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.4.44 Niobium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.4.45 Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.4.46 Osmium and Iridium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.4.47 Palladium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.4.48 Phosphorous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.4.49 Platinum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.4.50 Potassium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.4.51 Praseodymium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.4.52 Rare Earth Elements: Praseodymium, Samarium, Europium, Gadolinium, Terbium, Dysprosium, Holmium, Erbium, Thulium and Lutetium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.4.53 Rhenium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3.4.54 Rhodium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3.4.55 Rubidium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.4.56 Ru<strong>the</strong>nium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.4.57 Samarium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.4.58 Scandium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.4.59 Selenium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 3.4.60 Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 3.4.61 Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.4.62 Sodium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.4.63 Strontium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.4.64 Sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 3.4.65 Tantalum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 3.4.66 Tellurium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.4.67 Terbium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.4.68 Thallium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.4.69 Thorium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 3.4.70 Thulium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 3.4.71 Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 3.4.72 Titanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 3.4.73 Uranium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 3.4.74 Vanadium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 3.4.75 Wolfram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 xii
3.4.76 Ytterbium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 3.4.77 Yttrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 3.4.78 Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 3.4.79 Zirconium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 3.5 Ma<strong>the</strong>matical representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 3.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 3.6.1 Discussion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most abundant <strong>mineral</strong>s . . . . . . . . . . . 99 3.6.2 Discussion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most relevant <strong>mineral</strong>s . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 3.6.3 Discussion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> aggregated composition . . . . . . . . . . . 101 3.6.4 Drawbacks <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 3.7 Summary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4 The resources <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.2 Natural resources: definition, classification and early assessment . 105 4.3 The energy balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 4.4 Energy from <strong>the</strong> solid earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 4.4.1 The Geo<strong>the</strong>rmal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 4.4.2 Nuclear energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 4.5 Tidal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4.6 Energy from <strong>the</strong> sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 4.6.1 Solar power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 4.6.2 Water power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 4.6.3 Wind power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 4.6.4 Ocean power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 4.6.4.1 Ocean <strong>the</strong>rmal gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 4.6.4.2 Ocean Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 4.6.5 Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 4.6.6 Fossil fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 4.6.6.1 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 4.6.6.2 Oil and natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 4.6.6.3 Unconventional fossil fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 4.7 Summary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> energy resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 4.8 Non-fuel <strong>mineral</strong> resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 4.8.1 The economic classification <strong>of</strong> <strong>mineral</strong>s . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 4.8.2 Mineral’s average ore grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 4.8.3 Mineral’s abundance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 4.9 Summary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 xiii
Page 1: Mechanical Engineering Ph.D. Thesis
Page 4 and 5: Accordingly, in this work three imp
Page 7: ‘‘In the end w
Page 10 and 11: The thermochemistr
Page 12 and 13: Contents Contents . . . . . . . . .
Page 16 and 17: II The thermodynam
Page 18 and 19: 7.7.1.1 Gold . . . . . . . . . . .
Page 21 and 22: 1.1 Introduction Chapter 1 Starting
Page 23 and 24: Economic growth and the</st
Page 25 and 26: Scarcity indicators 5 was used unti
Page 27 and 28: Exergy and <strong
Page 29 and 30: The Exergoecology approach 9 nous t
Page 31 and 32: The Exergoecology approach 11 Solar
Page 33 and 34: Scope, objectives and structure <st
Page 35: Scientific papers derived from this
Page 39 and 40: Chapter 2 The geochemistry
Page 41 and 42: The atmosphere 21 Table 2.1. Compos
Page 43 and 44: The hydrosphere 23 The atmosphere i
Page 45 and 46: The hydrosphere 25 Table 2.3. Inven
Page 47 and 48: The hydrosphere 27 Table 2.5. The c
Page 49 and 50: The hydrosphere 29 Table 2.6: Predi
Page 51 and 52: The hydrosphere 31 Table 2.7. Renew
Page 53 and 54: The hydrosphere 33 the</str
Page 55 and 56: The hydrosphere 35 Table 2.11. Area
Page 57 and 58: The continental crust 37 2.5 The co
Page 59 and 60: The continental crust 39 Table 2.13
Page 61 and 62: Summary of <strong
Page 63 and 64: Chapter 3 The mineral</stro
Page 65 and 66:
The classification of</stro
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Grigor’ev’s mineral</st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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A new model of <st
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Mathematical repre
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Results 91 • The orders o
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Results 93 Table 3.5: Mineralogical
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Results 101 Table 3.6. Crustal abun
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Summary of <strong
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106 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Tabl
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108 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH nowa
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110 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH exce
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112 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Tida
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114 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH al.
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116 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH volu
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120 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Coal
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122 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH Figu
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124 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH In t
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132 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH ing
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134 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH •
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136 THE RESOURCES OF THE EARTH •
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Chapter 5 Thermodynamic models for
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The reference environment 143 5.2.1
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The reference environment 145 envir
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The reference environment 147 where
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The reference environment 149 where
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The reference environment 151 As ex
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The reference environment 153 5.2.3
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The reference environment 155 Table
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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Prediction of Enth
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Prediction of Enth
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Prediction of Enth
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Prediction of Enth
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Prediction of Enth
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Prediction of Enth
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Summary of <strong
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Chapter 6 The ther
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The properties of
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The properties of
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The properties of
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The properties of
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The properties of
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The properties of
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The properties of
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The properties of
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An approach to the
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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The exergy of <str
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Summary of <strong
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Chapter 7 The time factor in <stron
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The exergy distance 229 However, an
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The tons of <stron
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The Hubbert peak applied to exergy
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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Conversion of exer
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Summary of <strong
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Summary of <strong
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Chapter 8 The exergy evolut
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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The exergy loss of
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A prediction of <s
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A prediction of <s
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A prediction of <s
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A prediction of <s
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A prediction of <s
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A prediction of <s
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A prediction of <s
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Final reflections 321 consequently
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Final reflections 323 problems are
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Final reflections 325 8.5.3 The nee
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Summary of <strong
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Summary of <strong
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332 CONCLUSIONS of
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334 CONCLUSIONS In the</str
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336 CONCLUSIONS is lost. Therefore,
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338 CONCLUSIONS According to our ca
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340 CONCLUSIONS which it is based w
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342 CONCLUSIONS have associated an
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344 CONCLUSIONS dation velocity, <s
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346 CONCLUSIONS fuel composition th
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348 CONCLUSIONS The main activity t
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Appendix A Additional calculations
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Input data. Mineralogical compositi
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Calculation of ave
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Calculation of ave
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Calculation of ave
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Calculation of ave
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Calculation of <st
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Estimation of <str
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Estimation of <str
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Estimation of <str
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Estimation of <str
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Estimation of <str
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Exergy calculation
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Exergy calculation
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Exergy calculation
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Australian fossil fuel production 4
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World’s fuel production 405 % <st
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World’s fuel production 407 A.8.4
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The Hubbert peak applied to world p
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Fuel consumption in the</st
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Nomenclature, Figures, Tables and R
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416 NOMENCLATURE ˙D : Minimum exer
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418 NOMENCLATURE T : Temperature [K
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420 NOMENCLATURE r w : River water
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422 LIST OF FIGURES 7.1 Conceptual
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424 LIST OF FIGURES 8.21 Actual exe
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426 LIST OF TABLES 3.6 Crustal abun
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428 LIST OF TABLES 8.6 Specific exe
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References [1] Abare. Energy update
Page 453 and 454:
433 [29] BGS. Minerals - what makes
Page 455 and 456:
435 [59] C. Cleveland and M. Ruth.
Page 457 and 458:
437 [87] ESPASA, editor. Encicloped
Page 459 and 460:
439 [115] P. H. Gleick. The world
Page 461 and 462:
441 [142] R. Höll, M. Kling, and E
Page 463 and 464:
443 [171] K. S. Johnson. Industrial
Page 465 and 466:
445 [200] J. Lovelock. The revenge
Page 467 and 468:
447 [227] T. Miyano and N. J. Beuke
Page 469 and 470:
449 [253] A. Ortiz. Desarrollo econ
Page 471 and 472:
451 [281] R. Rivero and M. Garfias.
Page 473 and 474:
453 [306] D. Shaw, G. Reilly, J. Mu
Page 475 and 476:
455 [330] V. Stepanov. Chemical ene
Page 477 and 478:
457 [357] M. Tranter. Treatise on G
Page 479 and 480:
459 [380] P. Vieillard. Modèle de
Page 481:
461 [406] M. J. Wilhelm and K. C. W
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Exergy evolution of the mineral capital on earth - circe

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