Encylodaedia Biblica; a critical dictionary of the literary, political and ...
Encylodaedia Biblica; a critical dictionary of the literary, political and ...
Encylodaedia Biblica; a critical dictionary of the literary, political and ...
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PHILOLOGUS PHINEHAS<br />
xiv. 106). Antony bestowed on Cleopatra <strong>the</strong> whole<br />
coast from <strong>the</strong> Egyptian desert to <strong>the</strong> Eleurherus except<br />
<strong>the</strong> cities Tyre<strong>and</strong> Sidon (36 B.c.; Plut. Ant. 36; Jos.<br />
BJ i. 185). Augustus (in 30 B. c. ) added to <strong>the</strong> kingdom<br />
<strong>of</strong> Herod Gaza, An<strong>the</strong>don, Joppa, <strong>and</strong> Strato’s Tower ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> last Herod rebuilt <strong>and</strong> named CEsarea. In <strong>the</strong><br />
division <strong>of</strong> Herods kingdom Gaza was put immediately<br />
under <strong>the</strong> governor <strong>of</strong> Syria ; <strong>the</strong> same disposition was<br />
made <strong>of</strong> Joppa <strong>and</strong> Caesarea when Archelaus was deposed<br />
(6 A.D.) ; Ashdod <strong>and</strong> Jamnia were given to<br />
Salomp; upon her death <strong>the</strong>ir revenues were paid to<br />
<strong>the</strong> empress Livia <strong>and</strong> subsequently to Tiberius (see<br />
Schurer, WYN 278). Ashkelon enjoyed <strong>the</strong> privileges<br />
<strong>of</strong> a free city during all <strong>the</strong>se changes, maintaining <strong>the</strong><br />
liberties it had gained in 104 R.C. In 66 A.D., at <strong>the</strong><br />
beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> war with Rome, <strong>the</strong> Jews in Czsarea<br />
were slaughtered by <strong>the</strong>ir fellow-townsmen, with <strong>the</strong><br />
connivance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> procurator, Gessius F1orus.l In<br />
revenge <strong>the</strong> insurgents set fire to Ptolemais <strong>and</strong> Ashkelon.<br />
<strong>and</strong> demolished An<strong>the</strong>don <strong>and</strong> Gaza,2 with many<br />
unwalled towns in <strong>the</strong> country (B/ ii. 18 I). Joppa was<br />
taken by <strong>the</strong> Romans under Cestius Gallus <strong>and</strong> its<br />
Jewish population massacred (B/ ii. 18 IO) : it was reoccupied<br />
by <strong>the</strong> Jews (see B/ ii. ZO4), who held it until<br />
its destruction by Vespasian (BJiii. 928).<br />
After <strong>the</strong> destruction <strong>of</strong> Jerusalem in 70, Jamnia,<br />
which since <strong>the</strong> Asmonzean times had been inhabited<br />
chiefly by Jews, <strong>and</strong> Lydda became <strong>the</strong> seats <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
most famous Jewish schools: <strong>and</strong> in <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r towns<br />
<strong>of</strong> this region <strong>the</strong>re was a considerable Jewish popnlation,<br />
among whom Jewish Christians are frequently<br />
mentioned.<br />
Calmet, ‘ Dissertatio de origine et nominihus Philistrearum,‘<br />
in Proleg. et dissertt., etc., ed. Mansi, 11%-189: Movers Die<br />
Ph#nizier, 13J 273 (1841) ; Ber<strong>the</strong>au: Zur<br />
20. Literature. Gesch. deer Isrueliten, 186-2m, 280-285, 306-<br />
308, 354J (1842); Hit& Urgesch. Y. My<br />
thol. der Pplistiier (1845); (;VI 1368 izos etc. (1869);<br />
A. Arnold, Philister’ in Ersch u. Gruber’s Encyklopadie,<br />
Sect. iii. 23 321-329 ; A. Knohel, Volkeytnfel der Genesis, 98,<br />
208fl, zr53 (1850); Stark, Gana u. die philistdische Kiisfe<br />
(1852); [older literature in full fl 31j: 244 3353 5038<br />
61rJ:l; A. Baur, ‘ Philister’ in Ri)el?m’s HWB; cp DerPr<strong>of</strong>hct<br />
Amos, 76-94 (1847); Kohler, Bib. Gesch. 181,s (1875): De<br />
Goeje, Het tiende Ho<strong>of</strong>dstuk van Genesis, ThT 42338,<br />
especially 2578 (1870) ; Fr. W., Schultz, ‘,Philister ’ in PREP)<br />
11618.656 (1883) ; Kneucker, Philistaer in Schenkel’s BL<br />
4541.559: ‘Ewald GVf@) 13483 (18,64) 3428 etc. (1866);<br />
Schwally, Die dasse der Phihstler, ZWT34 1033 (r891);<br />
Ehers, Aegypten unddie Biicher Mosis, 1308 (1868) : Prugsch,<br />
Egy$tundev <strong>the</strong> Pharaohs, ch. 148 (1881); W. M. Muller, As.<br />
u. Eur. ch. 26-29 (1893) : ‘Die Urheimat der Philister’ : ‘ Der<br />
Papyrus Golenischeff’ : ‘ Die Chronologie der Philistereinw<strong>and</strong>erung,’<br />
in MVG vol. 5 ‘pt. I (IP) i ,H. Winckler, GI1 216s<br />
(1895); W. J. Beecher, Philintmes, in Hastings’ DB 3844-848;<br />
Schiirer, G/V(31 2 5s 22J etc. G. F. M.<br />
PHILOLOGUS (@l,4oAoroc), greeted in Rom. 1615,<br />
toge<strong>the</strong>r with JULIA [q.”.]. It IS a common slavename,<br />
<strong>and</strong> occurs not unfrequently in <strong>the</strong> inscriptions<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> imperial household (CIL64116, etc). According<br />
to Pseudo-Hippolytus he was one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> seventy disciples,<br />
<strong>and</strong> tradition makes him bishop <strong>of</strong> Sinope.<br />
PHILOSOPHY. See HELLENISM, WISDOM LITERA-<br />
TURE.<br />
PHINEES. I. I Esd. 55 2 Esd. 1 zb, also I Esd. 8228<br />
= Ezra7 5 8 I PHINEHAS ($ 3), I.<br />
2. I Esd.531, KVPhinoe=Eera249 PASEAH, 2.<br />
3. I Esd.863=Ezra833 PHINEHAS, 3.<br />
4. 2 Esd. 12a. See PHINEHAS, 2.<br />
PHINEHAS (D?!’?, once by!& IS. 13; @[E]INEEC<br />
[BAFL]).<br />
The name is very un-Hebraic, <strong>and</strong> since <strong>the</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>of</strong> Phinehas ben Eleazar is described (Ex. 635) as one<br />
1. Is <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> daughters <strong>of</strong> Putiel (cp Poti-<br />
Eggptian or phera‘), it is plausible to seek for<br />
Hebrew? an Egyptian origin. Hence Lauth<br />
(ZDMG 25 [1871], 139), followed by<br />
Nestle (Eigennamen. 112 [1876]), <strong>and</strong> formerly by<br />
1 See also <strong>the</strong> slaughterat Ashkelon <strong>and</strong> Ptolemais, SJii. 185.<br />
2 In <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> Gaza, at least, this demolition can have been<br />
but partial ; see Schiirer, 288.<br />
3727<br />
Cheyne (Proph. 144), explained Phinehas as ‘ <strong>the</strong><br />
negro,’ <strong>the</strong> corresponding Egyptian form being wellattested<br />
(see § 2). All such <strong>the</strong>ories, however, seem<br />
to be inferior in probability to <strong>the</strong> rival hypo<strong>the</strong>sis.<br />
The present writer ventures to think that, if <strong>the</strong> name were<br />
Egyptian, it must have honorific meaning. We might perhaps<br />
suppose on19 to he an early corruption <strong>of</strong> my9, which in nj9y<br />
(ZAPHNATH-PAANEAH) may he a misvocalisation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Egyptian name Pianhi (or some similar form); 0 <strong>and</strong> y were<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten confounded. But considering that <strong>the</strong> evidence before<br />
us (see MOSES, B 6) seems to favour a N. Arabian origin for<br />
Moses <strong>and</strong> his relatives, <strong>and</strong> that ‘ Phinehas’ in <strong>the</strong> Hexateuch<br />
is <strong>the</strong> name not only <strong>of</strong> an individual, hut also <strong>of</strong> a hill wit:<br />
which not ;he individual hut his fa<strong>the</strong>r (though ‘Eleazar<br />
really’comes from a clankme) is associated,’ also that <strong>the</strong><br />
J.evites certainly had Jerahmeelite affinities, <strong>and</strong> that <strong>the</strong> fa<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> second Phinehas bears a name which is prohahly a mutilation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Jerahmeel, it becomes more probable that onj~ is to<br />
be explained as a mutilated <strong>and</strong> corrupt form (through iring) <strong>of</strong><br />
(Jerahme’el). The name Jerahme’el could <strong>of</strong> course be<br />
5fl~ni-<br />
given both to an individual <strong>and</strong> to a locality. Cp TIMNATH-<br />
HERES. PUTIEL (cp note 3 below), is & with <strong>the</strong> afformative<br />
It is possible, however, that Putiel <strong>and</strong> POTIPHERA (q.~.)<br />
5 ~ .<br />
were early explained as = ‘ devoted to El,’ or ‘ to Re‘.’ On <strong>the</strong><br />
supposed Ephraimite connection <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> second Phinehas see<br />
SHILOH, <strong>and</strong> note that ‘Epirraim’ is not nnfrequently a corruption<br />
<strong>of</strong> ‘ Jerahmeel’ (e.g., Judg. 17 I 191 I S. 1 I).<br />
T. K. C.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> assumption, however, that <strong>the</strong> name Phinehas<br />
is <strong>of</strong> Egyptian origin <strong>the</strong> following details deserve<br />
2. a second consideration.<br />
It seems to st<strong>and</strong> for Egyptian<br />
answer to <strong>the</strong> pe(’)-n&ssi,2 later without <strong>the</strong> vocalic<br />
question.<br />
ending, in Coptic letters ~ E N ~ H(cp C<br />
Ptoemphnneis, Ptol. iv. 7 34, mutilated Ptemphe, Plin.<br />
6 192, ‘ <strong>the</strong> country <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> negro ’).<br />
The r <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> biblical punctuation could he an archaic rendering<br />
<strong>of</strong> E, which st<strong>and</strong>s mostly for old 2. The fact that <strong>the</strong><br />
article is <strong>of</strong>ten written @:i or even p&~, Liehl. 884 add.) like <strong>the</strong><br />
demonstrative must not be misunderstood : it is only an attempt<br />
at expressing <strong>the</strong> helping sound 6 before two double consonants<br />
notwithst<strong>and</strong>ing <strong>the</strong> biblical I-a scriptio plena which<br />
seems io show that <strong>the</strong> name was felt to be foreign. The<br />
meaning ‘<strong>the</strong> negro’ does not imply black skin, <strong>the</strong> designation<br />
n(e)&siapplying also to all brownish Hamitic tribes <strong>of</strong><br />
Eastern Africa (WMM, As. u. Eur. 112). Therefore, <strong>the</strong> name<br />
means nothing hut ‘a child <strong>of</strong> darker (brunette) corn lexion.’<br />
The name hegins to appear in dynasty 18 <strong>and</strong> gecomes<br />
most frequent in dynasty 19 to 21. By <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> dynasty<br />
26 (ahout 666 B.c.) it seems to he rare, if not ,obsolete. It<br />
was superseded by P-ek6S (mxucis), ‘<strong>the</strong> Cushite.<br />
W. M. M.<br />
I. Son <strong>of</strong> Eleazar<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong> daughters <strong>of</strong> Putiel.8<br />
He is mentioned as accomnanvine <strong>the</strong> Israelites aeainst<br />
Midian (Nu.316 fl), <strong>and</strong> as sent to<br />
o&t:yEe. admonish <strong>the</strong> trans-Jordanic Israelites<br />
for erecting <strong>the</strong>ir altar bv <strong>the</strong> lordan<br />
L , <<br />
(Jos.221330 8). He is, however, more especially<br />
renowned for his zeal <strong>and</strong> energy at Shittim in <strong>the</strong><br />
matter <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Midianitess COZRI (q.~., Nu. 256 fl),<br />
to which repeated allusion is made in later Judaism, cp<br />
Ps. lO630f. I Macc. 226 (@vews [A]) <strong>and</strong> Ecclus. 4523.<br />
The story (<strong>the</strong> opening <strong>of</strong> which is lost) is a later<br />
addition by P to <strong>the</strong> already composite 251-5 (JE), <strong>and</strong><br />
is probably an artificial attempt to antedate <strong>and</strong> foreshadow<br />
<strong>the</strong> zealous endeavours <strong>of</strong> Nehemiah to purify<br />
<strong>the</strong> remnants <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jewish Gdah (cp Bertholet, SfeZhng<br />
a?. ZsraeZifen, 147). See NUMBERS, 5 7? <strong>and</strong> Oxford<br />
Hex. ad 106.<br />
1 On <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> Josh. 19 50 we may assume that <strong>the</strong> hill<br />
<strong>of</strong> Phinehas (Jerahmeel) in Josh. 24 33 was traditionally<br />
assigned to Eleazar. Originally, however, 71~5~ must have<br />
been $~[*ly~y ; i.e., it was a clan-name.<br />
r\\7$+<br />
2 Written mostly &a 3 For a view <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> name Putiel which implies two stages in<br />
<strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> name, see above, I. According to <strong>the</strong><br />
ordinary view. <strong>the</strong> second <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two stages represents <strong>the</strong><br />
entire history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> name. Both views are illustrated hy <strong>the</strong><br />
fact that in Eg.-Aram. inscriptions <strong>and</strong> papyri <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fifth <strong>and</strong><br />
fourth century B.C. ~19, ‘devoted to,’ appears in <strong>the</strong> form ED,<br />
e.g., 3 ~ ~ (‘<strong>of</strong> ~ 1Isis,’etc.). 9 An earlier example is , i ~ ~ ~ Gk. ( i n<br />
inscr. rrarourprs) in an inscription found at Teima in Aiahia<br />
(CIS ii. no. 113).<br />
3728
PHINEHAS PHCENICIA<br />
The importance <strong>of</strong> Phinehas in P lies in <strong>the</strong> fact that he is in (I) is an image <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> son <strong>of</strong> Eli is denied however by<br />
<strong>the</strong> direct line from Aaron, <strong>and</strong> hence (as <strong>the</strong> fa<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> Ahishua)<br />
enters into <strong>the</strong> genealogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> high- riests (I Ch. 6 4 [5 301 50<br />
We. (ProI.('j 142), but thme are at all events certain<br />
[6 351 Ezra 7 5= I Esd. 8 2 2 Ksd. 126 Phrnees). The Chronicler considerations which point to a connection between <strong>the</strong><br />
moreover, speaks <strong>of</strong> him as <strong>the</strong> ruler over <strong>the</strong> porters 'in tim; two. The names Eli, Hophni, <strong>and</strong> Phinehas are <strong>of</strong><br />
past' (I Ch. 9 20). In <strong>the</strong> days <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 'return ' <strong>the</strong> h'ne Phinehas <strong>the</strong> same un-Hebraic cast as Moses <strong>and</strong> Gershom, <strong>and</strong><br />
form one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> priestly classes (Ezra 8 z= I Esd. 5 5 8 29, +pas<br />
[B;, PHIHRES), at <strong>the</strong> head <strong>of</strong> whom st<strong>and</strong>s Gershom (see (unless we have recourse to emendation) find <strong>the</strong>ir only<br />
GERSHOM, GERSHON).<br />
explanation from Egyptian, or from S. Palestinian<br />
Like his fa<strong>the</strong>r Eleazar, Phinehas rarely appears dialects (Sabrean, Sinaitic, etc.) ; <strong>the</strong> tradition in I S. 2 27<br />
previous to P. In Judg.2028 <strong>the</strong> statement that he (although due to RD ; see We., I.c. ) seems, moreover, to<br />
stood before Yahwb in <strong>the</strong> days <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Judges is no connect <strong>the</strong> house <strong>of</strong> Eli with Moses (cp also Jochebed<br />
doubt a gloss (cp SHILOH) ; <strong>the</strong> whole chapter in its <strong>and</strong> Phinehas' son ICHABOD [q.~.]).' The relation <strong>of</strong><br />
present form is post-exilic. (Cp Moore, Judges, 434, Phinehas b. Eli to Phinehas <strong>the</strong> gr<strong>and</strong>son <strong>of</strong> Aarnn<br />
<strong>and</strong> see JUDGES, 5 13.) Ancient, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, finds an analogy in <strong>the</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> Eliezer <strong>and</strong> tiershoni<br />
is <strong>the</strong> announcement affixed to Jos. 24 (G) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> death b'ne Moses compared with Eleazar <strong>and</strong> Gershon bne<br />
<strong>of</strong> Eleazar <strong>and</strong> his burial in <strong>the</strong> GIBEAH OF PHINEHAS Aaron.2 The conjecture is perhaps a plausible one that<br />
[q.n.] which wa given to Phinehas in <strong>the</strong> hill-country <strong>the</strong> ' stone <strong>of</strong> help' (Eben-ezer) in I S. 4 has some connec<strong>of</strong><br />
Ephriain (n. 33). @BAL adds also that Phinehas tion with <strong>the</strong> grave <strong>of</strong> Eleazar (Josh. 24 32). also <strong>the</strong> burialhimself<br />
was afterwards buried in <strong>the</strong> same ' Gibeah ' place <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Aaronite Phinehas; note <strong>the</strong> explanation<br />
(PY yaaaap [-a0 [A], y~ paap, L] TG [yi Bab] law& <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> name in I S. 712.<br />
[baud A]) : Dt. 106 (Eleazar succeeds Aaron at 3. Eleazar b. Phinehas, a priest temp. Ezra (Ezra 8 33= I Esd.<br />
863, PHINEER).<br />
Moserah) is probably also E.<br />
T.K.C.,$I; W.M.M.,$2; S.A.C..§3.<br />
2. Phinehas b. Eli2 <strong>and</strong> his bro<strong>the</strong>r HOPHNI [p.~.]<br />
were 'sons <strong>of</strong> Belial ' who, for <strong>the</strong>ir wickedness <strong>and</strong> PHINOE (+!NO€), I Esd. 531 RV, AV PHIXEES;<br />
wantonness towards <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>f'erers <strong>of</strong> sacrifices. incurred See PASEAH, 2.<br />
<strong>the</strong> wrath <strong>of</strong> Yahwk <strong>and</strong> perished toge<strong>the</strong>r at Eben-ezer<br />
when <strong>the</strong> ark was taken by <strong>the</strong> Philistines (I S. 1-4).<br />
PHISON (+[E]ICWN<br />
PISHON. See PISON.<br />
[BKA]), Ecclus. 2425 AV, RV<br />
Thz son <strong>of</strong> Phinehas born upon that fateful day receives<br />
<strong>the</strong> name ICHABOD [g.u.] .<br />
According to Budde's analysis (SSOT), <strong>the</strong> old narrative in<br />
I S. 4 related <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ark without fur<strong>the</strong>r comment ;<br />
it, is a later writer (E?) who in 2J ascribes <strong>the</strong> disa-ter to <strong>the</strong><br />
wickedness <strong>of</strong> Eli's sons <strong>and</strong> to <strong>the</strong>ir fa<strong>the</strong>r's laxity (esp. 3 146),<br />
<strong>and</strong> finally it is a Dt. writer who lays even greater stress<br />
upon <strong>the</strong>ir iniquity <strong>and</strong> actually foreshadows <strong>the</strong>ir fate. There<br />
is much to be said, however, in favour <strong>of</strong> H. P. Smith's<br />
view that I S. 212.17 22-25 rz7-36 ?I, 416-71 is a fragment<br />
<strong>of</strong> an independent history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Elida This torso (which<br />
is already composite) contains two peculiarities : (a) <strong>the</strong><br />
association <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> family with Moses, <strong>and</strong> (6) <strong>the</strong> prominence <strong>of</strong><br />
Shiloh. It may, <strong>the</strong>refore, be conjectured that this narrative<br />
formerly stood in <strong>the</strong> closest connection with ano<strong>the</strong>r in Judg.<br />
1Sl: where, too, a descendant <strong>of</strong> Moses <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> foundation <strong>of</strong> a<br />
shrine (perhap5 in <strong>the</strong> original story that not <strong>of</strong> Dan but <strong>of</strong><br />
Shiloh) play an important part.3 The Mosaic associations <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> unique description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> power <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ark (I S. 458) may<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r suggest that <strong>the</strong> narrative is a fragment <strong>of</strong> that account<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Exodus a trace <strong>of</strong> which survives in Nu. 10 29-36 (itself<br />
also coiuposite); cp EXODUS i., $ 5 8 , KADESH, $ 3.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r son, Ahitub, was <strong>the</strong> fa<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> Ahiah<br />
(=Ahin~elech),~ who appears as a priest in <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong><br />
Saul (I S.143).5 It is a remarkable fact that <strong>the</strong><br />
PHLEaON (@AErWN) is saluted in Rom.1614.<br />
Cp ROMANS (EPISTLE). His name occurs in <strong>the</strong><br />
apocryphal lists <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 'seventy' given by Pseudo-<br />
Doro<strong>the</strong>us <strong>and</strong> Pseudo- Hippolytus. Tradition made<br />
him bishop <strong>of</strong> Marathon, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Greek church commemorates<br />
his martyrdom on April 8th.<br />
PHGBE (+oIBH), <strong>the</strong> 'sister,' 'deaconess' (RVmg. :<br />
AIAKONOC) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> church at Cenchreae, who, according<br />
to Rom. ISxJ, had been a 'helper [or 'patroness'] <strong>of</strong><br />
many,' includiug <strong>the</strong> writer. See fur<strong>the</strong>r, ROMANS <strong>and</strong><br />
(for <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> her diaconate) DEACON.<br />
PHENICIA.<br />
CONTENTS.<br />
Names ($ I).<br />
Trade, art, navigation ($8 7-9).<br />
Origin <strong>and</strong> nationality (5 2). Religion (gp TO-15).<br />
Beginning <strong>of</strong> history ($ 3). Constitution ($ 16).<br />
List <strong>of</strong> towns (g 4). Sources ($5 17).<br />
Egyptian dominion ($ 5). History (Bli 18-22).<br />
Phcenician colonies (5 6). Bibliography ($ 23).<br />
famoiis line <strong>of</strong> priests from Eli to Abiathar is ignored in By <strong>the</strong> Phenicians are meant <strong>the</strong> inhabitants <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> later genealogies, with <strong>the</strong> curious exception <strong>of</strong><br />
2 Esd. 1 I, where Phinehas b. Heli ( =Eli) <strong>and</strong> Phinehas<br />
commercial coast towns <strong>of</strong> Canaan. The name is <strong>of</strong><br />
1. Names. Greek origin. For a long time its protob.<br />
Eleazar occur in <strong>the</strong> ancestry <strong>of</strong> Ezra (see GENEA-<br />
type was thought to have been found in <strong>the</strong><br />
LOGIES i., § 7 [4]).<br />
Egyptian Fen&-u ( vocalisation unknown), hut it has<br />
An interesting question arises as to <strong>the</strong> precise since been shown (notably by W. M. Muller, Ar. u.<br />
relation between Phinehas (I) <strong>and</strong> (2). The latter, EUY. 208J) that this Egyptian word is not <strong>the</strong> name<br />
according to MT an Ephraimite, seems to disappear <strong>of</strong> a nation but a poetical designation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> (Asiatic)<br />
from history only to be represented in a later age by <strong>the</strong> barbarians-possibly indeed only a traditional scribal<br />
former, a shadowy <strong>and</strong> unreal character whom also error for Fehu. The name Qoivr$ is ra<strong>the</strong>r a Gk.<br />
tradition connects with Ephraim. At all events <strong>the</strong> derivative from @OLY~S, ' blood-red,' with <strong>the</strong> common<br />
iniquity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ephraimite son <strong>of</strong> Eli (cp esp. I S.<br />
2 226) is amply atoned for in later tradition by <strong>the</strong> zeal<br />
(cp esp. Nu.256fl) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> younger namesake. That<br />
1 Pr<strong>of</strong>. Cheyne, however, proposes to read 'Gibeah <strong>of</strong><br />
Jerahmeel,' regarding both ' Phinehas' <strong>and</strong> 'Eleazar' as corru<br />
tions <strong>of</strong> clan-names (see $ I).<br />
1: Eli's origin is not given, no doubt because he was previously<br />
mentioned in <strong>the</strong> longer narrative <strong>of</strong> which I S. 18 in its<br />
present form is an excerpt. Marq. (Fund. I Z ~ recognises ) <strong>the</strong><br />
traces <strong>of</strong> a double tradition in <strong>the</strong> very full notices given in v. T<br />
(see ELKANAH i., JEROHAM i. SAMUEL). Is ZI. I a confused<br />
combination <strong>of</strong> marginal notes kiving <strong>the</strong> parentage <strong>and</strong> origin<br />
<strong>of</strong> both Elkanah (a. I) <strong>and</strong> Eli (u. 3) ? [Note, however, <strong>the</strong> view<br />
respecting <strong>the</strong> name Eli in B I <strong>and</strong> compare SHII.OH.]<br />
3 For a parallel but somiwhat different <strong>the</strong>ory depending<br />
old suffix, -LK.<br />
The name Phcenix is by no means rare in <strong>the</strong> ancient Grecian<br />
world as a place-name indicating <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> a reddish<br />
colour. Thus <strong>the</strong>re was a brook Phcenix near Thermopyk, a<br />
mount Phcenix in Baeotia <strong>and</strong> in Caria, a town Phcenikk in<br />
Epirus, <strong>and</strong> so on (cp Meyer GA 2, $i gzjwhere it is out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
question to suppose that ' Ptkenician ' settlements are meant.<br />
'This name was given by <strong>the</strong> Greeks to <strong>the</strong> Canaanite<br />
seafaring men, as well as to <strong>the</strong> most highly-prized <strong>of</strong><br />
all <strong>the</strong>ir imports, purple, <strong>and</strong> to <strong>the</strong> palm, which was<br />
likewise introduced by <strong>the</strong>m (first at Delos, Od. 6103).<br />
Probably @obt[ denoted first <strong>the</strong> purple, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong><br />
' purple-men,' <strong>and</strong> finally <strong>the</strong> tree <strong>the</strong>y imported.<br />
1 The identification <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se names has been also made by<br />
Wellh. CHPl 371 (1899). See also ICHABOD, JOCHEBED.<br />
on emended texts see MICAH SHILOH ' cp also MOSES.<br />
4 Pr<strong>of</strong>. Cheyne'has suggedd that bdth Ahiah <strong>and</strong> Ahimelech<br />
may be popular corruptions <strong>of</strong> Jerahmeel.<br />
5 The statement, perha s, does not helong to <strong>the</strong> original<br />
document (J). It has notling to do with <strong>the</strong> chapter, <strong>and</strong> is<br />
more probably a gloss introduced on account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ' priest' in<br />
zm. 19 366.<br />
3729<br />
2 If Eli's genealogy has indeed found its way into I S. 1 I (see<br />
5 2, n. I, above), we might venture to find a trace <strong>of</strong> it in<br />
mi* 11, which name is no o<strong>the</strong>r than Jerahmeel. Eli may have<br />
been a Jerahmeelite ; <strong>the</strong> relation between <strong>the</strong> Kenites, Jerah-<br />
meelites, <strong>and</strong> &her clans <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> south appears to have heen a<br />
Close One (See JEKAHLIEEL, 5 3).<br />
3730
PHCENICIA P H CE N I C I A<br />
The Greek genealogic poetry provided <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians with The long prevailing derivation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> name Phcenicia from <strong>the</strong><br />
an eponym-Phcenix king <strong>of</strong> Sidon,-who was identified with a Egyptian Punt (Lepsius), a l<strong>and</strong> that was located by older<br />
Cretan god <strong>and</strong> hero Phoinix, whose daughter Europa, origin- writers in S. Arabia, is quite impossible. The Egyptian Punt<br />
al1.y a Bceotian <strong>and</strong> Cretan goddess, thus became a Sidonian is <strong>the</strong> incense-bearing Somali-coa5t in Africa whose inhabitants<br />
princess. For what reason Cadmus, <strong>the</strong> son <strong>of</strong> Agenor <strong>the</strong> (Eg. Punti, Lepsius wrongly PUM) have dothing whatever to<br />
eponym <strong>and</strong> founder <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cadmeia <strong>of</strong> Thehes, was made <strong>the</strong> do with Pceni, Qoiurrss.<br />
bro<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> Phcenix we do not know: he had at any rate, The Phoenicians <strong>the</strong>mselves reckoned <strong>the</strong>ir l<strong>and</strong> to<br />
nothing to do with Phmnicia. At a still later'time Cadmus<br />
became <strong>the</strong> bro<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> Europa which resulted in <strong>the</strong> latter's Canaan (for <strong>the</strong> evidence, see CANAAN, I), <strong>and</strong> with<br />
becoming <strong>the</strong> daughter <strong>of</strong> Aienor, <strong>and</strong> her fa<strong>the</strong>r Phcenix perfect justice. They are, in fact, a branch <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
becoming her bro<strong>the</strong>r. A fur<strong>the</strong>r analysis <strong>of</strong> this legend does Canaanites, which, at <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time<br />
not belong here; cp Meyer, (;A 2933 The Latin Pcenus is historidly known to us (about 1500 B.c.), had occupied<br />
prohahly ra<strong>the</strong>r a contraction <strong>of</strong> ' Phoinix' than an older form<br />
without <strong>the</strong> suffix.<br />
many places on <strong>the</strong> coast, while <strong>the</strong> intermediate region<br />
Kaft, which frequently occurs in <strong>the</strong> Egyptian inwas<br />
still in <strong>the</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> an Amorite population (cp<br />
scriptions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> New Empire, passed for a long time<br />
AMORITES, CANAAN).^<br />
as ano<strong>the</strong>r old name for Phoenicia; %OW~K~ is thus<br />
One evidence <strong>of</strong> this is supplied by <strong>the</strong> Phcenician<br />
rendered in <strong>the</strong> hieroglyphic text in <strong>the</strong> bilingual decree<br />
language, which differs only dialectically from <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>of</strong> Canopus. There are cogent reasons, however, for<br />
Canaanite dialects known to us (Hebrew <strong>and</strong> Moabite) ;<br />
rejecting this view, <strong>and</strong> seeking for Kaft outside <strong>the</strong><br />
see WRITING. Though it exhibits in many instances a<br />
younger vocabulary (e.g., in>, to give, ih, God), it has<br />
Semitic world, perhaps in Cilicia (cp CAPHTOR, 4).<br />
The name may be connected with <strong>the</strong> enigmatical name<br />
frequently retained older grammatical forms <strong>and</strong> words<br />
JAPHETH [q.~.], <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gk. 'I&mros (<strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> a<br />
which in Hebrew have become obsolete.2<br />
Cilician god, in Steph. Byz., S.V. "AGaua <strong>and</strong> 'Ayx~dXq).<br />
In fact it was simply <strong>the</strong> difference between <strong>the</strong><br />
In <strong>the</strong> OT <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians generally are named<br />
conditions <strong>of</strong> life <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> coast-l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
nm*x, Sidonians; for instance Itoba'al, king <strong>of</strong> Tyre,<br />
interior, that gradually separated <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians from<br />
is called ' King <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sidonians' in I K. 1631 ; cp<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir fellows who had settled far<strong>the</strong>r inl<strong>and</strong>-much in<br />
<strong>the</strong> same way<br />
Judg.1061~ 187 rK.5~0<br />
as <strong>the</strong> Dutch were severed from <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
111533 zK.2313; <strong>and</strong> in<br />
<strong>the</strong> genealcgy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> nations, Gen. 101s (cp Judg. 33=<br />
N. Germans. Their different historical development,<br />
Josh. 134-6). In <strong>the</strong> same way King Hiram 11. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> above all <strong>the</strong> occupation <strong>of</strong> Palestine by <strong>the</strong><br />
Tyre is called in an inscription pnx ~SD, ' King <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Israelites, enlarged <strong>the</strong> breach.<br />
Sidonians,' <strong>and</strong> on coins <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> Antiochus IV.<br />
As to <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenician tawns we possess no<br />
Tyre is called ojlx ow, ' <strong>the</strong> metropolis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sidonians<br />
information. for <strong>of</strong> course no historical value attaches to<br />
'<br />
-Le., Phcenicians. In Homer <strong>the</strong> Phoenicians are<br />
3. Commence- <strong>the</strong> statement <strong>of</strong> Africanus (in Syn<strong>of</strong>ten<br />
called ZdJvm (Il. 6290 Od.<br />
merit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cellus, 31) that <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians said<br />
15118 4618), <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
l<strong>and</strong> Zdovlq (11.6291 Od. 1328s) ; but %OiVlK€S is also<br />
<strong>the</strong>y had a historical tradition reaching<br />
history.<br />
back for 20.0oo years. Far more<br />
found (IZ. 23 743 f: ; Od. 13 272 14 288 j? 15 415 8).<br />
Both names occur toge<strong>the</strong>r in <strong>the</strong> celebrated verses<br />
moderate is <strong>the</strong> assertion -<strong>of</strong> Herodotus (244) that,<br />
concerning Menelaus' w<strong>and</strong>erings (Od. 4845 ). The<br />
according to native tradition, Tyre <strong>and</strong> its temple <strong>of</strong><br />
Hercules had been founded 2300 years previouslyname<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> town Sidon is found in Od. 15425. From<br />
<strong>the</strong> fact that Sidon, not Tyre, is mentioned, we must<br />
Le., about 2730 B.C. Even in this, however, no one<br />
not draw <strong>political</strong> conclusions as some have done;<br />
will venture to find a real tradition. According to<br />
through <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ethnic name 'Sidonian'<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r statement <strong>the</strong> founding <strong>of</strong> Tyre was much later.<br />
<strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> Sidon was familiar to <strong>the</strong> Greeks at an<br />
Justin (182) relates that for a long time after <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
earlier time than that <strong>of</strong> Tyre, although <strong>the</strong> latter was<br />
immigration (see above, § 2) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> founding <strong>of</strong> Sidon<br />
<strong>the</strong>n much <strong>the</strong> more important. Roman poets, too,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Phcenicians lived on <strong>the</strong> coast, but that being <strong>the</strong>n<br />
overcome<br />
frequently we ' Sidonius' (as a synonym for ' Pcenus ')<br />
(ezpugRati) by <strong>the</strong> king <strong>of</strong> Ashkelon, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
in <strong>the</strong> sense <strong>of</strong> ' Phcenician' (cp Ovid, Fasf. 3108 etc. ).<br />
took to <strong>the</strong>ir ships, <strong>and</strong> founded Tyre <strong>the</strong> year before<br />
A precise definition <strong>of</strong> Phcenicia can hardly be given.<br />
<strong>the</strong> fall <strong>of</strong> Troy. To what year <strong>the</strong> latter event is<br />
assigned here cannot be ga<strong>the</strong>red from <strong>the</strong> context ; but<br />
The boundaries assigned by Herodotus, Scylax, Straho,<br />
when we find in Men<strong>and</strong>er <strong>of</strong> Ephesus, <strong>the</strong> historian<br />
Pliny, <strong>and</strong> Ptolemy vary greatly. The last-mentioned<br />
(v. 154) reckons Phoenicia from <strong>the</strong> Eleu<strong>the</strong>rus to <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> Tyre, a Tyrian era that begins in <strong>the</strong> year 1198-7<br />
B.c.<br />
brook Chorseas S. <strong>of</strong> Dor. Accepting this view, we<br />
(Jos. Ant.viii.31, 5 62, c. A$. i. 18. 8 126; <strong>and</strong><br />
may describe Phcenicia as <strong>the</strong> coast-l<strong>and</strong> at <strong>the</strong> foot <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>nce Eus. a. Ah. 745) we may regard it as almost<br />
certain that this is <strong>the</strong> epoch intended. Now it was at<br />
Lebanon <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hill-country <strong>of</strong> Galilee down to<br />
this time that <strong>the</strong>re occurred <strong>the</strong> great movement among<br />
Carmel. Marathus <strong>and</strong> Arados, however, lie N. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> nations which resulted in <strong>the</strong> occupation <strong>of</strong> Ashkelon<br />
this territory, <strong>and</strong> in <strong>the</strong> S. <strong>the</strong> border is fluctuating<br />
<strong>and</strong> arbitrary. The impossibility <strong>of</strong> fixing a definite<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> neighbouring places by <strong>the</strong> PHILISTINES (q.~.)<br />
boundary line between <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>and</strong> also affected <strong>the</strong> Phcenician cities (see 5 5). It<br />
is possible, <strong>the</strong>refore, that <strong>the</strong> statement <strong>of</strong> Justin<br />
Canaanites is specially obvious in <strong>the</strong> more remote<br />
<strong>and</strong> Men<strong>and</strong>er's era preserve a recollection <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
times before <strong>the</strong> settlement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Israelites <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Philistines. The limits above assigned correspond<br />
events. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>the</strong> date may rest simply<br />
roughly to <strong>the</strong> name Zuhi<br />
on some chronological combination no longer known<br />
by which <strong>the</strong> Egyptians at<br />
to us. It is, at any rate, historically certain from<br />
<strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir conquests designated <strong>the</strong> Phcenician<br />
<strong>the</strong> Amarna tablets that, in <strong>the</strong> fifteenth century, <strong>the</strong><br />
coast (cp WMM, As. II. BUY. 1768). The origin <strong>of</strong><br />
isl<strong>and</strong>-city <strong>of</strong> Tyre was already extant, <strong>and</strong> one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
this name is unknown.<br />
most powerful cities <strong>of</strong> Phcenicia.<br />
Herodotiis relates that <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians, as <strong>the</strong>y <strong>the</strong>m-<br />
Whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> lists <strong>of</strong> Phcenician kings mentioned by later<br />
selves declare, were originally settled upon <strong>the</strong> ' Red ' I .<br />
writers (Tatian, adv. Crrpc. 37 ; Porphyry ap. Eus. Prrp). a.<br />
a. origin <strong>and</strong> Sea, <strong>and</strong> came <strong>the</strong>nce to <strong>the</strong> Syrian x. 9 12, from Sanchuniathon) possessed any value for <strong>the</strong> older<br />
nationality. coast (1 I 7 89): The ' Red ' Sea is <strong>of</strong><br />
period, is uncertain. If <strong>the</strong>re were any historical lists going<br />
course <strong>the</strong> Indian Ocean. more esDeci- 1 This is probable on <strong>the</strong> following ground. As late as <strong>the</strong><br />
ally <strong>the</strong> Persian Gulf. It would seem <strong>the</strong>refore-that last millennium B.c., new Phcenician towns were planted upon<br />
<strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn foot <strong>of</strong> Lebanon-Fbtrys under Hiram I. <strong>of</strong> Tyre,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re once was a Phoenician tradition which, like that Triplis probably not until <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Persians. How to<br />
in <strong>the</strong> OT, made <strong>the</strong>ir ancestors immigrants from account for <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> a (much mutilated) Phcenician<br />
Babylonia.<br />
inscription in N. S ria two hours W. <strong>of</strong> Zenjirli (Winckler<br />
AOfi 1305), is not ccar. The inscription belongs to <strong>the</strong> tim;<br />
* The story was afterwards fur<strong>the</strong>r embellished : support for about 750-700 B.C.<br />
it was found in <strong>the</strong> names <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> isl<strong>and</strong>s Tylos <strong>and</strong> Arados <strong>of</strong> a C Stade 'Erneute Priifung des zwischen dem Pbcen. u.<br />
Bahrein on <strong>the</strong> Persian Gulf (Straho, xvi. 3 4 zJ). On <strong>the</strong> story Heb. %esteheAde Venv<strong>and</strong>tschaftsgrades,' in Morgenl<strong>and</strong>isch<br />
<strong>of</strong> Trogus Pompeius, see SODOM AND GOMORRAH.<br />
30. rschungcn, 1874.<br />
3731<br />
3732
PHCENICIA PHCENICIA<br />
back to <strong>the</strong> second millennium or even far<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>the</strong>y must have 8. Berytus (Biruta in <strong>the</strong> pap. Anastani, Birutu <strong>and</strong> [much<br />
been written in cuneiform, which it is hardly likely that anyone more frequently] Biruna in <strong>the</strong> Amarna letters), <strong>the</strong> modern<br />
in later times could read.<br />
Beinif. In ancient times it was not an important place. In<br />
Should <strong>the</strong> Babylonian archives at any time give us <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Amarna letters it belonged originally to <strong>the</strong><br />
any au<strong>the</strong>ntic information regarding <strong>the</strong> expeditions<br />
principality <strong>of</strong> Byblos, <strong>and</strong> afterwards became independent ; it<br />
does not occur in <strong>the</strong> OT or in <strong>the</strong> Assyrian inscriptions.<br />
<strong>of</strong> Sargon <strong>and</strong> Naram-sin into Syria (according to 9. Byblos (Phmn. Gebal; see GEBAL, i.; Slj, Josh.135<br />
Nabonidus’ inscription about 3750 B.c.), we may I K. 5 32 Ezek. 27 g, Ass. Gublu, Egyptian Kujna), <strong>the</strong> seat <strong>of</strong><br />
expect to find that <strong>the</strong>re was in Phcenicia in <strong>the</strong> a great goddess, ‘<strong>the</strong> mistress <strong>of</strong> Bybl05 ’ (Baaltis), mentioned<br />
in pap. Anastasi <strong>and</strong> very <strong>of</strong>ten in <strong>the</strong> Amarna letters. Byblos<br />
fourth millennium a state <strong>of</strong> things more or less similar stood in relation with Egypt from very ancient times (see<br />
to what we find two thous<strong>and</strong> years later when <strong>the</strong> col. 3733, n. I), <strong>and</strong> always was one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> principal Phcenician<br />
Egyptians came to Asia. That <strong>the</strong> relations between towns ; it was in possession <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> greater part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> shore <strong>of</strong> Mt.<br />
Babylonia <strong>and</strong> Syria were exceedingly ancient <strong>and</strong><br />
Lebanon from Beirot northwards. In <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Armarna<br />
letters it was lord <strong>of</strong> Berytos <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> two o<strong>the</strong>r places on <strong>the</strong><br />
were never interrupted, is shown by <strong>the</strong> Amarna coast Sigata <strong>and</strong> Ambi. Southwards <strong>of</strong> Byblos runs <strong>the</strong> stream<br />
tablets ; presumably every great power which took Nah; Ihrlhim, <strong>the</strong> ancient Adonis, associated with <strong>the</strong> death<br />
shape in Babylon sought to extend its dominion over <strong>of</strong> ADONIS (q.v., g 2). At its sources lay <strong>the</strong> sacred Apheka,<br />
Syria as wall ; we know that this is true also <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> p~, Josh. 13 4 19 30 Judg. 131 (see APHEK, I). The town<br />
Elamite conquerors (about 2200 B.c.). Hence <strong>the</strong> use<br />
Tripolis is <strong>of</strong> much later origin (see below 5 21).<br />
IO. Arka at <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lebanon range on <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Babylonian language <strong>and</strong> script was familiar at plain <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Eleu<strong>the</strong>rus (Nahr el-Kebir), by which <strong>the</strong> main<br />
<strong>the</strong> court <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> Syrian princes whe<strong>the</strong>r Semitic or road led from <strong>the</strong> coast to <strong>the</strong> Orontes-valley. This route is<br />
not. It is specially, however, in <strong>the</strong> sphere <strong>of</strong> art <strong>and</strong> called by Thutmosis 111. ‘<strong>the</strong> coast-road,’ by which he attacks<br />
<strong>the</strong> town ‘Arkantu. This town can be no o<strong>the</strong>r than ‘Arka.<br />
religion that we can see how ancient <strong>and</strong> deeply-rooted In <strong>the</strong> Amarni tablets it is called Irkata <strong>and</strong> bas its own king;<br />
Babylonian influence was, <strong>and</strong> we shall find this to be <strong>the</strong> Assyrians call it Arka ; only Shalmaneser 11. uses <strong>the</strong> older<br />
<strong>the</strong> case in Phcenicia as well as elsewhere. But <strong>the</strong>re form Irkanata. In <strong>the</strong> OT ‘<strong>the</strong> Arkites,’ ’piyn, are mentioned<br />
must always have been close relations also with <strong>the</strong> in Gen.’lO 17 (see AXKITE).<br />
11. Simyra at <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Eleu<strong>the</strong>rus plain<br />
empire on <strong>the</strong> Nile.’<br />
(=Eg. Zama:, Ass. Sumun’ <strong>and</strong> Jinzirra), is <strong>of</strong>ten mentioned<br />
These long ages are, however, gone beyond recall. in <strong>the</strong> Amarna tablets : . <strong>the</strong> Simvrites. . vxm in Gen. 10 18 (see<br />
~ .<br />
Our information regarding <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> Syria, <strong>and</strong> ZEMARITE).<br />
12.<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore <strong>of</strong> Phcenicia. begins with <strong>the</strong> Egyptian con-<br />
Arados, on a small rock-isl<strong>and</strong> opposite Jebel No-iriye,<br />
in position <strong>and</strong> importance equal to Tyre, <strong>and</strong> already in <strong>the</strong><br />
quest in <strong>the</strong> sixteenth century. Even <strong>the</strong>n, however, Egyptian period one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> principal seafaring places <strong>of</strong> Syria.<br />
<strong>the</strong> details supplied by <strong>the</strong> triumphal inscriptions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Its Phmnician name was iiy~(, Arwid (now Ruiid), ~ im, Gen.<br />
victorious Pharaohs are meagre to <strong>the</strong> last degree ; it is 1018 Ezek. 278 11=Eg. Aratu(t), Ass. druada. See ARVAD.<br />
only <strong>the</strong> annals <strong>of</strong> Thutmosis 111. that yield somewhat<br />
Opposite to it lay a place called by <strong>the</strong> Greeks Antaradus<br />
(later Tortosa, now Tartfis) ; far<strong>the</strong>r southwards, Marathus<br />
fuller material, to which are to be added notices in (now ‘Arnrit) belonged to its territory. Marathusacquiredimport-<br />
Egyptian works, such as pre-eminently <strong>the</strong> papyrus ance <strong>and</strong> independence only in Hellenistic times (see below, D 22).<br />
Anastasi I. (see PALESTINE, J IS), where Phcenician ‘3. In Gen. 1017 between <strong>the</strong> people <strong>of</strong> ‘Arka <strong>and</strong> Arados are<br />
mentioned ‘3.~2, ‘<strong>the</strong> Sinites ’ <strong>the</strong> inhabitants <strong>of</strong> Sin (see<br />
(among o<strong>the</strong>r) places are named. Our store <strong>of</strong> facts SINITE). This town identifieh by Delitzscb (Par. 282) with<br />
receives important additions from <strong>the</strong> Amarna tablets. Sianu in <strong>the</strong> Assyriad inscriptions, IS not o<strong>the</strong>rwise known.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> centuries from <strong>the</strong> ninth to <strong>the</strong> seventh we<br />
have good information in <strong>the</strong> Assyrian inscriptions (cp The names <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dynasts <strong>of</strong> Tyre, Byblos, Arka, in<br />
Fr. Del., Wo Lag dus Paradies ? 281 j? ) ; <strong>and</strong>, more- <strong>the</strong> Amarna letters show that <strong>the</strong> inhabitants at that time<br />
over, most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenician towns are occasionally were Canaanites-ie., Phenicians. For Arados we<br />
mentioned in <strong>the</strong> OT.<br />
have no direct pro<strong>of</strong>; but its position is characteristic-<br />
From <strong>the</strong>se sources, we obtain <strong>the</strong> following list <strong>of</strong> ally Phoenician, <strong>and</strong> no one will doubt that, as in later<br />
Phcenician towns from Carmel northwards :-<br />
times (in <strong>the</strong> Assyrian inscriptions its kings have<br />
I. Acco (r>y, Judg. 131 : Josh. 19 30 corr. for Phoenician names), so already in <strong>the</strong> sixteenth century<br />
4. List <strong>of</strong> n~y), a separate principality in <strong>the</strong> Amarna it was inhabited by Phcenicians.<br />
Phcenician tablets. See PTOLEMAIS.<br />
The Pharaohs <strong>of</strong> Egypt began <strong>the</strong> conquests <strong>of</strong> Syria<br />
towns. 2. Akzib (y!>~, Egyptian ‘Aksaju, Ass. dk- at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sixteenth century, a short time after<br />
ei62). &ACHZIB.<br />
3. Mahalliba (so in Assyrian; 5>nn, in Josh.19ag [see<br />
<strong>the</strong> final expulsion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hyksos (see EGYPT,<br />
6.<br />
AHLAB, n.]; corrupted to 25nH in Judg. 131).<br />
Egyptian<br />
The 5s 538:). Thutmosis I. was <strong>the</strong> first who<br />
Akzib <strong>and</strong> Mahalliba do not occur in <strong>the</strong> Amarna letters: dominion. overran <strong>the</strong> whole <strong>of</strong> Syria to <strong>the</strong> banks <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>y were small towns probably belonging to one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Euphrates, <strong>and</strong> received <strong>the</strong> tribute <strong>of</strong><br />
neighbonring principalities.<br />
4. Kana (np, Jos. 19 z8)=Eg. Kana, a separate principality its dynasts. His son Thutmosis 111. (1503-1449), in his<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Amarna letters. See KANAH.<br />
twenty-second year, had to begin <strong>the</strong> conquest anew. He<br />
5. Tyre (ik, ‘<strong>the</strong> rock’ ; old Latin Sarra), on a rocky isl<strong>and</strong> first defeated <strong>the</strong> Canaanites in <strong>the</strong> battle <strong>of</strong> Megiddo, <strong>and</strong><br />
in <strong>the</strong> sea, about half an English mile (4 stadia) from <strong>the</strong> shore, <strong>the</strong>n conquered <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn parts <strong>of</strong> Syria. Thutmosis<br />
with an area <strong>of</strong> about 130 acres, without wells or vegetation<br />
In time <strong>of</strong> war, when <strong>the</strong> mainl<strong>and</strong> was in <strong>the</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> enemy: 111. is <strong>the</strong> founder <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> great Egyptian empire. Most<br />
<strong>the</strong> Tyrians had to depend on water from cisterns ; in ordinary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenician towns appear to have acknowledged his<br />
times <strong>the</strong> water supply was carried over in boats, as is already sovereignty without much fighting ; only Simyra <strong>and</strong><br />
mentioned in pap. Anastasi. On <strong>the</strong> coast was a suburb which<br />
<strong>the</strong> Greeks called Palztyros. They wrongly supposed <strong>the</strong><br />
Arados had to be taken by force. Simyra received an<br />
settlement on <strong>the</strong> shore to be older than that on <strong>the</strong> isl<strong>and</strong>. Egyptian garrison <strong>and</strong> became <strong>the</strong> principal stronghold<br />
The local name was Usu or Uzu (Ass. Ushu=Eg. Authu), <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Egyptian dominion on <strong>the</strong> coast. All <strong>the</strong> kings<br />
mentioned in <strong>the</strong> Amarna tablets. There is much proba- <strong>and</strong> petty princes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Syrian <strong>and</strong> Phcenician towns<br />
bility in <strong>the</strong> su gestion <strong>of</strong> PraSek <strong>and</strong> Cbeyne (see ESAU,<br />
XOSAH), that &oos, <strong>the</strong> bro<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> Hypsuranios <strong>of</strong> Tyre in became vassals <strong>of</strong> Egypt ; <strong>the</strong>y had to pay tribute <strong>and</strong><br />
Philo’s story, <strong>the</strong> man who first ventured to sea on a log, is supply provisions for <strong>the</strong> Pharaoh <strong>and</strong> his army ; <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
simply <strong>the</strong> eponym <strong>of</strong> Palwyros.<br />
sons were educated at <strong>the</strong> Egyptian court <strong>and</strong> received<br />
6. Sarepta (nair), a place at <strong>the</strong> foot <strong>of</strong> Lebanon belonging <strong>the</strong>ir principalities from <strong>the</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pharaoh, even<br />
toSidon(1 K. 17g)=Eg. Zarpta, Ass. Sariptu, not mentioned in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Amarna tablets. Cp ZAREPHATH.<br />
if <strong>the</strong>y succeeded <strong>the</strong>ir fa<strong>the</strong>rs. Under Amenophis II.,<br />
7. Sidon (i-pd, <strong>the</strong> greatest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenician or ‘Sidonian’ who suppressed a great rebellion, <strong>and</strong> Thutmosis IV.<br />
towns, <strong>and</strong> already in <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Amarna letters <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong> Egyptian supremacy remained unshaken ; but<br />
principal rival <strong>of</strong> Tyre, with a harbour secured seawards by a during <strong>the</strong> long <strong>and</strong> peaceful reign <strong>of</strong> Amenophis III.,<br />
range <strong>of</strong> rocks. See SIDON.<br />
at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fifteenth century, its strength began to<br />
1 This is sufficiently proved by <strong>the</strong> fact that from very early decline; <strong>and</strong> under his son Amenophis IV., whose<br />
times Byblos was known to <strong>the</strong> Egyptians (as ‘Kupna’), <strong>and</strong> interests were absorbed by <strong>the</strong> religious reformation he<br />
that <strong>the</strong> prescriptions preserved on <strong>the</strong> papyrus Ebers (written attempted in Egypt, it broke down altoge<strong>the</strong>r. From<br />
ahour 15jo B.c.) mention a remedy <strong>of</strong> ‘a Semite from Byblos’ in<br />
which several Semitic loan-words occur (cp WMM, Ezyptiaca, <strong>the</strong> north <strong>the</strong> Hittites invaded Syria <strong>and</strong> took one place<br />
778). See GEBAL i.<br />
after ano<strong>the</strong>r ; <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y were supported by <strong>the</strong> nomads<br />
3733<br />
3734
PHCENICIA PHCENICIA<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> desert, <strong>and</strong> by many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> local dynasts who<br />
longed for independence (see HITTITES, 5s 88). Among<br />
<strong>the</strong>se, AbdaSirta <strong>and</strong> his son Aziru, <strong>the</strong> dynasts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Amorites, in <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lebanon, took a<br />
leading position. The Phanician towns were divided ;<br />
all <strong>the</strong>ir kings tried to gain as much as <strong>the</strong>y could for<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves, but <strong>the</strong>y all pretended to be faithful vassals<br />
<strong>of</strong> Egypt, even if <strong>the</strong>y did as much harm to its interests<br />
as was possible to <strong>the</strong>m. The Amarna tablets give a<br />
very vivid picture <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se troubles. We see that Arados<br />
made itself independent ; Simyra was conquered <strong>and</strong><br />
destroyed by Aziru ; <strong>the</strong> king <strong>of</strong> Arka was slain ; <strong>the</strong><br />
king <strong>of</strong> Sidon supported <strong>the</strong> rebels, in spite <strong>of</strong> his loyal<br />
letters, while Rib-hadad <strong>of</strong> Byblos held out to <strong>the</strong> last on<br />
<strong>the</strong> Egyptian side. In Tyre <strong>the</strong> king <strong>and</strong> his wife <strong>and</strong><br />
children were slain ; but here <strong>the</strong> Egyptians gained <strong>the</strong><br />
supremacy again, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> new king Abimelech proved<br />
a faithful vassal like Rib-hadad. Both were pressed hard<br />
by <strong>the</strong> rebels. Usu was occupied by <strong>the</strong> Sidoniam, who<br />
were supported by a fleet from Arados, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Tyrians<br />
on <strong>the</strong>ir isl<strong>and</strong> suffered severely for <strong>the</strong> want <strong>of</strong> wood <strong>and</strong><br />
water. Rib-hadad lost one part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Byblian territory<br />
after ano<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> inhabitants <strong>of</strong> Byblos had to<br />
sell <strong>the</strong>ir sons <strong>and</strong> daughters in payment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pro-<br />
visions <strong>the</strong>y imported from <strong>the</strong> sea. At last, when<br />
Rib-hadad had gone for help to Berytus, where an<br />
Egyptian <strong>of</strong>ficer was posted, his subjects revolted, shut<br />
<strong>the</strong> gates against his return, <strong>and</strong> joined <strong>the</strong> enemy.’<br />
In <strong>the</strong> religious troubles under Amenophis IV. <strong>and</strong><br />
his successors, <strong>the</strong> Egyptian power in Asia was reduced<br />
to nothing. Sethos I. (Setoy, about 1350 R.c.) had<br />
to begin <strong>the</strong> conquest anew. He slew <strong>the</strong> Bedouins,<br />
occupied Palestine <strong>and</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn Phcenicia, made <strong>the</strong><br />
Syrian magnates cut trees on <strong>the</strong> Lebanon for his<br />
buildings in Egypt, <strong>and</strong> fought, as it seems, with<br />
varying success against <strong>the</strong> Hittites. Nei<strong>the</strong>r Sethos,<br />
however, nor his son Ramses II., in spite <strong>of</strong> his<br />
victories, was able to subjugate <strong>the</strong> Hittites <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
N. <strong>of</strong> Syria again. At last Ramses 11. concluded a<br />
treaty with <strong>the</strong> Hittites, by which both empires re-<br />
cognised each o<strong>the</strong>r as equals <strong>and</strong> became friends.<br />
From that time (about 1320) onwards, Palestine <strong>and</strong><br />
sou<strong>the</strong>rn Phcenicia were for more than a century in <strong>the</strong><br />
possession <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Egyptians. The boundary seems to<br />
have been formed by <strong>the</strong> Nahr el-Kelb, N. <strong>of</strong> Beiriit,<br />
where three tablets <strong>of</strong> Ramses 11. allude to his victories<br />
<strong>and</strong> fix <strong>the</strong> frontier ; unfortunately, <strong>the</strong>y are in very bad<br />
preservation. A visit which <strong>the</strong> king <strong>of</strong> Tyre paid to<br />
Egypt is mentioned in pap. Anastasi IV. verso 6, Z. 3.<br />
The peaceful state <strong>of</strong> Syria was again disturbed, first<br />
by <strong>the</strong> decay <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Egyptian power under <strong>the</strong> weak suc-<br />
cessors <strong>of</strong> Ramses 11. <strong>and</strong> by <strong>the</strong> internal troubles which<br />
led to <strong>the</strong> rise <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> twentieth dynasty with Setnekht<br />
<strong>and</strong> Ramses III., <strong>and</strong> perhaps also by a similar decay<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> very loosely organised Hittite empire. Then<br />
followed <strong>the</strong> great invasion <strong>of</strong> Syria by a migration <strong>of</strong><br />
peoples from Asia Minor <strong>and</strong> Europe, who came both<br />
by l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> by sea; a migration about which some<br />
information has come down to us in <strong>the</strong> inscriptions<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ramses 111. (about 1200 B.c.), who defeated <strong>the</strong><br />
invaders on <strong>the</strong> frontier <strong>of</strong> Egypt. The final result <strong>of</strong><br />
this migration was <strong>the</strong> occupation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> coast <strong>of</strong><br />
Palestine by <strong>the</strong> Zakari (in Dor) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Philistines (in<br />
Ashkelon <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> neighbouring towns).<br />
The empire <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hittites henceforth disappears ; it<br />
is dissolved into a great number <strong>of</strong> smaller states.<br />
Ranises 111. still maintained a part <strong>of</strong> Canaan <strong>and</strong><br />
fought against <strong>the</strong> Amorites; but under his feeble<br />
successors <strong>the</strong> power <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pharaohs in Asia was<br />
again reduced to nought, although <strong>the</strong>y never gave up<br />
<strong>the</strong> claim <strong>of</strong> supremacy over Palestine <strong>and</strong> Phenicia.<br />
We possess part <strong>of</strong> an account <strong>of</strong> an <strong>of</strong>ficial <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
temple <strong>of</strong> Anion in Thebes,* who was sent by <strong>the</strong> high<br />
1 For <strong>the</strong> chronology <strong>of</strong> Rib-hadad’s letters see Knudtzon in<br />
Beitnip ZUY Assyriologie, 4 2m5 (IT.).<br />
a Published by Golenischeff, RecarzZdc Trauuux, 21, 1899 ;<br />
3735<br />
priest Hrihor <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> prince <strong>of</strong> Tank Smendes (afterwards<br />
<strong>the</strong>first king <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> twenty-first dynasty, about 1075<br />
B.C.), to Byblos in order to get timber from Lebanon<br />
for <strong>the</strong> sacred bark <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> god, <strong>and</strong> brought a statue <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> god with him for his protection. The Phcenicians<br />
still regarded <strong>the</strong> great god <strong>of</strong> Thebes with some awe ;<br />
never<strong>the</strong>less <strong>the</strong> Egyptian messenger was received with<br />
bad grace by Beder, prince <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Zakari <strong>of</strong> DOR (g.~.),<br />
<strong>and</strong> worse still by Zekar-ba‘al prince <strong>of</strong> Byblos (see<br />
GEBAL i. ). The latter proved that nei<strong>the</strong>r he nor his<br />
ancestors had been subjects <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pharaohs, <strong>and</strong> when<br />
at last he gave <strong>the</strong> timber on religious grounds, he exacted<br />
<strong>the</strong> promise that he should be paid for it on <strong>the</strong><br />
envoy’s return.<br />
The fa<strong>the</strong>r-in-law <strong>of</strong> Solomon, <strong>and</strong> afterwards, in<br />
Rehoboam’s time, Shishak, <strong>the</strong> first Pharoah <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
twenty-second dynasty, once more renewed <strong>the</strong> Egyptian<br />
campaign to Palestine, but only with momentary<br />
success. Far<strong>the</strong>r northward no Egyptian army again<br />
penetrated until <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> Pharaoh Necho in 608.<br />
There was no dominant power in Syria ei<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
invasion <strong>of</strong> Syria by Tiglath-pileser I. who came to<br />
Arados <strong>and</strong> hunted in <strong>the</strong> Lebanon, was only a passing<br />
episode. So <strong>the</strong> Phenician towns were left to <strong>the</strong>mselves;<br />
<strong>the</strong> period <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir rise <strong>and</strong> greatness begins,<br />
<strong>and</strong> with it <strong>the</strong> dominating position <strong>of</strong> Tyre in Phenicia<br />
The prosperity <strong>of</strong> Phcenicia was <strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> seatrade<br />
<strong>and</strong> colonisation. For a long time, scholars<br />
g. Phmniciarr were inclined to put <strong>the</strong> beginning<br />
<strong>of</strong> Phcenician colonisation into much<br />
colonies. earlier times, <strong>and</strong> to suppose that in<br />
<strong>the</strong> second millennium B.C. <strong>the</strong>y were doknant on all<br />
<strong>the</strong> isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> shores on <strong>the</strong> Zgean sea. We hsve<br />
since learnt, however, that this was a mistake. Certainly<br />
<strong>the</strong> Phoenicians went to sea as early as in <strong>the</strong><br />
time <strong>of</strong> Thutmosis 111. <strong>and</strong> his successors, <strong>and</strong> on <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, numerous remains in Greece <strong>and</strong> Egypt<br />
prove that <strong>the</strong>re was a lively intercourse between <strong>the</strong><br />
E. <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Greeks <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mycenaean period during<br />
<strong>the</strong> whole time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Egyptian empire; but <strong>the</strong><br />
Oriental people, which at this time was most nearly<br />
connected with Greece, were <strong>the</strong> inhabitants <strong>of</strong> Kaft ;<br />
<strong>and</strong> we know now that this was not Phcenicia, but<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r country far<strong>the</strong>r to <strong>the</strong> W. (cp 5 I).<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>the</strong> Greeks <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mycenaean<br />
time (with Crete <strong>and</strong> Argos as <strong>the</strong> great centres <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
civilisation) were far more enterprising than scholars<br />
had supposed; <strong>the</strong>y came to <strong>the</strong> E. as mercenaries,<br />
pirates, <strong>and</strong> tradesmen, <strong>and</strong> brought <strong>the</strong>ir wares<br />
(Mycenzan pottery, arms, etc.) to Cyprus <strong>and</strong> Egypt.<br />
There can be no doubt that at a very early period<br />
(perhaps in connection with <strong>the</strong> great migration under<br />
Ramses 111.) <strong>the</strong>y settled on <strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>rn coast <strong>of</strong> Asia<br />
Minor (Pamphy1ia)<strong>and</strong> in Cyprus, before <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians<br />
had any colonies <strong>the</strong>re. In <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Amarna<br />
tablets <strong>the</strong>re were no Phoenician colonies ; probably<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir colonisation did not begin before <strong>the</strong> twelfth<br />
century, <strong>and</strong> it never reached <strong>the</strong> extent which used<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten to be dreamt <strong>of</strong>. In Cyprus <strong>the</strong>y founded Citium<br />
<strong>and</strong> some o<strong>the</strong>r places; but to <strong>the</strong> Bgean sea <strong>the</strong>y<br />
always came only as traders (as we see in Homer), <strong>and</strong><br />
never possessed more than a few factories (probably on<br />
some isl<strong>and</strong>s, on <strong>the</strong> Isthmus <strong>of</strong> Corinth. etc.), from<br />
which <strong>the</strong>y carried on <strong>the</strong>ir trade with <strong>the</strong> Greeks.<br />
This is <strong>the</strong> character <strong>of</strong> Phcenician colonisation generally;<br />
by far <strong>the</strong> larger number <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phoenician<br />
colonies were mercantile settlements, factories, planted<br />
at sheltered points <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> coast, or, still better, on a<br />
rocky isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong>f it, like <strong>the</strong> towns <strong>of</strong> Phcenicia itself.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> task <strong>of</strong> occupying extensive territories, for<br />
subjugation <strong>of</strong> foreign peoples or even assertion <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>political</strong> supremacy over <strong>the</strong>m, <strong>the</strong> Phcenician cities<br />
were not powerful enough; <strong>the</strong>y did not even possess<br />
cp Erman, ‘Eine Reise nach Phoenicien im elften Jahrhundert<br />
vor Chr.’ in Z& vol. 38 (IF).<br />
3736
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PHCl3NICIA<br />
<strong>the</strong> interior <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> country adjacent to <strong>the</strong>mselves.<br />
Never, for example, could such an idea have occurred<br />
to <strong>the</strong>m as that <strong>of</strong> bringing a people like <strong>the</strong> Greeks to<br />
a condition <strong>of</strong> dependence. The history <strong>of</strong> Phcenician<br />
trade <strong>and</strong> colonisation presents many analogies with<br />
those <strong>of</strong> Portugal <strong>and</strong> Holl<strong>and</strong>. The territory discovered<br />
by <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians <strong>and</strong> opened up to <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
commerce was much too large to be acquired by <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
.4s :I rule <strong>the</strong>y were quite satisfied if <strong>the</strong>y could carry on<br />
business in a peaceful way, exchanging <strong>the</strong> native raw<br />
products for <strong>the</strong> articles <strong>of</strong> industry <strong>and</strong> luxury produced<br />
by <strong>the</strong> East; <strong>and</strong> for this purpose <strong>the</strong> small<br />
settlements <strong>the</strong>y possessed furnished a sufficient basis <strong>of</strong><br />
operations. This fully explains (I) why <strong>the</strong> colonies<br />
continued to be dependent on <strong>the</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r country ; (2)<br />
how it came about that, when <strong>the</strong> nation within whose<br />
territory <strong>the</strong>y lay gained in <strong>political</strong> <strong>and</strong> commercial<br />
strength, <strong>the</strong>se colonies could, quite easily <strong>and</strong> without<br />
a struggle, disappear completely <strong>and</strong> leave no trace (as<br />
for example on <strong>the</strong> Bgean, <strong>and</strong> for <strong>the</strong> most part also<br />
in Sicily) ; (3) how it was that <strong>the</strong>ir influence on <strong>the</strong><br />
nations with whom <strong>the</strong>y had dealings was always SO<br />
slight <strong>and</strong> for <strong>the</strong> most part limited to trade transactions<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> transmission <strong>of</strong> manual dexterities.<br />
Colonisation <strong>of</strong> a more thorough order, out <strong>of</strong> which sprang<br />
large <strong>and</strong> flourishing new commonwealths, occurred only in<br />
Cyprus <strong>and</strong> on <strong>the</strong> north coast <strong>of</strong> Africa. Resides this, Gades,<br />
<strong>and</strong> some o<strong>the</strong>r colonies in <strong>the</strong> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> Tarshish--i.e., Sou<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Spain-ought to he mentioned here. When we consider <strong>the</strong><br />
sm:illness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r-country, this achievement was indeed<br />
<strong>of</strong> itself no inconsiderable performance, rendered possible only<br />
by <strong>the</strong> fact that a great proportion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> settlers came from <strong>the</strong><br />
Syro-Palestinian interior, <strong>the</strong> Phcenician towns in many cases<br />
supplying only <strong>the</strong> leaders <strong>and</strong> mercantile aristocracy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> new<br />
corumunlty. Occasionally also, as <strong>the</strong> legendary story <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
founding <strong>of</strong> Carthage shows, internal disputes may have led to<br />
<strong>the</strong> migration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> defeated party.<br />
All <strong>the</strong> Phenician colonies were anciently regarded<br />
as having been founded from Tyre, <strong>and</strong> so far as <strong>the</strong><br />
towns <strong>of</strong> Cyprus <strong>and</strong> North Africa are concerned this<br />
is confirmed by all our o<strong>the</strong>r information. It cannot be<br />
shown that any o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenician towns planted<br />
colonies.’ We shall see that within <strong>the</strong> same period<br />
Tyre had a leading position also in home politics.<br />
A splendid picture <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> commerce <strong>of</strong> Tyre is given<br />
by EzekielZ (27). ‘The prophet represents <strong>the</strong> nations<br />
as <strong>the</strong> seruanfs <strong>of</strong> Tyre ; but this is only<br />
industries. ,. Trade,<br />
to heighten <strong>the</strong> impression <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> queenly<br />
city’s greatness. It is plain that <strong>the</strong><br />
Phcenicians had commercial relations with countries in<br />
which <strong>the</strong>y nei<strong>the</strong>r had nor could have any colonies.<br />
Apart from Ezekiel, <strong>and</strong> from <strong>the</strong> evidence <strong>of</strong> Greek writers,<br />
we have <strong>the</strong> four Greek words XLS& (nxm), ~pvwdr (p?), 26~1<br />
(iW), <strong>and</strong> rrdharis ( W h ) , as records <strong>of</strong> early Phcenician trade<br />
with Greeks. In Egypt we are told <strong>of</strong> a ‘ Tyrian quarter’ at<br />
Memphis (Tvpiov ~~padrrd~, Herod. 2 112). The friendly<br />
relations between Hiram <strong>and</strong> Solomon (who had comm<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> harbours <strong>of</strong> Edom) enabled <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians to carry out<br />
(with Solomon) naval expeditions to <strong>the</strong> coasts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arabian<br />
Sea <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Indian Ocean as far as Ophir (I K. 9 26s 1022).<br />
With <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> Edom this field <strong>of</strong> activity was closed ; on a<br />
later attempt <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> men <strong>of</strong> Judah to reopen it see JEHOSHAPHAT.<br />
The Phoenicians had also an overl<strong>and</strong> trade, though<br />
this was less important than <strong>the</strong> waterborne. First in<br />
importance as Phcenician marts were <strong>the</strong> great trading<br />
cities <strong>of</strong> Syria-Damascus, Hamath, etc. It is certain,<br />
however, that Phcenician merchants had also direct<br />
1 Two apparent exceptions-(i.) Leptis between <strong>the</strong> two<br />
Syrtes, <strong>the</strong> founding <strong>of</strong> which is attributed by Sallust (Jug. 78)<br />
to Sidonians whom internal dissensions had driven from <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
home, <strong>and</strong> (ii.) <strong>the</strong> isl<strong>and</strong> Oliaros near Paros which is called by<br />
Heraklides Ponticus in Steph. Byz. Zr8wviov &ror.ia-are to<br />
he explained by <strong>the</strong> extended use, mentioned above, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> name<br />
Sidonians. Leptis, which Pliny (576) speaks <strong>of</strong> as a Tyrian<br />
settlement, was really founded by <strong>the</strong> Carthaginians about<br />
512 B.C. Nor is any weight to be attached to <strong>the</strong> facts that<br />
according to Steph. Byz. <strong>the</strong> isl<strong>and</strong> Melos was originally called<br />
Ryhlis from its mo<strong>the</strong>r town, <strong>and</strong> that Tarsus (which was not<br />
Phcenician at all) is in Dio Cbrysost. (Or. 33 14) represented<br />
a* being colonised from Aradus, not, as <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r authorities<br />
have it, from Argos.<br />
2 The text is unfortunately not free from corruption (see<br />
especially uu. 19 23). See CANNEH, CHILMAD, JAVAN, 8 I, etc.<br />
3737<br />
PHCEINICIA<br />
,elations with regions much more remote-Babylon.<br />
Vineveh, <strong>and</strong> various trade centres <strong>of</strong> Asia Minor <strong>and</strong><br />
Irmenia, as well as <strong>of</strong> Arabia. Detailed information.<br />
3eyond what is known <strong>of</strong> ancient oriental commerce in<br />
:eueral, is wanting here. The sketch given by Ezekiel<br />
27) tells us only that all <strong>the</strong> peoples <strong>the</strong>re enumerated<br />
&ought <strong>the</strong>ir wares to <strong>the</strong> Tyrians, <strong>and</strong> this is quite<br />
iccurate. It does not <strong>of</strong>ten occur that a centre <strong>of</strong> sea<br />
trade is also at <strong>the</strong> same time a city with extensive inl<strong>and</strong><br />
iommerce. There can be no doubt whatever that <strong>the</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong> commerce <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Semitic world was mainly in <strong>the</strong><br />
h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> Syrian (Aramaean) merchants, <strong>and</strong>, next to<br />
<strong>the</strong>se, in <strong>the</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> Arabian tribes living in <strong>the</strong> desert.<br />
It was by this agency that <strong>the</strong> wares <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> East were<br />
brought to Tyre <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r cities <strong>of</strong> Phoenicia, where<br />
<strong>the</strong> products <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> West, <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> native industries<br />
<strong>of</strong> Phcenicia, were received in exchange for <strong>the</strong>m. In<br />
particular it may be regarded as certain that, apart<br />
from a short-lived attempt under Hiram, <strong>the</strong> Phoenicians<br />
never <strong>the</strong>mselves brought from <strong>the</strong> country <strong>of</strong> its pro-<br />
duction <strong>the</strong> frankincense with which its merchants<br />
supplied <strong>the</strong> Mediterranean coasts (Herod. 3 107).<br />
Originally <strong>the</strong> incense- trade was from h<strong>and</strong> to h<strong>and</strong> ;<br />
but afterwards, from <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> last millen-<br />
nium R.c., <strong>the</strong> S. Arabian tribes-<strong>the</strong> Sabzeans, <strong>and</strong><br />
still more <strong>the</strong> Minzeans-<strong>the</strong>mselves took it up <strong>and</strong><br />
sent yearly caravans to <strong>the</strong> Mediterranean centres <strong>of</strong><br />
civilisation.<br />
Herodotus (1 I) narrates : ‘<strong>the</strong> Phcenicians as soon as<br />
<strong>the</strong>y had arrived on <strong>the</strong> Syrian coast from <strong>the</strong>ir original<br />
seat on <strong>the</strong> shore <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Erythaean (Arabian) Sea at once<br />
began to make extensive voyages, <strong>and</strong> exported Egyptian<br />
<strong>and</strong> Assyrian (Le., according to <strong>the</strong> terminology <strong>of</strong><br />
Herodotus. Babylonian) wares.’ The picture thus given,<br />
though anachronistic, quite accurately expresses <strong>the</strong><br />
essential features <strong>of</strong> Phcenician trade. Just as <strong>the</strong> history<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Syrian countries <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir civilisation<br />
was determined by <strong>the</strong>ir intermediate position between<br />
Babylon <strong>and</strong> Egypt, <strong>the</strong> two great foci <strong>of</strong> civilisation,<br />
so also it was from <strong>the</strong>se countries that <strong>the</strong> Syro-<br />
Phaenician merchants derived not only many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
wares but also above all <strong>the</strong> patterns from which <strong>the</strong>y<br />
worked, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir first artistic processes <strong>and</strong> methods.<br />
By <strong>the</strong> Greeks <strong>the</strong> Phmnicians were regarded as <strong>the</strong> masters <strong>of</strong><br />
invention ; not only glass-making(cp GLASS, $ I), <strong>the</strong> preparation<br />
<strong>of</strong> purple <strong>and</strong> metal-work, but even weights, measures, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> art<br />
<strong>of</strong> writing (see WRIT IN^;) were carried back to <strong>the</strong>m. The actual<br />
state <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> case is certainly quite o<strong>the</strong>rwise ; not one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
discoveries was <strong>of</strong> Phcenician origin. All <strong>the</strong>se conveniences <strong>the</strong><br />
Phoenicians in common with <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Syrian peoples borrowed ;<br />
but <strong>the</strong>y carried <strong>the</strong>m much far<strong>the</strong>r after <strong>the</strong> appropriation.<br />
Although <strong>the</strong> Phcenician cities drew a large pro-<br />
portion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir commercial wares from <strong>the</strong> interior,<br />
an extensive <strong>and</strong> busy native industry soon arose.<br />
Phcenician purple, Phoenician garments in colour, <strong>and</strong><br />
Phcenician metal-work were specially famous, as <strong>the</strong><br />
Homeric poems abundantly show (see ZZ. 6289, Od.<br />
15415; 12. 23741, Od. 4618, 13288 15460, ZZ. 1120). In<br />
Od. 1542s Sidon is spoken <strong>of</strong> as ‘rich in copper’<br />
(~oX~X~XKOS). Similarly <strong>the</strong> bronze <strong>and</strong> silver paterae<br />
with engraved work after an Egyptianising style<br />
which have been found in <strong>the</strong> palace <strong>of</strong> Kalab<br />
(Nimriid), at Praeneste in Latium, <strong>and</strong> elsewhere, are<br />
<strong>of</strong> Phcenician workmanship. The Egyptian monuments,<br />
too, frequently mention, in catalogues <strong>of</strong> tribute,<br />
Phoenician vessels <strong>of</strong> gold <strong>and</strong> silver, as also <strong>of</strong> iron <strong>and</strong><br />
copper, <strong>of</strong>ten with blue <strong>and</strong> red enamel (WMM, As. u.<br />
Bur. 306).<br />
The character <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenician merchant nation, so<br />
receptive, so practical <strong>and</strong> soberminded, is nowhere<br />
s. Ilrt. more strikingly seen than in <strong>the</strong> region <strong>of</strong><br />
art.<br />
The question as to <strong>the</strong> essential nature<br />
<strong>of</strong> Phoenician art has for long been one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most<br />
burning <strong>and</strong> difficult in <strong>the</strong> whole field <strong>of</strong> archaeology.<br />
The difficulty lay partly in <strong>the</strong> fact that until now<br />
from Phcenicia itself only a very few monuments,<br />
none at all <strong>of</strong> a date earlier than <strong>the</strong> Persian period,<br />
3738
PHaNICIA PHCENICIA<br />
have come down to us. The chief trouble, however,<br />
was created by <strong>the</strong> investigators <strong>the</strong>mselves, who set<br />
out in search <strong>of</strong> a a Phoenician style’ <strong>and</strong> could not<br />
find one. The solution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> problem is very simple ;<br />
we are now able to say very positively that <strong>the</strong>re never<br />
was such a thing as a Phoenician style. Phoenician<br />
art, like that <strong>of</strong> Syria in general, simply exhibits in<br />
combination <strong>the</strong> motzys derived by it from a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
quarters (in <strong>the</strong> first instance mainly from Babylon <strong>and</strong><br />
Egypt), without any attempt at fusing <strong>the</strong>m into any<br />
higher essential unity.<br />
The stele <strong>of</strong> king Yehawmelek <strong>of</strong> Byblos (Persian period)<br />
represeuts <strong>the</strong> king, in Pekian dress <strong>and</strong> hearing, before a seated<br />
goddess who is exactly reproduced after <strong>the</strong> pattern <strong>of</strong> Isis <strong>and</strong><br />
Hathor with cow’s horns <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> sun-disk upon her head. Over<br />
lier head hovers, as in all Egyptian steles, <strong>the</strong> winged sun-<br />
disk (Perrot <strong>and</strong> Chipiez, Art in Phuvzicia, 1 %, fig. 23). This<br />
is typically Phcenician. A stele <strong>of</strong> Marathus exhibits a god in<br />
Egyptian dress, wearing an Egyptian helmet with <strong>the</strong> uraxs<br />
serpent, <strong>and</strong> holding in his right h<strong>and</strong> an E yptian hooked sword.<br />
With his left h<strong>and</strong> he holds, in Assyrio-%abylonian fashion, a<br />
lioness by <strong>the</strong> legs ; his feet rest upon a lioness who in turn st<strong>and</strong>s<br />
upon a hill-like pedestal--motifs which Hittite-Asiatic art de-<br />
veloped still fur<strong>the</strong>r from Babylonian models. Above <strong>the</strong> god<br />
hover two Egyptian emblems ; <strong>the</strong> moon (crescent, with full moon<br />
shown within) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> winged sun-disk (0). cit. 2 11, fig. 7).<br />
A few examples may be given <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> way in which<br />
borrowed artistic symbols were so modified as to lose<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir original meaning. The Egyptian emblem <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
moon became a half-moon, with <strong>the</strong> sun or a star above<br />
it : <strong>the</strong> sphinx became womanlike in form ; <strong>the</strong> urzus<br />
serpents dependent from <strong>the</strong> winged sun-disk were<br />
8<br />
changed into a bird’s tail: out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cross grew<br />
<strong>the</strong> symbol so familiar on Phoenician seals <strong>and</strong><br />
Carthaginian steles, having, apparently, arms <strong>and</strong> legs<br />
added to it. In decoration, however, Phcenician art<br />
(<strong>and</strong> Syrian art generally) shows a certain independence<br />
in its employment <strong>of</strong> flower-like ornaments-lotos<br />
blossoms <strong>and</strong> rosettes-or <strong>of</strong> ornaments taken from<br />
<strong>the</strong> animal world, such as heads <strong>of</strong> wild goats, oxen,<br />
lions, <strong>and</strong> so forth. In this field a decorative a Western-<br />
Asiatic’ mixed style was developed, which, as already<br />
indicated, began to exert an influence on Greek art from<br />
<strong>the</strong> ninth century onwards.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> rest, <strong>the</strong> art <strong>of</strong> Syria <strong>and</strong> Phcenicia follows<br />
<strong>the</strong> ‘ fashion,‘ that is, <strong>the</strong> ruling power. In <strong>the</strong> second<br />
millennhn B. c. Egyptian models prevail ; with <strong>the</strong> rise<br />
<strong>of</strong> Assyrian ascendancy, Assyrio-Babylonian motifs come<br />
more strongly into play ; <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>se in <strong>the</strong>ir turn had to<br />
give place to <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> Persia. Alongside <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
Asiatic models, however, from <strong>the</strong> sixth century onwards,<br />
<strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> Greek art made itself increasingly felt,<br />
<strong>and</strong> had already become predominant within <strong>the</strong> Persian<br />
period, in <strong>the</strong> first instance in <strong>the</strong> technique (e.g., in<br />
coins), <strong>and</strong> soon afterwards in motifas well.<br />
In one department <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians maintained <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
superiority-that <strong>of</strong> navigation. Even in Xenophon’s<br />
9. Navigation. time, when <strong>the</strong> Greeks, especially <strong>the</strong><br />
A<strong>the</strong>nians, had long been keen rivals<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians by sea, <strong>and</strong> had defeated <strong>the</strong>m in<br />
naval battles, a great Phcenician merchantman was re-<br />
garded as a pattern <strong>of</strong> order <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> practical outfitting<br />
(Xen. Ec.811): <strong>and</strong> still later even Strabo speaks <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> absolute supremacy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phoenicians in <strong>the</strong> arts <strong>of</strong><br />
seamanship (xvi. 2 23). When Sennacherib caused Syrian<br />
carpenters to build him a fleet upon <strong>the</strong> Tigris for <strong>the</strong><br />
subjugation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Babylonians, he manned it with<br />
Tyrian, Sidonian, <strong>and</strong> Greek (Cyprian) sailors, just as<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>er brought Phcenician ships to Thapsacus on<br />
<strong>the</strong> Euphrates for his projected Arabian campaign<br />
(Am. vii. 193). When <strong>the</strong> Egyptians under Psam-<br />
nietichus <strong>and</strong> Necho brought toge<strong>the</strong>r a fleet it consisted<br />
mainly <strong>of</strong> Fhoenicians ; <strong>and</strong> it was by Phcenicians that,<br />
under Necho, <strong>the</strong> circumnavigation <strong>of</strong> Africa was ac-<br />
complished (Herod. 442). In <strong>the</strong> fleet <strong>of</strong> Xerxes <strong>the</strong><br />
Phenicians (<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se <strong>the</strong> Sidonians) supplied <strong>the</strong><br />
3739<br />
f<br />
best vessels (Herod. 796). The war between <strong>the</strong> Greeks<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Persians was pre-eminently a struggle between<br />
<strong>the</strong> sea-power <strong>of</strong> Greece <strong>and</strong> that <strong>of</strong> Phcenicia.<br />
We proceed now to a brief survey <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phoenician<br />
religion.<br />
The Phoenicians applied to <strong>the</strong>ir gods <strong>the</strong> term ‘ZZim<br />
less frequently than <strong>the</strong> longer form, ’donim (so in<br />
lo. Religion : <strong>the</strong> inscriptions <strong>of</strong> Eshmunazar <strong>and</strong><br />
Yehawmelek), fern. ‘donot (in Plautus),<br />
just as in Heb. <strong>the</strong> plu. n*n$N, <strong>and</strong> in<br />
conceptions’ Aram. <strong>the</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ned form ikih, came<br />
to be <strong>the</strong> forms in common use (cp NAMES, rrqf:).<br />
The general word for ‘ goddess ’ in <strong>the</strong> Semitic dialects<br />
is ei<strong>the</strong>r iZ& (cp below) or ‘AStar (Rab. igtar) ; but <strong>the</strong><br />
Phoenicians employed exclusively <strong>the</strong> form ‘AItavt,<br />
‘Attoref (with <strong>the</strong> feminine terminations added to <strong>the</strong><br />
feminine word).<br />
Like o<strong>the</strong>r Semites, <strong>the</strong>y believed that <strong>the</strong>se divine<br />
powers can enter into relations with human communities,<br />
<strong>and</strong> that when <strong>the</strong>y do so <strong>the</strong>y accord <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong>ir protection<br />
<strong>and</strong> live a common life with <strong>the</strong>ir clients. They<br />
bestow blessing. prosperity, <strong>and</strong> victory, grant increase<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> flocks <strong>and</strong> herds, <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> field, <strong>and</strong> in return<br />
have a share in all that <strong>the</strong>ir worshippers acquire or<br />
enjoy, above all in <strong>the</strong> common meal <strong>and</strong> in <strong>the</strong> spoil.<br />
In this, essentially, do worship <strong>and</strong> sacrifice consist (cp<br />
SACRIFICE). The tutelary deities are <strong>the</strong> lords <strong>and</strong><br />
kings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> community which worships <strong>the</strong>m; <strong>the</strong><br />
community <strong>and</strong> each individual member <strong>of</strong> it are <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
servants or h<strong>and</strong>maidens or even <strong>the</strong>ir Metoikoi (gZr,<br />
very common in Phcen. proper names), <strong>the</strong>ir proteges,<br />
taken up <strong>and</strong> cared for by <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
Connected with this is <strong>the</strong> idea that <strong>the</strong> gods are <strong>the</strong> bloodrelations<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir worshippers-an idea which <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians<br />
shared with <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Semites, as is shown in <strong>the</strong> proper<br />
names which designate an individual as <strong>the</strong> bro<strong>the</strong>r or sister,<br />
fa<strong>the</strong>r or mo<strong>the</strong>r, son or daughter <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> divinity (see ABI-,<br />
AMMI-, NAMES IN, etc.). These names however are not <strong>of</strong><br />
frequent occurrence among <strong>the</strong> Phcenikans . th; idea that<br />
underlies <strong>the</strong>m had plainly ceased to be intelliiible.<br />
The gods manifest <strong>the</strong>mselves to men in objects <strong>the</strong><br />
most diverse. Not unfrequently in rocks <strong>and</strong><br />
mountains ; thus <strong>the</strong> name given by <strong>the</strong> Greeks to <strong>the</strong><br />
conspicuous headl<strong>and</strong> between Byblos <strong>and</strong> Tripolis<br />
(‘ Theouprosdpon ’), plainly represents <strong>the</strong> Phceuician<br />
PZnzj’Zl; see PENUEL. Near Theouprosopon <strong>the</strong>re is a<br />
dedicatory inscription to Zeus (Renan, Miss. en Phh.<br />
146), obviously <strong>the</strong> El <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> headl<strong>and</strong>. Ano<strong>the</strong>r form<br />
<strong>of</strong> manifestation was in trees <strong>and</strong> animals, especially in<br />
serpents. Still more prevalent, <strong>and</strong> manifestly also <strong>of</strong><br />
greater antiquity, is <strong>the</strong> idea that <strong>the</strong> god has taken up<br />
his abode in movable stones or bits <strong>of</strong> wood. These<br />
are veritable fetishes, which can be carried about everywhere,<br />
<strong>and</strong> in which, accordingly, <strong>the</strong> divinity in <strong>the</strong><br />
primitive nomad stage could accompany <strong>the</strong> tribe on its<br />
w<strong>and</strong>erings. Such a animated stones ‘ were supposed<br />
to have fallen from heaven, <strong>and</strong> were called by <strong>the</strong><br />
Phcenicians ,9arrrihta-i.e., bait-el, ‘ Gods house ’ : cp<br />
Jacob‘s pillar at Be<strong>the</strong>l2 [Cp STRANGER.]<br />
(see MASSEBAH). These<br />
stones may originally perhaps have remained unhewn ;<br />
but in later times it became usual to give <strong>the</strong>m a<br />
certain form-ei<strong>the</strong>r a cone, or an obelisk with a<br />
pyramid-shaped head, or even a simple stele.<br />
Such ‘set-u ’ stones were to be found in every cult 3 <strong>and</strong> at<br />
every altar ; tfey form <strong>the</strong> most usual dedicatory <strong>of</strong>fering to <strong>the</strong><br />
1 More particularly in <strong>the</strong> names ‘A6a“eZi-m (‘ABG
PHQ3NICIA PHCENICIA<br />
divinity. By <strong>the</strong> Phcrnicians as by <strong>the</strong> Hebrews <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
Canaanites, <strong>the</strong>y were caldd rnassabath (cp CIS 144-a<br />
mas$ebah at Kition dedicated to Eshmnn ; for votive arid burial<br />
steles, as in <strong>the</strong> Pirmus Inscr., see Rev. Arch. 3 ser. 11 5 ; CIS<br />
1116 etc.) or, o<strong>the</strong>rwise, na@b (CIS 1x39-a nasib at Kition<br />
dedicated to Baalshamein ; cp <strong>the</strong> Malkiba'al steles [see below] ;<br />
Steph. Byz. S.W. N~UL,~K [called Niar&s by Philo, 81;<br />
oypaivrr 62, bs +yub *lAwv, Ndo#?tr 76s u+as ; o 8. Oirpdvros<br />
V~U~&S, $~uc, uypaivcr .i, OOLV~KW $0.5 hieor ovyxripcvor<br />
oup+opqrai,-in o<strong>the</strong>r words, cairns or stone-heaps like <strong>the</strong> Gr.<br />
+para, out <strong>of</strong> which on a precisely similar manner arose <strong>the</strong><br />
hewn Hermz or symbols <strong>of</strong> Hermes). Ano<strong>the</strong>r name is<br />
Hanmnuin, which in Phcenician must have been quite current<br />
(see helow); it occurs also in OT (Is. 178 279, etc.) in conjunction<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Asherim; so too in Palmyra. The name is<br />
probably identical with <strong>the</strong> 'Appouveir <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenician<br />
tempks from whose mystic inscriptions, according to Philo<br />
(1 j), Skchuniathon derived his wisdom. The origin <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
name is uncertain; HammPnim in <strong>the</strong> OT is best translated<br />
' hammSn-pillars.'l Stone -cones <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kind described are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten found delineated in <strong>the</strong> Carthaginian steles, also upon<br />
a stele from Libybzum (CIS 1138). Cp MASSEBAH.<br />
' Baal-libanon, <strong>the</strong>ir lord ' (CZS 1 s).' Among <strong>the</strong> hills<br />
behind Sidon <strong>the</strong>re occurs a ZEIJS 6p,peros-i.e., a<br />
mountain-god pure <strong>and</strong> simple-to whom in an<br />
inscription (Renan, il4iss. 397) two lions are dedicated.<br />
A god can also take his name from specified<br />
attributes ascribed to him at a particular place <strong>of</strong><br />
worship, or from his association with some particular<br />
religious object or custom.<br />
A well-known instance <strong>of</strong> this kind is <strong>the</strong> BAAL-BERITH<br />
[r.u:] at Shechem : <strong>the</strong>re was also a 'god <strong>of</strong> dancing' (Lat.<br />
Jupiter Balmarcodes, Gk. Bahpdpros .oipavos ~Spwv), a god<br />
worshipped with festal dances at <strong>the</strong> sanctuary <strong>of</strong> Der el-<br />
Kal'a in <strong>the</strong> mountains behind Bsrot (cp CIG 4536, CIL 3 rjj,<br />
Cler.-Ganneau, Reu. dArrl. Orient. 2 1018 : Euting, SBA W,<br />
1887% p. 407, no. 129). Most renowned <strong>of</strong> all is Baal-hammiin<br />
(see above, 5 10).<br />
All <strong>the</strong>se gods <strong>and</strong> goddesses are strictly nameless,<br />
<strong>and</strong> are merely powers possessing a specified sphere <strong>of</strong><br />
influence. So also with Ba'al-Zani&m (see below, 12).<br />
In close association with <strong>the</strong> stone-pillar we find <strong>the</strong><br />
erected pole, or <strong>the</strong> tree-stump, precisely as in <strong>the</strong><br />
Grecian cultus. This is called AshErah (a::;!) as in<br />
Hebrew (see ASHERAH). Copies <strong>of</strong> it in clay are very<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten found in <strong>the</strong> ruins <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> temples <strong>of</strong> Cyprus.<br />
A representation <strong>of</strong> a goddess, in clay, has been found in<br />
Cyprus, sitting within <strong>the</strong> tree-trunk <strong>of</strong> Ashera (cp Ohnefalsch-<br />
Richter, Xy@-os, 1171 ; 2 Tab. 17 2)) <strong>and</strong> we hear in <strong>the</strong> inscription<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ma'sob <strong>of</strong> ' <strong>the</strong> Astarte in <strong>the</strong> AshZra.' The word<br />
Asherah might <strong>the</strong>refore he used as a divine name. The only<br />
known instance <strong>of</strong> this, however, is Abd-agrat (also Abd-aSirta) in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Amarna letters, where ASrat is always written with <strong>the</strong> determinative<br />
sign <strong>of</strong> deity.<br />
A variety <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se poles may plainly be seen in<br />
Carthage steles : <strong>and</strong> closely associated with <strong>the</strong>m,<br />
perhaps, are <strong>the</strong> quickly fading flowers <strong>and</strong> rootless<br />
plants <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Adonis gardens at <strong>the</strong> Adonis festival (cp<br />
ADONIS).<br />
As to <strong>the</strong> origin <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se modes <strong>of</strong> worship, Philo (28)<br />
relntes that Usoos <strong>the</strong> bro<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> Hypsouranios <strong>of</strong> Tyre<br />
(cp below, § IZ), after a sea voyage on a tree-trunk,<br />
erected two steles to <strong>the</strong> Fire <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Wind, worshipping<br />
<strong>the</strong>m <strong>and</strong> making an <strong>of</strong>fering <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> blood <strong>of</strong><br />
beasts. After <strong>the</strong> death <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two bro<strong>the</strong>rs, staves<br />
were consecrated to <strong>the</strong>m, <strong>the</strong> steles adored, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
memory commeinorated in a yearly feast. These staves<br />
<strong>and</strong> steles are <strong>the</strong> Asherim <strong>and</strong> Masebahs or gummdnim<br />
-in <strong>the</strong> first instance doubtless, in Philo's view, some<br />
specially holy <strong>and</strong> ancient objects in Tyre.<br />
When a people becomes settled, not only does it<br />
itself undergo a change as it accommodates itself to <strong>the</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong> which it tills, <strong>the</strong> city it inhabits, <strong>the</strong> mountains<br />
<strong>and</strong> streams <strong>of</strong> its chosen home; its gods also no<br />
longer continue <strong>the</strong> same. They too ab<strong>and</strong>on <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
nomadic life, settle, <strong>and</strong> become <strong>the</strong> lords <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> soil<br />
upon which <strong>the</strong>y are worshipped.<br />
'Thus an El or ZZut (or Astarte) becomes <strong>the</strong> dn'aZ or<br />
ddtzlut <strong>of</strong> a definite locality, <strong>the</strong> god or goddess <strong>of</strong><br />
I ~<br />
ll. Gods some particular town or hill. Such<br />
divinities are many in Phcenicia.<br />
proper names*<br />
Thus <strong>the</strong> 'pod <strong>of</strong> Sidon' is called<br />
' Baal-sidon ' (CIS i. 3 18 [Eshmunazar], Inscr. <strong>of</strong><br />
Pirzus, Rev. Arch. 3 ser. 11 j; on <strong>the</strong> gods <strong>of</strong> Tyre<br />
see below). The 'goddess <strong>of</strong> Byblos' is invoked as<br />
e <strong>the</strong> mistress, <strong>the</strong> Ba'alat <strong>of</strong> Gebal' (CZS lr, cp<br />
GP:RAL, I). Rib-hadnd too gives her this title in all his<br />
letters (<strong>the</strong> name is always written ideographically).<br />
In &irrt&zduSt (Kition) <strong>of</strong> Cyprus <strong>the</strong> peuple worship<br />
<strong>the</strong> god <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lebanon on <strong>the</strong> mainl<strong>and</strong> opposite, as<br />
There is no god Ba'?! <strong>and</strong> goddess Ba'alat. It is only<br />
very rarely that a genuine proper name occurs at all.<br />
The God <strong>of</strong> Tyre (Ba'al sr) indeed bears <strong>the</strong> name<br />
Melkart (cp 12) ; but even this is really no proper<br />
name but a compound <strong>of</strong> iWeelek Kart, king <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city.<br />
For worshippers, <strong>the</strong> god <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir home, or <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
temple which <strong>the</strong>y frequent, is '<strong>the</strong> Ba'al' or '<strong>the</strong><br />
Ba'alat ' without qualification, <strong>and</strong> in ordinary life no<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r phraseology is used (cp I K.178)<br />
There is no need to specify what particular god is intended.<br />
It is quite usual, <strong>the</strong>refore, to give children such .names as<br />
Hanniba'al, ' favour <strong>of</strong> Baal ' . 'Azru-ba'al 'help <strong>of</strong> Ba'al ' .<br />
Ba'al'azar, ' Ra'al helps' ; Ba'al-daniin, 'IBaali; favourable' ; 'Abd:<br />
Ba'al, 'servant <strong>of</strong> Baa1';Adoni-Ba'al, 'Baal is lord,'etc. In <strong>the</strong>se<br />
cases <strong>the</strong> giver as a rule has in his mind some such god as<br />
Ba'al-hammPn, Ba'al-Samen, Ba'al-$don, or <strong>the</strong> like. Often<br />
enough too, <strong>the</strong> god's name falls away altoge<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>and</strong> we get<br />
such names as Haniin or Hann6, 'Abdo, etc.<br />
It is easy to underst<strong>and</strong> how, ultimately, this should<br />
have given rise to <strong>the</strong> feeling that <strong>the</strong>re was an absolute<br />
god Ba'al <strong>of</strong> whom <strong>the</strong> individual Ba'alim are only<br />
forms. This feeling must have developed greatly in<br />
Babylonia, <strong>and</strong>, to a certain extent, also among <strong>the</strong><br />
Ararnaeans, where Bel, Aram. B'el, actually became <strong>the</strong><br />
proper name <strong>of</strong> a definite deity. It found its way into<br />
Phcenicia as well. In <strong>the</strong> first instance foreigners<br />
naturally formed <strong>the</strong> belief that <strong>the</strong>re was a single<br />
Phoenician deity Bdal. The Egyptians took over his<br />
cult <strong>and</strong>-in <strong>the</strong> new kingdom-worshipped him as<br />
identical with Sutekh (Set). The Greeks always designate<br />
him by his Aramaic name as re lo^,^ <strong>and</strong> identify<br />
him with Zeus,-<strong>and</strong> rightly. for everywhere <strong>the</strong> Baal<br />
<strong>of</strong> a place is <strong>the</strong> highest god <strong>of</strong> its proper pan<strong>the</strong>on.<br />
Similarly <strong>the</strong>y explained Baahis (so Philo, 225) or BaXOrs<br />
(Melito in Cureton, Spic. Syr. 44: Hesych.) as <strong>the</strong><br />
proper name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> goddess <strong>of</strong> Byblos. At last <strong>the</strong><br />
Phcenicians <strong>the</strong>mselves followed <strong>the</strong> example, at least<br />
in <strong>the</strong>ir systeni <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gods-<strong>the</strong> idea is found in Philo.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> native inscriptions indeed, <strong>and</strong> so, we may infer,<br />
in <strong>the</strong>ir worship, it never found a place; only one<br />
Greek inscription, from <strong>the</strong> neighbourhood <strong>of</strong> Antarados.<br />
mentions an altar <strong>of</strong> BqXos; here doubtless <strong>the</strong><br />
Syrian, not <strong>the</strong> Phcenician. deity is intended (Renan,<br />
op. cit. 104).<br />
Ba'alat is never employed in <strong>the</strong> formation <strong>of</strong> proper<br />
names, <strong>and</strong> is indeed <strong>of</strong> somewhat rare occurrence<br />
anywhere; to denote <strong>the</strong> feminine divinity <strong>the</strong> name<br />
AStart is ordinarily used. In <strong>the</strong> religious conception,<br />
indeed, <strong>the</strong>re is no difference between <strong>the</strong> twb, only<br />
Astarte needs no complement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> a place ;<br />
but <strong>the</strong> Astarte in <strong>the</strong> AsLZnih <strong>of</strong> El-+ommdn mentioned<br />
1 13aaLhanimiin was <strong>the</strong> chief deity <strong>of</strong> Punic N. Africa<br />
(found also in Libybzmnn CIS1 138). He is <strong>the</strong> god <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
&nziruin-sfe& in which 'he had his abode, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> steles<br />
dcclicated to him frequently bear <strong>the</strong> enigmatical name 3~3<br />
5z325n (crs 1 123 147 194 qj 380. Hadnrmetzm 9). Similarly<br />
t e god Melki'aitart in Umm el-'kw;lmid, S. <strong>of</strong> +yre (CIS 18)<br />
ani1 in <strong>the</strong> neighbouring Ma'snb are designated EZ-jLanwuin.<br />
His female counterpart is '<strong>the</strong> Astarte in <strong>the</strong> Asherah <strong>of</strong> El-<br />
hammxn.' Melki'aTtart is in fact <strong>the</strong> El-hammxn. The numen<br />
occupying his (tamman-pillar (Ra'al-hamman) is naturally his<br />
inferior, who in turn has an Asherah in which dwells a female<br />
beirig, an Aitarte.<br />
3741<br />
1 In Philo27 <strong>the</strong>se gods appear as mighty primzval<br />
men from whom <strong>the</strong> mountains which <strong>the</strong>y occupy (&v<br />
2xpl:yuav) took <strong>the</strong>ir names. Thus <strong>the</strong> Lebanon, Antilibanus,<br />
Kasius mount Bpae;.<br />
2 It 'may here be remarked once for all that, later, <strong>the</strong><br />
Aramaic form crept into use in all divine names. Philo has<br />
only <strong>the</strong> form BGAos. A late inscription from Berytus (Lebn<br />
111. 1854 ir) presents both forms in <strong>the</strong> two contiguous name:<br />
'A@L~~~AOW <strong>and</strong> 'O
PHCENICIA PHCENICIA<br />
above might equally well have been called 6u'aZuth<br />
hi-asherah.<br />
The Greeks were quite correct when for <strong>the</strong> most part <strong>the</strong>y<br />
applied <strong>the</strong> designation Asfarfe to <strong>the</strong> goddess <strong>of</strong> Byblos (Cic.<br />
Nat. Dew. 359, Plut. de Is. 15). In Tyre Hiram I. hudt a<br />
temple to Astarte (Men<strong>and</strong>er ap. Jos. C. A#. 118, cp Philo<br />
224). Itoba'al I. was priest <strong>of</strong> Astarte before he became<br />
king. In Sidon Astarte is <strong>the</strong> principal divinity (so throughout<br />
<strong>the</strong> OT ; similarly, e.g., Lucian, Dea Sur. 4). The Kings Eshmunazar<br />
I. <strong>and</strong> his son Tabnit are priests; <strong>the</strong> latter's sister, <strong>the</strong><br />
queen-mo<strong>the</strong>r Am'aHtart, is priestess <strong>of</strong> Astarte (cp inscr. <strong>of</strong><br />
Tahnit <strong>and</strong> Eshm. 11.); <strong>the</strong> king Bod'aStart raised a building<br />
to her (CIS 14). By <strong>the</strong> side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> goddess <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city we<br />
find also in Sidon an 'Astarte <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Baal <strong>of</strong> Heaven' (see<br />
below). From what we know we may presume that all <strong>the</strong><br />
Phcenician towns had an Astarte as tutelary deity.<br />
Alongside <strong>of</strong>ilstarte is found <strong>the</strong> name Wit, 'goddess'<br />
(cp above). Il%t had her priests in Carthage (CIS<br />
1z43f:), <strong>and</strong>, under <strong>the</strong> name ' <strong>the</strong> lady Ilat,' a temple<br />
in Sulci. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, El is never found as <strong>the</strong><br />
designation <strong>of</strong> any definite deity, <strong>and</strong>, even in personal<br />
names, occurs only in inscriptions from Byblos, in<br />
striking contrast to <strong>the</strong> Hebrew <strong>and</strong> Arabic usage' (cp<br />
NAMES, § 25). The same remark applies to 'adon,<br />
'lord.' The true name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> god known to <strong>the</strong><br />
1 On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong> in Syrian territory a god 5~ is found in<br />
<strong>the</strong> inscriptions <strong>of</strong> Zenjirli <strong>and</strong> Gerjin, among <strong>the</strong> gods <strong>of</strong><br />
J?'udi, but always mentioned after <strong>the</strong> god Hadad. Along<br />
with El is named <strong>the</strong> god Rkb-'el (pronunciation unknown),<br />
who seems to have heen <strong>the</strong> chief divinitv <strong>of</strong> Sam'al (Bauinschrift<br />
:d. Sachau SBA W 1896, p. 1051) <strong>and</strong>- hears <strong>the</strong> title n*l<br />
lord <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>house ' ((nscr. <strong>of</strong> Panamu)[cp WRS, ReL Sem. 94 n.]:<br />
2 Plato, Minus, 315; Diodor. 1386 2014; cp Justin, 186;<br />
Plut. de supersf. 13; Porphyr. a'z ndstin. -256; Suidas,<br />
Xap8bvror yiAws=schol. Od. 20 302, etc.<br />
3743<br />
powers who st<strong>and</strong> under <strong>the</strong>se greater powers that <strong>the</strong><br />
prosperity a man desires in his own immediate circle<br />
<strong>and</strong> in <strong>the</strong> home depends-fruitfulness <strong>of</strong> field <strong>and</strong><br />
flock, success in trade, victory in war. To <strong>the</strong>se<br />
local deities prayers are made <strong>and</strong> sacrifices <strong>of</strong>fered,<br />
<strong>and</strong> to <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong> grateful worshipper returns thanks<br />
when <strong>the</strong> god has ' heard his voice <strong>and</strong> blessed him,' as<br />
<strong>the</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ing formula in <strong>the</strong> Phcenician inscriptions mns.<br />
Hence <strong>the</strong>se local gods live with, <strong>and</strong> in, nature, like<br />
<strong>the</strong> ' Lord ' worshipped at Byblos (see ADONIS), who<br />
according to <strong>the</strong> legend, was killed while hunting <strong>the</strong><br />
boar far up in Lebanon, near <strong>the</strong> fountain <strong>of</strong> 'Afka,<br />
whereupon <strong>the</strong> spring became red with his blood<br />
(Lucian, 2.c. ).<br />
Similar religious observances are met with elsewhere<br />
also. In Tyre <strong>the</strong> awaking (ZyepuLs ; Men<strong>and</strong>., ap.<br />
]os. c. Ap. 118, § 119) <strong>of</strong> Melkart-Heracles was cele-<br />
brated in <strong>the</strong> Macedonian month Peritios (Feb. -March,<br />
according to <strong>the</strong> Tyrian calendar; cp Gutschmid,<br />
KZ. Schr. 4474fl) ; his death in <strong>the</strong> West occurs in<br />
colonial legends. In o<strong>the</strong>r places <strong>the</strong> gods are associ-<br />
ated with o<strong>the</strong>r elements. Thus <strong>the</strong> god <strong>of</strong> Berytus<br />
doubtless a ' Baal Berut,' is treated as god <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sea<br />
(Poseidon; Philo, 225). A Poseidon, to whom <strong>of</strong>ferings<br />
were thrown into <strong>the</strong> sea, is found also in Carthage<br />
(Diod. 1383, Polyb. 79); but <strong>the</strong> name bywhich he was<br />
<strong>the</strong>re called is not known. Similarly, in Sidon honour<br />
was paid to a BaX&uuros Zeds (Hesych., s.v.). In<br />
Berytus. according to Philo (2 11 17 25 27). he has associ-<br />
ated with him seven o<strong>the</strong>r gods, <strong>the</strong> sons <strong>of</strong> Sydyk, '<strong>the</strong><br />
righteous' (2 II 20-i. e., pw), <strong>the</strong> discoverers <strong>and</strong> patrons<br />
<strong>of</strong> navigation, called <strong>the</strong> Kabiri, 'great gods.' We know<br />
that <strong>the</strong>ir worship also reached Greece ; but its Phcenician<br />
form is quite obscure.<br />
No such deities are found u on <strong>the</strong> inscriptions ; pelhaps we<br />
should identify <strong>the</strong>m with <strong>the</strong> ghanician Pataikoi mentioned by<br />
Herod. (Y37), dwarf-like images placed at <strong>the</strong> bows <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
ships (see CAsToK AND PoLmx)-modifications <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> grotesque<br />
Besa (Bes) figures (which <strong>the</strong> Egyptians <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> New Kingdom<br />
borrowed from <strong>the</strong> Semites <strong>and</strong> prized so highly) which appear<br />
so frequently upon Phcenician monuments.1<br />
When, with <strong>the</strong> advance in civilisation, <strong>the</strong> good<br />
things <strong>of</strong> life for which man cares <strong>and</strong> toils increase,<br />
when his interests <strong>and</strong> connections, both <strong>political</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
commercial, are extended, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> community steps<br />
forth from its narrow isolation into a larger world, <strong>the</strong><br />
local gods no longer suffice. There arises <strong>the</strong> need for<br />
higher powers who can exert <strong>the</strong>ir influence <strong>and</strong> extend<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir protection everywhere throughout <strong>the</strong> world. At<br />
<strong>the</strong> same time <strong>the</strong> religious conceptions are raised <strong>and</strong><br />
intensified ; man begins to realise his dependence upon<br />
<strong>the</strong> great cosmic powers, <strong>and</strong> feels <strong>the</strong> necessity <strong>of</strong><br />
coming into close relations with <strong>the</strong>m. Its influence is<br />
shown in two opposite directions; in <strong>the</strong> elevation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> local deities to a rank in which <strong>the</strong>ir influence is not<br />
local, or at least not exclusively so, <strong>and</strong> in <strong>the</strong> intro-<br />
duction into <strong>the</strong> local worships <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> great cosmic<br />
powers, with <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> a worship specially<br />
dedicated to <strong>the</strong>m, which gradually pushes into <strong>the</strong><br />
background <strong>and</strong> ultimately supersedes <strong>the</strong> cults <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
old local deities. Among <strong>the</strong> Israelites <strong>the</strong> first <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se two processes triumphed <strong>and</strong> obtained undivided<br />
supremacy ; <strong>the</strong> tribal-god Yahwk became <strong>the</strong> universal<br />
God-<strong>the</strong> ruler <strong>of</strong> heaven <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> earth, besides whom<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is no o<strong>the</strong>r. Elsewhere we usually find <strong>the</strong> two<br />
Greeks as ADONIS [g.~.] is undiscovered. Perhaps he<br />
remained nameless in <strong>the</strong> cultus, <strong>and</strong> it may well be<br />
that <strong>the</strong> case is similar with El. The ancients, indeed,<br />
have much to tell us <strong>of</strong> El (whom <strong>the</strong>y identify with<br />
Kronos). Philo informs us that 'HXos was made with<br />
four wings, <strong>of</strong> which two are at rest <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r two<br />
outstretched; also, he had two eyes open <strong>and</strong> two<br />
closed, so as to show that in sleeping he also waked<br />
<strong>and</strong> in resting flew. Upon his head he wore (after <strong>the</strong><br />
Egyptian manner) two fea<strong>the</strong>rs. From this description<br />
De Vogue (MeYanges d' Arch. Orient. 109) has identified<br />
him, perhaps rightly, upon Phcenician seals. His<br />
first seat was at Byblos ; later he presented Byblos to<br />
Baaltis, Berytus to Poseidon <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cabiri. In<br />
conformity with this, we find in Steph. By% <strong>the</strong><br />
founding <strong>of</strong> Byblos <strong>and</strong> Berytus ascribed to Kronos.<br />
Thus <strong>the</strong> El <strong>of</strong> Byblos is probably one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gods<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Byblos district. Accordingly El forms an element<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> king <strong>of</strong> Byblos, Elpa'al<br />
(!&m), known to us from coins ; <strong>and</strong> also probably,<br />
in spite <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> elision <strong>of</strong> K, in 5j.y. "EvuXos (Arrian,<br />
ii. 156)-i.e., 'Ain'el, ' Eye <strong>of</strong> El.' In this case El (as<br />
Bdal elsewhere) must be regarded as <strong>the</strong> abbreviation<br />
<strong>of</strong> some fuller divine name. But a similar El must also<br />
have been worshipped in o<strong>the</strong>r towns. It is stated by<br />
Philo (ii. 1824; fr. 34J) that human sacrifices were<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered t.0 Kronos, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Greek historians constantly<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> Kronos as <strong>the</strong> god to whom in Phcenicia,<br />
Carthage, <strong>and</strong> Sardinia, children were sacrificed.' This<br />
Kronos is certainly El. who, according to Philo,<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered up his only son I ~ o d (cp ISAAC, § 3) in time<br />
<strong>of</strong> famine to his fa<strong>the</strong>r Uranos, <strong>and</strong> also killed his son<br />
Sadidos <strong>and</strong> a daughter. Whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>re was a separate<br />
El in every individual town, or whe<strong>the</strong>r he, too, had a<br />
no longer ascertainable proper name (such perhaps as<br />
El-Hamman Melki'aStart) we cannot say.<br />
As man's civilisation <strong>and</strong> culture advance, <strong>the</strong> great<br />
cosmical forces, on which <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world<br />
depends, acquire for him increasing interest <strong>and</strong> importance.<br />
At first <strong>the</strong> community <strong>of</strong> worship takes no<br />
account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m at all. Sun, moon, <strong>and</strong> stars, it is<br />
thought, roll on in <strong>the</strong>ir courses unconcerned about<br />
men ; <strong>the</strong> seasons come <strong>and</strong> go whe<strong>the</strong>r man sacrifices,<br />
processes going on side by side, with no consciousness<br />
or refrains from sacrificing, to <strong>the</strong> celestial powers by<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir mutual opposition. So it was in Phcenicia.<br />
whom <strong>the</strong>se changes are ordered. It is on <strong>the</strong> local<br />
We have already seen how it came to pass that <strong>the</strong><br />
local deities rose to a position <strong>of</strong> larger significance.<br />
It was quite natural that <strong>the</strong> god who had protected<br />
Tyre <strong>and</strong> made it great <strong>and</strong> prosperous should continue<br />
to grant his aid when his worshippers removed to<br />
distant l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> founded cities <strong>the</strong>re; <strong>and</strong> that <strong>the</strong><br />
goddess <strong>of</strong> Byblos <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Astartes should manifest<br />
1 W. M. Miiller's conjecture (As. u. Eur. 310) that <strong>the</strong>y are<br />
derived from <strong>the</strong> Babylonian Izdubar-type seems highly<br />
probable.<br />
3744
PHmNICIA PHCEINICIA<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves as givers <strong>of</strong> prosperity <strong>and</strong> fruitfulness, <strong>and</strong> CZL 89796; ‘De= magna3 virgini ccelesti,’ etc.), <strong>and</strong><br />
as patrons <strong>of</strong> sexual life, not within <strong>the</strong> narrow confines so not <strong>the</strong> wife <strong>of</strong> BdalSamem; but she st<strong>and</strong>s in <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city alone ; to those who worshipped <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong>y inscriptions by <strong>the</strong> side <strong>of</strong> Saturn (i.e., probably,<br />
became gods capable <strong>of</strong> showing <strong>the</strong>ir power far <strong>and</strong> wide Bdal-hamnign) as <strong>the</strong> chief goddess <strong>of</strong> N. Africa. In<br />
over <strong>the</strong> earth. For this reason it was that foreigners also <strong>the</strong> treaty with Philip (Polyb. 719) <strong>the</strong> two appear as<br />
turned to <strong>the</strong>m <strong>and</strong>, to gain <strong>the</strong>ir protection, dedicated Zeus <strong>and</strong> Hera at <strong>the</strong> head <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Carthaginian pan<strong>the</strong>on<br />
to <strong>the</strong>m altars <strong>and</strong> temples. The festival <strong>of</strong> Adonis, (cp Aug. in Heptateuch. 7 16 : ‘lingua punica Juno Astarte<br />
for example, was celebrated throughout <strong>the</strong> Phoenician vocatur ’). Ancient writers identify her more commonly<br />
world ; <strong>the</strong> god <strong>of</strong> Lebanon was worshipped in Cyprus, with Urania. Her image, probably a cone <strong>of</strong> stone,<br />
etc. Of still greater importance in this connection is was brought by <strong>the</strong> emperor Elagabalus to Rome,<br />
<strong>the</strong> similarity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> functions <strong>of</strong> ‘<strong>the</strong> various gods, <strong>the</strong> <strong>and</strong> wedded to <strong>the</strong> stone fetish <strong>of</strong> Emesa which was<br />
Baals, Astartes (‘Altaroth), etc., leading as it does<br />
inevitably to <strong>the</strong> view that <strong>the</strong>y are all but forms <strong>of</strong><br />
one <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> same mighty universal being. They are<br />
deemed to be <strong>the</strong> gods w h rule <strong>the</strong> w-orld <strong>and</strong> regulate<br />
an object <strong>of</strong> veneration with him (Herodian, 56,<br />
Dio Cass. 79 12). For her aspect as moon-goddess, see<br />
below, 5 13.<br />
The divinity is ‘ king ’ as well as ‘ lord.’ He st<strong>and</strong>s<br />
all <strong>the</strong> phenomena <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cosmos. Here, especially, over <strong>the</strong> community which he protects, in <strong>the</strong> same way<br />
<strong>the</strong> Babylonian conception that <strong>the</strong> gods manifest<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves in <strong>the</strong> stars, finds a place (so Astarte,<br />
as <strong>the</strong> earthly ruler does, only that <strong>the</strong> latter also is his<br />
subject. ‘King’ <strong>and</strong> ‘queen’ (Melek <strong>and</strong> Milkat) are<br />
according to Philo, 224). In <strong>the</strong> cultus all <strong>the</strong>se views used with extraordinary frequency in Phoenician personal<br />
are represented; but <strong>the</strong> local tie, by which <strong>the</strong>ir names to denote some divinity (thus we have <strong>the</strong> name<br />
worshippers st<strong>and</strong> to <strong>the</strong>m in a quite different relation Abi-milki <strong>of</strong> Tyre as early as <strong>the</strong> Amarna tablets), just as<br />
from that which <strong>the</strong>y OCCUPY towards similar gods <strong>of</strong> in Israel down to <strong>the</strong> exile Yahwk was very <strong>of</strong>ten invoked<br />
ueighbouring places, still subsists. In feeling, how- as Melek (wrongly vocalised Molech). But here also<br />
ever, <strong>and</strong> in religious idea, <strong>the</strong> sense <strong>of</strong> this local tie we meet <strong>the</strong> same phenomenon as in <strong>the</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> El.<br />
retreats more <strong>and</strong> more into <strong>the</strong> background, <strong>and</strong> Ba‘al. <strong>and</strong> Ba‘alat ; <strong>the</strong>re is not a single inscription in<br />
ultimately its place is taken by <strong>the</strong> larger, more<br />
generalised conception <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Baal, <strong>the</strong> Astarte, etc.,<br />
which any god named Melek or Milkat is invoked.<br />
These, like <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs, were obviously mere titles,<br />
spoken <strong>of</strong> above.<br />
whilst <strong>the</strong> names by which <strong>the</strong> deities were invoked<br />
There are instances, hpwever. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> opposite develop- varied. Perhaps we may co-ordinate Melek with <strong>the</strong><br />
ment also. In isolated cases in <strong>the</strong> Phoenician cities, MelkiL‘aStart mentioned above (but not with Melkart,<br />
on <strong>the</strong> evidence <strong>of</strong> proper names, we can trace <strong>the</strong><br />
worship <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sun-god Shemesh (Adoni-5eme4, CIS<br />
188 [Irlalium] ; Abd-leme5, ib. 116 [Sidon] ; 107<br />
which, when occurring in proper names, remains unchanged),’<br />
<strong>and</strong> Milkat with <strong>the</strong> ‘queen <strong>of</strong> heaven‘ (Jer.<br />
Z.c.)--i.e., <strong>the</strong> Carthaginian Caelestis. Here, too, no<br />
[Citium]), <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> moon-god Yerah’ (‘Abd-yerah, certainty is possible. See MOLECH.<br />
on a seal, TSBA 5456). Reference in this connection None <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> divine names hi<strong>the</strong>rto mentioned have<br />
may be made also to <strong>the</strong> earth-goddess, invoked in<br />
Carthage, along with <strong>the</strong> sun <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> moon (Polyb.<br />
been genuine proper .. names; but such names are,<br />
12. G)ods with never<strong>the</strong>less, abundant enough. To<br />
79), <strong>of</strong> whom Philo has much to say.<br />
this class belongs that <strong>of</strong> Melkart <strong>of</strong><br />
Above all, however, worship was given to <strong>the</strong> ‘god proper names’ Tyre (see a 11), with reference to whom<br />
<strong>of</strong> heaven ’ Bdal-SamCm.<br />
it may here be adied that according to Philo he is <strong>the</strong><br />
His temples are found in Tyre,a in Umm el-‘Awimid (CIS son <strong>of</strong> (<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rwise quite unknown) Damariis, son<br />
17). ,Carthage ‘(3. 379) on <strong>the</strong> Hawk’s Isl<strong>and</strong> near Sulci in<br />
Sardinia (3. 139). He’is <strong>the</strong> Z&s irravpavror <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> altar in<br />
<strong>of</strong> heaven <strong>and</strong> earth (222, -r$ 6& AqpapoDr-ri yivmar<br />
Sarba beside <strong>the</strong> Nahr el-Kelb near Beirht (Renan op. cit. MEXKdepos 6 Kai ‘HpaKXijs) ; <strong>and</strong> according to Eudoxus<br />
332). Carthage borrowed his cult from Cyprus (J& 185). (ap. A<strong>the</strong>n. 9392) son <strong>of</strong> Asteria (Astarte) <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> Zeus.<br />
To <strong>the</strong> religious consciousness <strong>of</strong> a later age he became <strong>the</strong> Ano<strong>the</strong>r name <strong>of</strong> this class is that <strong>of</strong> ESmiin, one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
chief deity, equivalent to <strong>the</strong> Greek Zeus (cp Plautus, Pan.<br />
56J); he alone <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> gods is b Philo explained not chief gods <strong>of</strong> Sidon, where ESmun-‘azar (2. 17) built him<br />
as a deified man, but as <strong>the</strong> sun, who gas been invoked from a temple.<br />
<strong>the</strong> earliest times (25). This narrows <strong>the</strong> conception far too In personal names ESmBn is exceedingly frequent (for <strong>the</strong><br />
much, although we may assume that he was believed to manifest pronunciation cp ‘ABG&oiruos : Lebas, 3 1866~). He was also<br />
himself particularly in <strong>the</strong> sun.<br />
worshipped in Citium (CIS 142#.), <strong>and</strong> bad a temple in<br />
Corresponding to <strong>the</strong> ‘god <strong>of</strong> heaven’ we have <strong>the</strong> Carthage (ih. 252). A trilingual inscription in Phcenician,<br />
‘goddess <strong>of</strong> heaven,‘ <strong>the</strong> ‘Astarte <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> heaven <strong>of</strong> Greek, <strong>and</strong> Latin, from a temple in Sardinia, gives him <strong>the</strong><br />
enigmatical cognomen ~ HD, which is simplyretained in <strong>the</strong> trans-<br />
Baal’ ($y>nwnin~y), to whom we find ESmun.azar lations (Wscolujio Merre, ’AmdqrrLo Mqppq), plainly because<br />
setting up a temple by <strong>the</strong> side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sanctuary <strong>of</strong> even <strong>the</strong>n unintelligible. The inscr:ption shows that ESmhn<br />
B.ial-Sidon-a temple which is not to be confounded was identified with Esculapius, whom Philo (2 20 27) names as<br />
with that ‘<strong>of</strong> our lady Astarte in <strong>the</strong> sea-l<strong>and</strong> (coast- son <strong>of</strong> Sydyk by a daughter <strong>of</strong> Cronos (El) <strong>and</strong> Astarte, <strong>and</strong> as<br />
bro<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kabiri. On ESmhn-‘AStart <strong>and</strong> ESmhn-Melkart,<br />
l<strong>and</strong>).’ This goddess was worshipped by o<strong>the</strong>r Syrian see below.<br />
tribes as well.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r deity frequently found in compound proper<br />
Herodotus calls her Aphrodite Urania (i. 105 137), <strong>and</strong> (very<br />
incorrectly) regards <strong>the</strong> sanctuary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> goddess <strong>of</strong> Askelon<br />
names is ix (prouably to be pronounced *d).<br />
[Atar atis i e , <strong>the</strong> ‘Attar (Astarte) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> god ‘Ate (see ATAR- A Tyrian living in <strong>the</strong> Egyptian On is called Sidyaton (‘Sid<br />
GATI~I as%; lentre <strong>of</strong> diffusion from which her worship passed gives ), son <strong>of</strong> Ger-$id (‘metoikos <strong>of</strong> Sid’) cp CIS 1 IO‘.<br />
to Cyprus <strong>and</strong> Cy<strong>the</strong>ra. Compare also <strong>the</strong> ‘Atur&zmuin-i.e. YatonTid <strong>and</strong> ‘Abdsid are very frequently met with in Carthage *<br />
At21 <strong>of</strong> heaven (an Aramaic forrnbworshipped by an Arabia; for Han-:id cp CIS1292. We do not find any trace <strong>of</strong><br />
nomad tribe (ASur-bani-pal, col. viii. 112 124: cp KATP) worship <strong>of</strong> Sid ; but <strong>the</strong> gods Sid-melkart, <strong>and</strong> Sid-tnt are both<br />
I48 414). <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> ‘queen <strong>of</strong> heaven,’ worshipped in Jerusalem met with (see below). We may hazard <strong>the</strong> conjecture that<br />
Uer. 7 18 44 178). The merchants <strong>of</strong> Citium brought <strong>the</strong> cult ?id is, th; ’Ayprlis <strong>of</strong> Philo (29), ‘<strong>the</strong> hunter,’ or his bro<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir goddess with <strong>the</strong>m to A<strong>the</strong>ns <strong>and</strong> erected a sanctuary Ahrwr, <strong>the</strong> Fisher,’ who figure in that work as men <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
to her <strong>the</strong>re in B.C. 333 (CIA 2 168). In CIA 2 1588 (a tolerably primzval time.<br />
old votive-insciptipn erected bv Aristoclea <strong>of</strong> Citium) she is The name can scarcely be separated from that <strong>of</strong><br />
called ’A+PO~L~ O U ~ Q V See ~ QUEEN OF HEAVEN.<br />
This Astarte was pre-eminently worshipped in Car- SIDON [pv.]. 1s it not most probable that both town<br />
thage <strong>and</strong> all over Punic North Africa. In Latin authors<br />
<strong>and</strong> people have taken <strong>the</strong>ir designation from <strong>the</strong> god<br />
<strong>and</strong> inscriptions she is called Ccelestis, ‘<strong>the</strong> heavenly (cp <strong>the</strong> tribal names Asher, Gad, Edom, etc., derived<br />
goddess.’ She is a virgin (Aug. Civ. Dei, ii. 4 26 ;<br />
from deities)? It may also be noted that Cheyne<br />
(ZATW17189) has rightly discerned <strong>the</strong> eponym <strong>of</strong><br />
1 The name Ben-hodeS (Gk. Novlujucor), so frequently found in<br />
Cyprus, has nothing to do with a cult :<br />
USu=Palzetyros in <strong>the</strong> Usoos named by Philo (28) as<br />
it merely denotes a child<br />
born at <strong>the</strong> new-moon. See BAR-SABBAS, NAMES, g 72.<br />
Men<strong>and</strong>., ap. Jos. c. A,#. 118, iv 70:s TOG A&; Dios, ib. 1 The Melekbaal <strong>and</strong> Melelt‘osir mentioned above cannot<br />
117, 705 ‘Ohu~rriou A& 7b rep&.<br />
help us here.<br />
120 3745<br />
3746
PHaNICIA PHaNICIA<br />
<strong>the</strong> bro<strong>the</strong>r <strong>and</strong> rival <strong>of</strong> Saniemrumos' <strong>of</strong> Tyre, who two masculine names, Egmun-melkart in Citium (CIS 1160<br />
settled upon <strong>the</strong> mainl<strong>and</strong> opposite <strong>and</strong> became <strong>the</strong> 23-28), Sid-melkart in Carthage (id. &), Melkart Reseph (prob!<br />
ably for Rebeph) on <strong>the</strong> old seal <strong>of</strong> Ba'alyaton-man-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-gods<br />
first seafarer (see above, § IO). This being so, <strong>the</strong> (Le., divine servant) <strong>of</strong> Melkarth-reseph: WN D ~ N VN in*sp&<br />
identification with Esau disappears, unless perhaps <strong>the</strong> qxi mpS& (De Vogue, Mil. 81 ; Levy,SiegeZ u. Gemmen, 31,<br />
region took its name from this deity2 (see ESAU). no. 18, from Tyre). Perhaps we should reckon also to this class<br />
We are still less in a position to speak <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> such names as Ba'al-adir, Melek-ba'al, Melek-'osir, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> like.<br />
<strong>the</strong> deities found in <strong>the</strong> Phoenician inscriptions.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se names <strong>the</strong>re is hardly any o<strong>the</strong>r course open<br />
than to assume an identification <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two gods to be intended<br />
Sankun, in IayXowLaBljv, written ]ID, Sakkiin, in <strong>the</strong> very -not a very Semitic idea.<br />
frequent Carthaginian proper name Ger-sakkiin (cp also 'Ahd- The Phoenicians showed in religion, as in so many<br />
sakkun, CIS 112 n [Abydos]), <strong>and</strong> i3DN (Eskiin) in an inscription o<strong>the</strong>r directions, <strong>the</strong>ir readiness to appropriate what<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Pirzus (ib.118), where an altar is set up iiu pD&- 13. was foreign. As in art, so also here, <strong>the</strong><br />
ie., doubtless 'to <strong>the</strong> mighty Eskiin' (cp 11"7y2).3 3ng gods, etc. influences <strong>of</strong> Babylonia (in <strong>the</strong> form in<br />
is found in many Cypriote names, but also in Carthage (CIS<br />
1197 617 670) in <strong>the</strong> names Pmy-bma' <strong>and</strong> PmyatBn . it is<br />
which <strong>the</strong>se had reached Syria) <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
written Pni 'in 'Abdp'm in Abydos (ib. IIZC). Ykn ocdurs in Egypt are most apparent (though <strong>the</strong>re are also Syrian<br />
Ykn-Sillem inCitium(C1.S i. 1013)<strong>and</strong> Carthage(id.484). Dmin gods). The influence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two civilisations upon <strong>the</strong><br />
D'm-$lleh (cp above), son <strong>of</strong> Dm-hanni, GI. 4opudws 4opauo character <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> deities <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> religious symbols <strong>and</strong><br />
from Sidon (A<strong>the</strong>ns, CIS 1 lrg), <strong>and</strong> in Tsnoyi, D'm-malak in<br />
Tyre (ZDMG 39217). pDq (perhaps sfisim, horses, cp I K.<br />
amulets employed, has been referred to already (§ 8).<br />
23 TI) appears in Abd-ssrn rn Cyprus (CIS 1 46 49 53 93) ; see In this instance it is <strong>the</strong> Egyptian element that pre-<br />
SISMAI. Again, we have i3DniL)n. a god or goddess who dominates. The Ba'alat <strong>of</strong> Byblos is modelled exactly<br />
possessed a temple in Carthage (CIS 1253J); <strong>the</strong> first part <strong>of</strong> on <strong>the</strong> pattern <strong>of</strong> Hathor ,or Isis-with cow-horns on<br />
<strong>the</strong> name according to <strong>the</strong> editors is connected with <strong>the</strong> Egyptian<br />
Hathar, whilst <strong>the</strong> second part appears in <strong>the</strong> name Ger-mskr her head, between <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong> sun-disk, in her h<strong>and</strong> a<br />
(ib. 267 372 886 : cp ISSACHAR, $ 6, end).<br />
sceptre with flowers.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> female deities, only one, Tnt, claims attention. Astarte was <strong>of</strong>ten similarly represented (see ASHTAROTH.<br />
It has become customary to pronounce <strong>the</strong> name as<br />
KARNAIM) ; as she was also in <strong>the</strong> Syrian interior-for example<br />
at Kadesh on <strong>the</strong> Orontes, where <strong>the</strong> goddess <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city was sg<br />
Tanith ; but <strong>the</strong>re is no authority for<br />
fashioned. Hence <strong>the</strong> statement <strong>of</strong> Philo (2 24) that Astarte<br />
In <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sidonian 'Abd-tnt Gr. Ap~pr8wpor (CIS assumed as royal ornament <strong>the</strong> head <strong>of</strong> an ox. The symbol<br />
1 116: A<strong>the</strong>ns) <strong>the</strong> goddess is interpreted as Artemis; but later, ceased to be understood <strong>and</strong> was taken for a crescent moo;<br />
whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> seven Tisavi8ss 4 'A~T&%F <strong>of</strong> Philo(2 zo), daughters (whence Lucian's designation <strong>of</strong> Astarte as ZcAqvaiq, De Dea<br />
<strong>of</strong> El <strong>and</strong> Astarte, have anything to do with her we do not Syr. 4) which along with <strong>the</strong> interpretation <strong>of</strong> Ba'al-bnem as<br />
know. She is elsewhere found only in Carthage where, as mean& Sun-god (see above) led to <strong>the</strong> result that <strong>the</strong> heavenly<br />
'<strong>the</strong> lady l'nt <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pne ba'al'5 (that is, as Halevy has reco Astarte (oirpdvra) came to be regarded as a moon-goddess ; so<br />
nised, a place-name-' face <strong>of</strong> Ba'al corresponding to PEKUEL~; Herodian56 : Ai@ves pBv o;ua;rilv Ohpaviav K ~ O V U ~ Qoivncr88<br />
.<br />
she has a temple which was held in high repute, <strong>and</strong> is invoked, 'Au~poap~qv [corrupted from Astarte, <strong>the</strong> reference being to her<br />
along with '<strong>the</strong> lord Baal hamman,' in countless inscriptions, in star, see above] bvo,~&
PHCENICIA PHCl3NICIA<br />
(see HADAD, RIMMON). His name does not occur in<br />
Phoenician inscriptions : but Philo (224) knows him as<br />
‘king <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gods’ who, with ‘<strong>the</strong> greatest Astarte’<br />
(4 peylurq ’Aurdprq) <strong>and</strong> with Zeus son <strong>of</strong> Demarus,<br />
rules <strong>the</strong> l<strong>and</strong> by <strong>the</strong> authority <strong>of</strong> Cronos (El). Philo<br />
mentions also DAGON [q...], whom he takes for a corngod,<br />
but who is <strong>of</strong> Babylonian origin, <strong>and</strong> whose cultus<br />
came to Philistis before <strong>the</strong> Philistine settlement (Dagantakala,<br />
Am. Tab. 215f:).<br />
On Assyrian gods in Sidon, see below, fj 21. Here<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>re also we find traces in <strong>the</strong> later period <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
deity, originally from Gaza, known as hlarna, ‘our<br />
Lord’ in <strong>the</strong> proper names ‘Abdmarfiai (‘jmmy, CZS<br />
116 6) <strong>and</strong> MarThai (i6. 93 [Cyprus] ; cp <strong>the</strong> Tyrian<br />
lamp with <strong>the</strong> dedication 6’eG BseXpapr CZS1 p. 111).<br />
With <strong>the</strong> Macedonian period <strong>the</strong> Greek deities began<br />
to be introduced <strong>and</strong>, as we have already seen, to be<br />
put as much as possible on a level with <strong>the</strong> native ones.<br />
Such, apart from a few o<strong>the</strong>r figures in Philo quite<br />
unintelligible - to us. are <strong>the</strong> deities known to have been<br />
worshipped among <strong>the</strong> Phoenicians.<br />
142tt;y Though <strong>the</strong> general type, however,<br />
state after was <strong>the</strong> same everywhere, <strong>the</strong> details<br />
.. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dan<strong>the</strong>on were. as niieht he<br />
aeatn* exoected. different in ‘each inchdual<br />
city. The only one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se pan<strong>the</strong>ons about which we<br />
possess precise information is that <strong>of</strong> Carthage, which<br />
we know through <strong>the</strong> Greek translation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> treaty<br />
between Hannibal <strong>and</strong> Philip <strong>of</strong> Macedon (Polyb. 79).<br />
In that treaty <strong>the</strong> gods <strong>of</strong> Carthage are arranged in<br />
groups <strong>of</strong> three, invoked in <strong>the</strong> following order :-(I)<br />
Zeus [Ba‘al-Sami%n], Hera [‘AHtart Sme Ba‘al= Coelestis],<br />
Apollo [unknown : hardly ReSep ; many have thought<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ba‘alhammh, hut ESmtin is also possible]; (2)<br />
Gaipwv KapXqGoviwv [Astarte <strong>of</strong> Carthage], Herakles<br />
[Melkart]. Iolaos [unknown ; in any case he is thought<br />
<strong>of</strong> as a constant attendant <strong>of</strong> Melkart] ; (3) @so2 oi<br />
uuurpareubpwor-by which we are to underst<strong>and</strong><br />
fetishes carried along with <strong>the</strong> army to <strong>the</strong> field as was<br />
<strong>the</strong> ark <strong>of</strong> Yahwk--, sun, moon, earth ; (4) rivers, harbours,<br />
streams ; (5) all <strong>the</strong> gods who inhabit (KadXouur)<br />
Carthage. The name most conspicuous by its absence<br />
is that <strong>of</strong> Tnt-for it cannot be represented by any <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> deities mentioned.<br />
The Phoenician worship differs in no essential particular<br />
from that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> allied members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Semitic<br />
family. Sacred territories are dedicated to <strong>the</strong> various<br />
gods, <strong>and</strong> altars <strong>and</strong> niassebahs grow up. Out <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se <strong>the</strong> image <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> god is gradually developed, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
(as we have seen) borrowing its forms from <strong>the</strong> nations<br />
more advanced in civilisation. The image <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> god<br />
dem<strong>and</strong>s also a house for <strong>the</strong> god, a temple, which in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Phmnician cities was built throughout in <strong>the</strong> Egyptian<br />
style. Alongside <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> newer, however, <strong>the</strong> older<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> religion continued to hold <strong>the</strong>ir ground. The<br />
arrangements <strong>of</strong> a Phoenician temple, as we learn from<br />
<strong>the</strong> coins <strong>and</strong> excavations in Cyprus (see Ohnefalsch-<br />
Richter ; especially instructive is his [partly reconstructed]<br />
temenos <strong>of</strong> Idalium. Plate lvi.), included a<br />
large open court, in which stood <strong>the</strong> stone-fetish <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
god <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> worshippers set up <strong>the</strong>ir votive pillars (mas-<br />
SEbahs) <strong>and</strong> divine images. Limitation <strong>of</strong> space forbids<br />
a leng<strong>the</strong>ned discussion as to <strong>the</strong> various sacred animals<br />
(doves to Astarte, etc.), or <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> festivals or <strong>the</strong> ritual.<br />
From Carthage have been recovered several fragments <strong>of</strong> sacrificial<br />
ordinances (CIS 1 165 167.170 -amongst <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong> great<br />
sacrificial tariff <strong>of</strong> Marseilles) which fix with exactitude <strong>the</strong><br />
various dues <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> priests, just as in P, or in <strong>the</strong> Greek ordinances<br />
relating to <strong>the</strong> same subject. Moreover, we have from<br />
Cilium fragments <strong>of</strong> a list <strong>of</strong> expenses for temple servants <strong>and</strong><br />
sacrifices (i6. 86), <strong>and</strong> from Carthage a fragment <strong>of</strong> a sacrificial<br />
calendar (i6.166), as also <strong>of</strong> a list <strong>of</strong> large expenditures by <strong>the</strong><br />
citizens on <strong>the</strong> temple (3. 171). Amongst <strong>the</strong> personnel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
temple, <strong>the</strong> ‘ hair-cutters (barbers) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gods’ (&K 152, CIS<br />
186aPJ, 257-259588) have a prominent place (cp BEARD); as<br />
1 The existence <strong>of</strong> a God 5” (as conjectured by Berger in a<br />
dissertation cited by Noldeke in ZDhfG42 471 [1888])can hardly<br />
be said to have been sufficiently proved.<br />
3749<br />
also have <strong>the</strong> temple-servants (86247&, etc.); o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong>iicial<br />
designations (e.c., 260J 377 ; <strong>and</strong> some in <strong>the</strong> passages already<br />
cited) still remain ohscure (cp Doc;, $ 3).<br />
Of all that <strong>the</strong> individual or <strong>the</strong> state receives by <strong>the</strong><br />
favour <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> god, a certain portion, <strong>and</strong> that <strong>the</strong> first<br />
<strong>and</strong> hest-an (irrapxf or nvmi (CZS15, as in 0T)-<br />
is rendered to <strong>the</strong> giver. So also <strong>the</strong> deity receives<br />
a share <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> spoils <strong>of</strong> war. The practice, <strong>the</strong><br />
existence <strong>of</strong> which we know from <strong>the</strong> OT, <strong>of</strong> sacrificing<br />
to <strong>the</strong> god after any great victory or deliverance. if not<br />
all <strong>the</strong> prisoners, at least <strong>the</strong> best <strong>and</strong> choicest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m,<br />
*upon <strong>the</strong> altar before <strong>the</strong> holy tent ’ was still followed in<br />
Carthage in 307 R. c., after <strong>the</strong> victory over Agathocles<br />
(Diod. 2065). When angry, however, <strong>the</strong> godhead<br />
dem<strong>and</strong>s for propitiation also <strong>the</strong> blood <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> wor-<br />
shipper’s own kin. The maxim ‘every firstborn is<br />
mine ’ plainly held good in Phoenicia also, <strong>and</strong> applied,<br />
as amongst <strong>the</strong> Israelites, to <strong>the</strong> firstborn <strong>of</strong> men as<br />
well as <strong>of</strong> earth (see FIRSTBORN). In ordinary times<br />
no doubt <strong>the</strong> debt was redeemed, as in Israel ; but in<br />
times <strong>of</strong> extremity a man would <strong>of</strong>fer to his god his<br />
own grown-up son. See MOLECH.<br />
If it were his only son, <strong>the</strong> sacrifice would be all <strong>the</strong> more<br />
efficacious, as we learn from <strong>the</strong> story <strong>of</strong> El (like that <strong>of</strong><br />
Abraham ; see ISAAC) in <strong>the</strong> legend narrating <strong>the</strong> institution <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind <strong>of</strong><strong>of</strong>fering(see above, $11, col. 3743). As civilisation ad-<br />
vanced, <strong>the</strong> Carthaginians sought to escape <strong>the</strong>dire obligation by<br />
settingapart forsacrificechildren<strong>of</strong>slaves whom <strong>the</strong>y brought up<br />
as <strong>the</strong>ir own. In 310, however, when Agathocles had reduced <strong>the</strong><br />
state to <strong>the</strong> utmost straits <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> enemy lay encamped before <strong>the</strong><br />
city, <strong>the</strong>y once more laid 200 boys <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir nohlest families upon<br />
<strong>the</strong> arms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> brazen image <strong>of</strong> Cronos where <strong>the</strong>y were allowed<br />
to fall into <strong>the</strong> fiery furnace flaming beneath (Diud. 20 14).<br />
This seems to have been <strong>the</strong> last occasion on which matters<br />
were brought to such extremity; in <strong>the</strong> agonies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Punic<br />
wars we do not read <strong>of</strong> any similar measure being resorted to.<br />
In o<strong>the</strong>r cases, when a catastrophe threatens or has<br />
already befallen, <strong>the</strong> head <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> state <strong>of</strong>fers himself as<br />
a sacrifice to <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>fended deities <strong>and</strong> ascends <strong>the</strong><br />
sacrificial pyre. So, according to <strong>the</strong> legend, did Dido-<br />
Elissa, <strong>the</strong> foundress <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city ; so did Hamilcar after<br />
<strong>the</strong> battle on <strong>the</strong> Himera; <strong>and</strong> a similar step was<br />
meditated by King Juba <strong>of</strong> Numidia after <strong>the</strong> battle <strong>of</strong><br />
Thapsus, <strong>and</strong> would actually have been taken by him<br />
if Cirta his capital had not shut her gates upon him.<br />
The deity dem<strong>and</strong>s yet o<strong>the</strong>r sacrifices besides. Among<br />
<strong>the</strong>se was circumcision-a practice borrowed by <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians,<br />
as by <strong>the</strong> Israelites, from Egypt (Herod. 2 108), <strong>and</strong> according<br />
to Philo (224) performed by El upon himself in <strong>the</strong> first instance<br />
<strong>and</strong> so imposed upon his subjects. We find no allusion, however<br />
to <strong>the</strong> practice <strong>of</strong> castration in honour <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gods so frequentl;<br />
found in Syria <strong>and</strong> Asia Minor. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong> ecstatic<br />
L prophets ’ who in honour <strong>of</strong> ‘<strong>the</strong> Ba‘al ’ perform wild dances<br />
<strong>and</strong> wound <strong>the</strong>mselves with swords <strong>and</strong> spears in orgiastic<br />
frenzy as was done by <strong>the</strong> followers <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> goddess <strong>of</strong> Comma,<br />
<strong>and</strong> ishven now done by <strong>the</strong> Persians at <strong>the</strong> mourning festival<br />
<strong>of</strong> Hasan <strong>and</strong> Husein were known to <strong>the</strong> Phoenicians also (cp<br />
I K: 18 26fi). In <strong>the</strong>’Golenischeff Papyrus (see B 5) a page <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> King <strong>of</strong> Ryhlos, seized by <strong>the</strong> god during a sacrifice, gives<br />
an oracle in his ecstasy. Ano<strong>the</strong>r sacrifice to <strong>the</strong> deity is <strong>the</strong> re-<br />
quirement that virgins should prostitute <strong>the</strong>mselves in <strong>the</strong> service<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> great goddesses <strong>and</strong> make over <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>its to <strong>the</strong> temple<br />
treasury-a practice that was widely diffused among <strong>the</strong><br />
Semites <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> peoples <strong>of</strong> Asia Minor. Perhaps Rohertson<br />
Smith is right in finding here a religious survival <strong>of</strong> primitive<br />
conditions, under which fixed marriages were still unknown <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> sexual coitus was considered as a manifestation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
divinity in human life. We have direct evidence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> custom at Byhlos (Luc. De Dea Syr. 6) <strong>and</strong> in Cyprus<br />
(Herod. 1 199, Justin 18 5). For ano<strong>the</strong>r analogous practice in<br />
<strong>the</strong> service <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> deity which seems to have been current in<br />
Phcenicia cp Eus. Vit. Const. 3 55.<br />
With regard to what happens to men after death <strong>the</strong><br />
views <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phoenicians, as <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Semitic peoples,<br />
remained quite undeveloped. From <strong>the</strong> sepulchral<br />
inscriptions <strong>of</strong> Eshmunazar <strong>and</strong> Tabnit we see that<br />
undisturbed rest in <strong>the</strong> grave was desired, <strong>and</strong> to ensure<br />
it imprecations were employed ; to open a grave or<br />
c<strong>of</strong>fin is an ‘abomination unto Astarte’ (Tabnit 6). It<br />
is, however, hut a comfortless, shadowy existence that is<br />
lived in <strong>the</strong> dark kingdom <strong>of</strong> death ‘ among <strong>the</strong> ghosts<br />
or Rephiinz’ (A40ot. nn. <strong>the</strong> god <strong>of</strong> death, son <strong>of</strong> El,<br />
mentioned in Philo, 2 24). The Phoenician, like <strong>the</strong><br />
Israelite, had no more heartfelt longing than for a<br />
descendant to continue his family <strong>and</strong> with it his earthly<br />
3750
PHCENICIA P H CE N I C I A<br />
existence ; e to have. no son or seed' is <strong>the</strong> heaviest<br />
curse <strong>the</strong> gods can inflict ( ESmun. 8 I I 22, Tabnit 7).<br />
In connection with <strong>the</strong> cultus, among <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians<br />
as elsewhere, <strong>the</strong>re gradually developed a body <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>ological doctrines. The few allu-<br />
15.<br />
<strong>and</strong> cosmogony.<br />
TheologJl<br />
sions to <strong>the</strong>se in <strong>the</strong> inscriptions, however,<br />
are practically unintelligible, as<br />
is shown by <strong>the</strong> texts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Malakba'al-stelPs,l <strong>and</strong> still<br />
more by <strong>the</strong> inscription <strong>of</strong> Ma'siib (see above, 5 IO).<br />
This last would almost seem to sdggest that <strong>the</strong> Israelite<br />
conception <strong>of</strong> an ' apostle' or messenger (1~53) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
deity was not unfamiliar even in Phcenicia (cp <strong>the</strong> name<br />
Ba'al-mal'ak. CIS 1 182 455, etc!). In Cyprus arose <strong>the</strong><br />
singular conception <strong>of</strong> a divinity in which man <strong>and</strong><br />
woman are united, <strong>and</strong> which accordingly was represented<br />
as a bearded goddess.<br />
The <strong>the</strong>ologians <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hellenistic period dragged this to<br />
light, calling <strong>the</strong> deity in question Aphroditus (Philochorus <strong>and</strong><br />
Aristophanea
PHCENICIA PHCI3NICIA<br />
<strong>the</strong> Book <strong>of</strong> Judges shows, <strong>the</strong> conception <strong>of</strong> 'judges '<br />
as rulers <strong>of</strong> a state, with royal but not hereditary powers,<br />
cated to his lord <strong>the</strong> god <strong>of</strong> Lebanon (13a'al-lebanon) 3s<br />
a '' first fruits " (6aapxlj) <strong>of</strong> copper ' (nun> nzwiz) in <strong>the</strong><br />
was not unfamiliar.<br />
temple upon <strong>the</strong> hill Muti Shinoas near Amathus (Ohne-<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> native histories written by <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians falsch-Richter, Kypros, 119). The Tyrian dominion In<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves nothing has come down to us, even in Greek Cyprus must accordingly have extended thus far. These<br />
l,. Sources. trarislntiotis, except a few extracts (pre- designations show that, in <strong>the</strong> interval between Hiram I.<br />
served by Josephus), from <strong>the</strong> Chronicles <strong>and</strong> Ethhaal, <strong>the</strong> ' kings <strong>of</strong> Tyre' had become 'kings<br />
<strong>of</strong> Tyre, which Meiinnder <strong>of</strong> Ephesus had translated <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians,' <strong>and</strong> thus had considerably extended<br />
into Greek ; <strong>the</strong>y relate to <strong>the</strong> period extending from <strong>the</strong>ir authority, in particular by acquiring <strong>the</strong> sovereignty<br />
969 to 774 B.C. (c. Ap. 118 ; Ant. viii. 53 [also viii. 31 on <strong>of</strong> Sidon. This is confirmed by <strong>the</strong> Assyrian data, that<br />
<strong>the</strong> era <strong>of</strong> Tyre]. Ant. viii. 132) <strong>and</strong> to <strong>the</strong> siege uuder <strong>the</strong> whole coast from 'Akko (near <strong>the</strong> Israelite frontier) to<br />
Elulaxs (Ant. ix. 142). Josephus also (6. A$. 121)<br />
gives <strong>the</strong> list <strong>of</strong> kings during <strong>the</strong> period from Nebuchadrezzar<br />
down to Cyrus (585-532 B.c.), but here, too, is<br />
doubtless dependent on Men<strong>and</strong>er, although a little<br />
before (c. Ap. lzo=Ant. x. 111) he refers for <strong>the</strong> siege<br />
<strong>of</strong> Tyre hy Nebuchadrezzar to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rwise unknown<br />
Jewish <strong>and</strong> Phcenician history <strong>of</strong> one Philostratus.<br />
In addition to <strong>the</strong>se Josephus cites(Anf. viii. 53=c. A$.117),<br />
for <strong>the</strong> eriod <strong>of</strong> Hiram I., <strong>the</strong> Phcenician history <strong>of</strong> Dim, who<br />
is close& dependent on Men<strong>and</strong>er. He also is not o<strong>the</strong>rwise<br />
known. It IS probable that Josephus took all <strong>the</strong>se fragments<br />
directly from a compilation by Alex<strong>and</strong>er Polyhistor (v. Gutschmid<br />
; cp Wachsmuth, EinL in die alfe Gesch. 403,f). These<br />
short fragments contain little that relates to <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong><br />
Phcenician colonisation.<br />
We return now to <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r country<br />
from <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Egyptian period onwards. The<br />
18. Period <strong>of</strong> little we know for <strong>the</strong> immediately<br />
independence, succeeding centuries relates only to<br />
Tyre. Tyre was successful not only<br />
in founding a colonial empire, but also in gaining <strong>the</strong><br />
supremacy in <strong>the</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r country. Our accounts begin<br />
-since <strong>the</strong>y concern <strong>the</strong>mselves with merely biblical<br />
interests-with <strong>the</strong> first HIRAM (4.z ).'<br />
Of him we learn that he extended <strong>the</strong> city territory by mounds<br />
in <strong>the</strong> quarter Eurychoros (Jos. c. A$. 113), substituted new<br />
temples for old, to Melkarth <strong>and</strong> Astarte, dedicated a golden<br />
stele (CLJY) to BaHIFam&n in his temple <strong>and</strong> instituted <strong>the</strong><br />
festival <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> awakening <strong>of</strong> Melkarth. He brought back to its<br />
allegiance <strong>the</strong> city <strong>of</strong> Utica which had refused to pay <strong>the</strong><br />
usual tribute. Mention has already been made <strong>of</strong> his relations<br />
with Israel, <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> his Ophir voyages (see also CABUL, HIRAM).<br />
Josephus, in speaking <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> successors <strong>of</strong> Hiram,<br />
gives only <strong>the</strong> duration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> life <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reign <strong>of</strong><br />
each down to <strong>the</strong> founding <strong>of</strong> Carthage. We may<br />
be sure, however, that Men<strong>and</strong>er gave some fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
particulars. It is, at any rate, clear from <strong>the</strong> list <strong>of</strong><br />
kings that usurpations <strong>and</strong> struggles for <strong>the</strong> succession<br />
were not unknown. Hiram's gr<strong>and</strong>son was put to<br />
death by <strong>the</strong> four sons <strong>of</strong> his foster mo<strong>the</strong>r ; <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
<strong>the</strong> eldest held <strong>the</strong> throne for twelve years. Then<br />
followed fur<strong>the</strong>r confusions, with regard to which<br />
tradition is very uncertain, until <strong>the</strong> priest <strong>of</strong> Astarte,<br />
Itoba'al. by violent means (see ETHBAAL) founded a<br />
new dynasty. Owing to his relation to Ahab, one or two<br />
facts respecting him have been preserved by Josephus.<br />
The length <strong>of</strong> his reign is unfortunately not known;<br />
Kuhl, following <strong>the</strong> tradition <strong>of</strong> Theophilus, assigns<br />
him twelve years (876-866 B.c.), but according to most<br />
MSS he reigned thirty-two years (though <strong>the</strong> length<br />
<strong>of</strong> life assigned by tradition to him <strong>and</strong> to his son makes<br />
this doubtful) from 885-854 B.C. The three years<br />
famine <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> period <strong>of</strong> Ahab <strong>and</strong> Elijah (I K. 17 f.) is<br />
mentioned by Men<strong>and</strong>er as having lasted one year.<br />
Hiram I. is in <strong>the</strong> OT invariably called king <strong>of</strong> Tyre<br />
(2 S. 521 I K. 515 910); Ethbaal, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, is<br />
king <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sidonians (I K. 1631). This last is also <strong>the</strong><br />
title borne on <strong>the</strong> oldest extant Phcenician inscription<br />
(CIS 15) by Hiram IL2 who is also named by <strong>the</strong><br />
Assyrians in 738 ; it is <strong>the</strong> inscription <strong>of</strong> a bronze<br />
sacrificial vessel which <strong>the</strong> ' governor ( 13~) <strong>of</strong> KarthadaSt<br />
(Citium), servant <strong>of</strong> Hiram king <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sidonians, dedi-<br />
1 The individual items in Men<strong>and</strong>er's list <strong>of</strong> kings vary in <strong>the</strong><br />
tradition. We here follow <strong>the</strong> reconstruction <strong>of</strong> Riihl (Rhein.<br />
Mus. 18 565 #-although by no means certain at all points).<br />
In <strong>the</strong>ir original form <strong>the</strong> data seem to he quite au<strong>the</strong>ntic.<br />
2 That Hirani II., not Hiram I., is intended in <strong>the</strong> inscrip<br />
tion has been shown by von L<strong>and</strong>au, Beitr. ZUY Alterthums-<br />
Kunde des Orients, 1 (1893).<br />
near Berytus w-as in <strong>the</strong> possession <strong>of</strong> Tyre.' Of Ethbaal<br />
we are told that he pressed even far<strong>the</strong>r north; having<br />
founded <strong>the</strong> city <strong>of</strong> Botrys, to <strong>the</strong> N. <strong>of</strong> Byblos. in <strong>the</strong><br />
neighbourhood <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 'l'heouprosopon. Plainly <strong>the</strong><br />
intention, which was not, however, effected, was toreduce<br />
Ryhlos also to dependence on Tyre. Of Ethbaal we<br />
learn fur<strong>the</strong>r that he founded Auza in Libya. Under <strong>the</strong><br />
third <strong>of</strong> his successors, Pygmalion (820-774), Tinlaeus<br />
(<strong>and</strong>, following him, Men<strong>and</strong>er) placed <strong>the</strong> founding<br />
<strong>of</strong> Carthage in 814-3 ; its mythical foundress is called<br />
<strong>the</strong> sister <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> king. With Pygmalion Josephus's<br />
extract from Men<strong>and</strong>er (Jos. c. Ap. 1 IS) ends.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> next century we get some information from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Assyrian data. The great westward campaigns<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Assyrians began in <strong>the</strong> begin-<br />
19. The<br />
ning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ninth century.2 In 876<br />
suaerainty' ASur-nBsir-nal ~~<br />
invaded Svria -, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
dynasts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> interior as weli as <strong>the</strong> kings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> seal<br />
coast, <strong>of</strong> Tyre, Sidon, Byblos. Maballata (sic), Maisa<br />
(unknown), Kaka (unknown), Amuri, ' Arvad in <strong>the</strong><br />
sea,' brought tribute-brazen vessels <strong>and</strong> parti-coloured<br />
<strong>and</strong> white linen garments as well as silver, gold, lead,<br />
copper, <strong>and</strong> cedar wood. Shalmaneser 11. (860-824)<br />
undertook <strong>the</strong> subjugation <strong>of</strong> Syria in a more thoroughgoing<br />
way. Only <strong>the</strong> more nor<strong>the</strong>rly, however, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Phcenician dynasts were represented in <strong>the</strong> army <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
allied Syrian princes which fought at Karkar in 854<br />
(see AHAB, SHALMANESER). The remaining cities<br />
preferred to submit quietly <strong>and</strong> in 842 <strong>and</strong> 839 paid<br />
tribute to Shalmaneser as <strong>the</strong>y also did later to his<br />
gr<strong>and</strong>son Hadad-nirari 111. (81 1-782) when he marched<br />
upon Syria.<br />
As yet <strong>the</strong>se expeditions led to no enduring suzerainty<br />
(see ASSYRIA, § 32). In <strong>the</strong> first half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> eighth<br />
century <strong>the</strong> movements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Assyrians were restricted<br />
by <strong>the</strong> powerful opposition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kings <strong>of</strong> Urartu. With<br />
Tiglath-pileser 111. began those systematic invasions<br />
which ended in <strong>the</strong> virtual subjugation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> whole<br />
Syrian territory.<br />
It is within this period that more precise information<br />
regarding Phceuicia first becomes accessible. Whilst<br />
<strong>the</strong> older Assyrian kings, as we have seen, mention<br />
(correctly or incorrectly) <strong>the</strong> names <strong>of</strong> a large number<br />
<strong>of</strong> Phcenician cities <strong>and</strong> dynasts, under Tiglath-pileser<br />
111. <strong>and</strong> Sargon <strong>the</strong>re are only three Phcenician states<br />
-Aradus, Byblos, <strong>and</strong> Tyre. The coastl<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Eleu<strong>the</strong>rus region, along with Simyra. 'Arka, <strong>and</strong><br />
Siyana, now belongs to <strong>the</strong> kingdom <strong>of</strong> Hamath (Annals<br />
<strong>of</strong> Tiglath-pileser : 3 R. 9, 3 ZI. 26 46), but is made<br />
by Tiglath-pileser into an Assyrian province. The<br />
Phoenician cities appear to have submitted without<br />
striking a blow. In 738 we find, amongst many o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
dynasts, Matanha'al <strong>of</strong> Arados, Sibittiba'al <strong>of</strong> Byblos.<br />
<strong>and</strong> Hiram 11. <strong>of</strong> Tyre paying tribute to Tiglath-pileser.<br />
Soon afterwards Tyre showed signs <strong>of</strong> a longing for<br />
independence; a heavy tribute was exacted from Metinna<br />
(Mytton-ie., MattBn) <strong>of</strong> Tyre in consequence (about<br />
1 As cities taken by him from Tyre Sennacherib (Prism<br />
Inscr. 2 388) enumerates : -Great <strong>and</strong> Little Sidon, Betzitti,<br />
Sarepta, Mahalliba, USii (pr. UsB),--i.e., Palretyrus,-Akzih.<br />
Akko. In Men<strong>and</strong>er (Jos. Anf. ix. 142 285) we must, <strong>the</strong>refore.<br />
read Irre'c~ re Tupiov PiSLv xai 'Aq rat $ Ildarm'por x d<br />
rroMa1 BMar rrdhrrc (so LV), <strong>and</strong> not with <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r MSS<br />
'Ap=:Arka.,<br />
Various kings <strong>of</strong> Assyria set up steles by <strong>the</strong> Dog river near<br />
Beirut ; but <strong>the</strong>se are in such had - preservation that noteven <strong>the</strong>.<br />
names can now be deciphered.<br />
3753<br />
3754
PHCEINICIA PHCEINICIA<br />
730 B.C.). The main portion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenician coast- Under Esarhaddon (680-668) arose new conflicts.<br />
l<strong>and</strong> still owned <strong>the</strong> sovereignty <strong>of</strong> Tyre; Elulaios Firstly, Sidon rebelled under king ‘Abdimilkut (i.e.,<br />
(Ass. Lule), who reigned, as Men<strong>and</strong>er says (Jos. Ant.<br />
ix. 14z), thirty-six years (say 725-690)~ is <strong>the</strong>refore<br />
called by Sennacherib ‘ King <strong>of</strong> Sidon ’ (cp SIDON).<br />
Abdimilkat with <strong>the</strong> usual obscuration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> u), but<br />
after a long siege <strong>the</strong> city was conquered, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> king,<br />
who had taken refuge beyond seas with ‘a Cilician<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, Tyre lost its hold on Cyprus ; seven dynast, was taken prisoner toge<strong>the</strong>r with his host, <strong>and</strong><br />
Cyprian princes did homage to Sargon,l who set up a put to death (675). The rebellious city, which had so<br />
statue <strong>of</strong> himself in Citium. That Citium was lost to ill requited <strong>the</strong> Assyrians for its deliverance through<br />
Tyre for a time is attested also by Men<strong>and</strong>er.<br />
Under Shalmaneser IV. (727-722) <strong>and</strong> Sargon (722-<br />
705) <strong>the</strong> Phoenicians appear to have remained quiet.2<br />
<strong>the</strong>m from <strong>the</strong> Tyrian ascendency, was destroyed, <strong>and</strong><br />
its population deported. An ’ Esarhaddon’s town ’ was<br />
newly built on ano<strong>the</strong>r site, <strong>and</strong> peopled with foreign<br />
Under Sennacherib (705-681). however, when an aqti-<br />
Assyrian league was planned in South Syria, Elulaios <strong>of</strong><br />
settlers. Hencefonvard an Assyrian governor ruled<br />
here as well as in Simyra. The possessions <strong>of</strong> Tyre on<br />
Tyre gave in hisadhesionto <strong>the</strong> project. The result is told<br />
elsewhere (see SENNACHERIB). It may suffice to quote<br />
<strong>the</strong> words <strong>of</strong> Sennacberib, ‘ From Lule king <strong>of</strong> Sidon I<br />
took his kingdom ’ (COT1 279). Men<strong>and</strong>er informs us<br />
that Elulaios again reduced Citium to subjection, <strong>and</strong> so<br />
<strong>the</strong> mainl<strong>and</strong> were now (if not before) placed under a<br />
similar <strong>of</strong>ficer, who received <strong>the</strong> high-sounding title<br />
‘ governor <strong>of</strong> Tyre ’ although <strong>the</strong> city proper was never<br />
under his rule.’ Tyre still remained unconquered, even<br />
though (presumably) compelled to pay tribute. The<br />
reopened hostilities. In <strong>the</strong> great campaign <strong>of</strong> 701, how- king, Ba‘al (an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> some composite name),<br />
ever, Sennacherib in all essential respects recovered <strong>the</strong> was attacked by Esarhaddon, probably on his second<br />
supremacy, though Tyre, like Jerusalem, escaped being expedition to Egypt (670). The triumph stele <strong>of</strong> Zenjirli<br />
captured. The Tyrians lost <strong>the</strong> whole <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir territory,<br />
<strong>and</strong> in Sidon a new king was installed, Tuba’lu (Ituha‘al),<br />
represents <strong>the</strong> king as leading captive <strong>the</strong> Ethiopian king<br />
Taharka <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> king <strong>of</strong> Tyre by a cord passed through<br />
who had to pay a fixed annual tribute. Elulaios rings on <strong>the</strong>ir lips ; but in reality nei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> one nor <strong>the</strong><br />
himself fled to Cyprus, evidently to <strong>the</strong> recently reacquired<br />
Citium. Here again Men<strong>and</strong>er comes to our<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r ever was his prisoner. Esarhaddon, however,<br />
caused <strong>the</strong> shore to be fortified, <strong>and</strong> cut <strong>of</strong>f <strong>the</strong> Tyrians<br />
aid. He tells us that <strong>the</strong> Assyrian king Selampsas, after from water <strong>and</strong> supplies as his fa<strong>the</strong>r had done. Nei<strong>the</strong>r<br />
conquering all Phmnicia, made peace <strong>and</strong> returned he nor ASur-bani-pal(668-626). however, met with more<br />
home. Selampsas can only be Shalmaneser IV., as success than Sennacherib. On <strong>the</strong> subjugation <strong>of</strong><br />
Josephns also assumes. Therefore, doubtless, what is Egypt, however, Baal gave up <strong>the</strong> struggle, submitted<br />
referred to is his campaign against Hosea <strong>of</strong> Samaria, to a ‘heavy tribute,’ sent his daughter <strong>and</strong> nieces to <strong>the</strong><br />
who formed an alliance with Egypt against <strong>the</strong> Assyrians harem <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> great king, <strong>and</strong> despatched his sou<br />
in 725. Perhaps <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians also at first participated Yahimilki (Yehaumelek) to court, where ASur-bani-pal<br />
in this action-it is to be observed that we learn nothing received him to favour <strong>and</strong> dismissed him. At a later<br />
about Shalmaneser from Assyrian sources-but made date we find A+-bani-pal, like Esarhaddon before him,<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir peace in good time.4<br />
placing Baal <strong>of</strong> Tyre at <strong>the</strong> head <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> list <strong>of</strong> his<br />
Next however Men<strong>and</strong>er goes on to relate-taking no ac- Syrian <strong>and</strong> Cyprian vassals. Yakinlu <strong>of</strong> Arados. who<br />
count df <strong>the</strong> inte6ening period <strong>and</strong> without any knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> wider <strong>political</strong> relations-th& Sidon, Akko, Palaetyrus, <strong>and</strong><br />
seems to have made common cause with Baal, was less<br />
many o<strong>the</strong>r cities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Tyrians revolted <strong>and</strong> yielded <strong>the</strong>mselves fortunate. He had to send his daughter <strong>and</strong> all his<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Assyrian king. Accordin&, when <strong>the</strong> Tyrians <strong>the</strong>mselves sons with rich gifts to <strong>the</strong> great king, <strong>and</strong> abdicate in<br />
rebelled, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> king took <strong>the</strong> field against <strong>the</strong>m, he was favour <strong>of</strong> his son Aziba’al. Opposite Arados, at<br />
supported by 60 ships <strong>and</strong> 800 rowing boats, manned hy<br />
Phaenicians. With only 12 ships, however, <strong>the</strong> fleet was Antarados, ASur-bani-pal raised a memorial stone<br />
scattered, <strong>and</strong> 500 were taken prisoners. The Assyrian king, (PSBA 7 141). These events belong to <strong>the</strong> earlier years<br />
withdrawing, stationed a garrison at Palaetyrus 705 WOTO+O~ <strong>of</strong> his reign. At a later date, after his expedition<br />
I(& 7jv 38pa wyciwv) to cut <strong>of</strong>f <strong>the</strong> water supply. The Tyrians,<br />
however, wi& <strong>the</strong>ir reservoirs held ont for five years<br />
against Uaiti <strong>of</strong> Kedar, Ah-bsni-pal called to account<br />
(701-@6),<br />
<strong>and</strong> presumably obtained satisfactory conditions Thus one Usu <strong>and</strong> Akko which had been insubordinate, put to<br />
sees that <strong>the</strong> war followed <strong>the</strong> same course as under Abimelech death <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>fenders, <strong>and</strong> deported some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> remaining<br />
at <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Amarna letters. The sea-fortress was im- inhabitants to Assyria.<br />
pregnable-a fact admitted by Sennacherih himself, who passes<br />
over Tyre in eloquent silence. The possessions <strong>of</strong> Tyre on <strong>the</strong> The next decades are a blank. We have no precise<br />
mainl<strong>and</strong>, however, were lost to it ; in Usu Sennacherib received information as to wrhat occurred in <strong>the</strong> Phcenician<br />
<strong>the</strong> tribute <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> West, among o<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> Abdili’ti <strong>of</strong> ao. The chal- cities during <strong>the</strong> period <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> decline<br />
Aradus <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> Urumilki-<strong>the</strong> correct name also (-r5a[J~) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> daan period. <strong>and</strong> fall <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Assyrian empire ; this it<br />
gr<strong>and</strong>fa<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> Yehaw-melek <strong>of</strong> Byhlos (CIS 1 It<strong>of</strong> Byhlos.5<br />
Her Cyprian possessions also Tyre had to forfeit ; among <strong>the</strong><br />
would seem was materially hastened by<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r names in <strong>the</strong> list <strong>of</strong> Cyprian va%al princes under Esar- <strong>the</strong> great Scythian invasion-which in 626 extended tb<br />
haddon <strong>and</strong> Agnr-bani-pal appear <strong>the</strong>se <strong>of</strong> Damigu, king <strong>of</strong> Syria (see SCYTHIANS). At any rate <strong>the</strong> Phcenician<br />
KarthadaSt (Citium) Kistura <strong>of</strong> Idalium, <strong>and</strong> RnmiSu <strong>of</strong><br />
Tamassos.6 From this date <strong>the</strong> Tyrians never again exercised cities, like Judah <strong>and</strong> its neighbours-<strong>the</strong> four Philistine<br />
sovereign rights in Cyprus.<br />
cities, Edom, Moab, Ammon-recovered <strong>the</strong>ir independence<br />
for a while ; in <strong>the</strong> list <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> existing states <strong>of</strong><br />
1 [Does this ex lain ‘ even <strong>the</strong>re (in Cyprus) thou shalt have no<br />
rest ’ Is. 23 IZ? gee &he. Ink. Is. 140 ; hut cp Duhm, ad Zoc.1 which he prophesies <strong>the</strong> downfall, Jeremiah (in 604 B.c. )<br />
2 ’The general expression ‘who pacified Kue (see CILICIA) <strong>and</strong> includes <strong>the</strong> kings <strong>of</strong> Tyre, <strong>of</strong> Sidon, <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> isles<br />
Tyre’ [cp Che. Infr. Is. 1441 supplies no sure evidence to <strong>the</strong> beyond <strong>the</strong> sea-Le., Cyprus (Jer. 26 22 ; cp 273 Ezek.<br />
contrary.<br />
3 [So Tiele BAG a37 314’ Che. Znfr. Zs. 144.1<br />
25-29). The inference is plain ; Sidon also must have<br />
4 In GA 1 ir884), p. 467, ’a different view is assumed ; but regained independence <strong>and</strong> received kings <strong>of</strong> its own<strong>the</strong><br />
above now appears to <strong>the</strong> present writer <strong>the</strong> most probable presumably <strong>of</strong> Phcenician origin (see below, § ZI).~ solution. It is in untenable assumption <strong>of</strong> von L<strong>and</strong>au, in his The time, however, for <strong>the</strong> independent life <strong>of</strong> petty states<br />
study on <strong>the</strong> siege <strong>of</strong> Tyre by Shalmaneser in Men<strong>and</strong>er<br />
(Reitrrigp 1) to suppose that in <strong>the</strong> closing portion <strong>of</strong> his was past. When Assyria collapsed, Egypt sought once<br />
account MeA<strong>and</strong>er passes from Sennacherib’s campaign to <strong>the</strong> more to acquire <strong>the</strong> suzerainty <strong>of</strong> Syria (see EGYPT, 68 ;<br />
war <strong>of</strong> Esarhaddon <strong>and</strong> Aiur-hBni-pal against Ra‘al <strong>of</strong> Tyre, so JOSIAH). Its success was brief, though in 588 Apries<br />
that Men<strong>and</strong>er has compressed into one <strong>the</strong> various Assyrian<br />
~ ~~ ~<br />
campaigns against Tyre. That <strong>the</strong> same occurrences should<br />
repeat <strong>the</strong>mselves in sieges <strong>of</strong> Tyre lies in <strong>the</strong> natnre <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> case ; time have been added to <strong>the</strong> list <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> seven which had done<br />
<strong>the</strong> Amarna letters <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> Nebnchadrezzar hear out homage to Sargon.<br />
this view. Alex<strong>and</strong>er was <strong>the</strong> first to contrive <strong>the</strong> means for <strong>the</strong> 1 Wi. GI1 201 n. corrected by Wi. A0Fl441, n.<br />
thorough subjugation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sea fortress.<br />
2 The intentidn df <strong>the</strong> representation was first perceived by<br />
5 Under Esarhaddon <strong>and</strong> ASur-biini-pal <strong>the</strong>se places are taken Pietschmann (Gesck. Phn. 303). See Ansgrabungen in<br />
by Matanha‘al <strong>and</strong> Yakinlu <strong>of</strong> Arvad (see below) <strong>and</strong> Milkiasaph Zendschirli’ in <strong>the</strong> Mif<strong>the</strong>iZ. aus d. Oriental-Sad. d. Bed.<br />
<strong>of</strong> Byblos.<br />
Mus. Hft. 11 17 (von Luschan).<br />
6 Cp Schrader SBA W isgo, pp. 3578 It is not inconceiv- 3 Winckler’s attempt to set aside this evidence (AD. Unt.<br />
able that <strong>the</strong>se three pridcipalities may only <strong>the</strong>n for <strong>the</strong> first 1148) seems to <strong>the</strong> present writer inconclusive.<br />
3755<br />
3756
PHCECNICIA PHCECNICIA<br />
(Pharaoh-Hophra) still hoped to preserve Palestine<br />
lrom becoming a prey to <strong>the</strong> Babylonians. He pene-<br />
trated into Phoenicia, <strong>the</strong> cities <strong>of</strong> which were on <strong>the</strong><br />
opposite side, <strong>and</strong> fought successfully against Sidon <strong>and</strong><br />
Tyre (see Herod. 2 161).l When Nebuchadrezzar’s army<br />
approached, however, Apries retired, leaving Syria to<br />
its fate. No sooner had Jerusalem fallen (586) than<br />
Nebuchadrezzar marched upon Phoenicia. The o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
cities would seem to have again submitted ; but King<br />
Itobaal 11. <strong>of</strong> Tyre once more defied <strong>the</strong> apparently<br />
inevitable. For fifteen years (585-573) Nebuchadrezzar<br />
laid siege to Tyre.<br />
Ezekiel, who in 586 had prophesied <strong>the</strong> approaching assault<br />
(2&20), expected <strong>the</strong> annihilation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> haughty city. He was<br />
mistaken, however ; once more <strong>the</strong> sea-fortress asserted her<br />
strength; <strong>the</strong> prophet was constrained in 570 to confess that<br />
Nebuchadreuar <strong>and</strong> his army had had ‘ no-recompense ’ for <strong>the</strong><br />
manifold fatigues <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> siege (Ezek. 29 18). Yet it is evident<br />
that in <strong>the</strong> end Tyre became more dependent on <strong>the</strong> Babylonian<br />
King than it had previously been.<br />
The list <strong>of</strong> kings which here again has been pre-<br />
served to us (Jos. c. A?. 121) shows that with <strong>the</strong> close<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> siege Itobaal’s reign came to an end-doubtless<br />
he was deposed. His successor was Baal 11. (572-563)<br />
after whom judges (see 5 16) took <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> kings,-at<br />
first, single judges for a few months, <strong>and</strong> afterwards, if<br />
<strong>the</strong> reading be correct.2 two priests (or bro<strong>the</strong>rs) for<br />
six years ; between <strong>the</strong>m (according to Gutschmid,<br />
’ after <strong>the</strong>m ’) Balatoros was king for a year. Then a<br />
ruler Merbaal was fetched from Babylon (555-2). who<br />
in turn was succeeded by Hiram 111. (551-532), under<br />
whom <strong>the</strong> ChaldEan fell into <strong>the</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Persians.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> struggles <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Assyrian <strong>and</strong> Chaldzean period,<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>political</strong> power <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenician towns, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
position <strong>of</strong> ascendancy which Tyre had occupied in <strong>the</strong><br />
Phoenician world, came to an end. Nor could <strong>the</strong><br />
sway <strong>of</strong> Phcenicia over its colonies be any longer<br />
maintained. The spread <strong>of</strong> Greek trade <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
development <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Greek naval power, broke up <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
solidarity, <strong>and</strong> when, even during <strong>the</strong> continuance <strong>of</strong><br />
Cbaldaean suzerainty, <strong>the</strong> Phoenicians <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> west com-<br />
bined to withst<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Greeks, it was no longer Tyre<br />
but Carthage that stood at <strong>the</strong>ir head. Carthage never<br />
indeed broke with Tyre.3 <strong>and</strong> for a long time continued<br />
to send ti<strong>the</strong>s to <strong>the</strong> Melkarth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r city ; but<br />
<strong>political</strong>ly <strong>the</strong> relations came to he inverted ; Carthage<br />
was a great power, Tyre a city-community subject to<br />
foreign lords. Even when, in consequence, <strong>the</strong> trans-<br />
mission <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ti<strong>the</strong>s had been reduced to that <strong>of</strong> a<br />
trifling present, Carthage still continued to show filial<br />
piety by regularly sending festal embassies to Tyre<br />
(Arr. ii. 245 Polyb. xxxi. 2012) until, after <strong>the</strong> defeat<br />
by Agathocles, <strong>the</strong> Tyrian Melkarth again once more<br />
received propitiatory <strong>of</strong>ferings (Diod. 20 14).<br />
The prosperity <strong>and</strong> commercial importance <strong>of</strong> Tyre<br />
suffered much less by <strong>the</strong> vicissitudes <strong>of</strong> war than is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten supposed. Even if <strong>the</strong> connection <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city<br />
with <strong>the</strong> shore was cut <strong>of</strong>f repeatedly for periods <strong>of</strong><br />
years, <strong>the</strong> Assyrians <strong>and</strong> Chaldzeans could do little to<br />
her sea power <strong>and</strong> her trade ; <strong>the</strong> attempt to overwhelm<br />
her by <strong>the</strong> aid <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fleets <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Phoenician<br />
towns was an entire failure. As soon as peace was<br />
restored <strong>the</strong> old relations with <strong>the</strong> interior were re-<br />
sumed ; in fact, <strong>the</strong> import <strong>and</strong> export traffic forthwith<br />
became all <strong>the</strong> brisker from <strong>the</strong> temporary check. As<br />
for Sidon, which o<strong>the</strong>rwise might have been a forrnid-<br />
able rival, it needed a long breathing time in order to<br />
1 In Aradus has been discovered a fragment referring to his<br />
deputy Psamtik-n<strong>of</strong>er (Renan Miss. en. Phen. 265) De<br />
Rouge connected it with Pwktik I., but hardly with justice.<br />
W. M. Muller (Mifflr. d. zforderus. Ges. Hft. 4 1896) tries to<br />
detect a king <strong>of</strong> Byhlos on a very mutilated Ebptian monument<br />
<strong>of</strong> this time from Phcenicia (published TSBA 16 91); hut<br />
this is hiphly problematical.<br />
2 See Riihl Rhein. Mus. 48577. It is perhaps significant<br />
that <strong>the</strong> reign’<strong>of</strong> Baal 11. came toanend with that <strong>of</strong> Nebnchadrezzar<br />
whilst Merbaal’s begins with that <strong>of</strong> Nabuna’id.<br />
8 1; its second treaty with Rome (348) Tyre is named along<br />
with Carthage, though it is not mentioned in <strong>the</strong> first, about<br />
503 (?) (POI. 3 24).<br />
3757<br />
recover from its catastrophe under Esarhaddon. We<br />
must not forget, moreover, that during <strong>the</strong> period<br />
between Tiglath-pileser 111. <strong>and</strong> Cyrus for 20 years<br />
<strong>of</strong> war <strong>the</strong>re were 180 years <strong>of</strong> peace, in which trade<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> general well-being must have prospered, <strong>the</strong><br />
more because <strong>the</strong> connection with <strong>the</strong> great continental<br />
empire made business relations easier <strong>and</strong> more extensive<br />
; <strong>the</strong> sovereigns, too, were energetic in protecting<br />
<strong>the</strong> safety <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> routes <strong>of</strong> traffic. Finally, her loss<br />
<strong>of</strong> colonial supremacy affected Tyre’s commerce but<br />
little because it came about without any violent shock,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> community <strong>of</strong> speech <strong>and</strong> sentiment as well as<br />
<strong>the</strong> sharp anti<strong>the</strong>sis to <strong>the</strong> Greeks kept <strong>the</strong> two portions<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenician nationality toge<strong>the</strong>r. If in Carthage<br />
<strong>the</strong> wares <strong>and</strong> art-products <strong>of</strong> Greece were imported in<br />
ever increasing quantity, nei<strong>the</strong>r could that city dispense<br />
with <strong>the</strong> products <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> East; <strong>and</strong> it need not<br />
be said that <strong>the</strong> Carthaginian merchants sought for<br />
<strong>the</strong>se at <strong>the</strong> fountain-head <strong>of</strong> Phoenician life ra<strong>the</strong>r than<br />
from Greek middle-men.<br />
How prosperous Tyre was, <strong>and</strong> how dominating was<br />
her position in Phoenicia in q86 B.c., is visiblv shown<br />
zl.-persian by Ezekiel’ (2f). It was not bya single<br />
blow that this queen <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> seas lost her<br />
period.<br />
imDerial state : <strong>the</strong> transference <strong>of</strong> Dower<br />
was gradual. When <strong>the</strong> Persians in 539 enteredupon<br />
<strong>the</strong> inheritance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Chaldzeans without meeting with<br />
any resistance from <strong>the</strong> peoples <strong>of</strong> Syria <strong>and</strong> Phcenicia,<br />
Sidon became <strong>the</strong> first <strong>and</strong> richest city <strong>of</strong> Phoenicia (cp<br />
Diod. 1641). The best ships in <strong>the</strong> fleet <strong>of</strong> Xerxes<br />
were contributed by <strong>the</strong> Sidonians, whose king took <strong>the</strong><br />
place <strong>of</strong> honour next <strong>the</strong> great king. Next in order<br />
came <strong>the</strong> king <strong>of</strong> Tyre, <strong>and</strong> after him <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r vassal<br />
princes (Herod. 7 44 96 98 867 ; cp also 3136 7 100 128 ;<br />
Diod. 1479). This superiority <strong>of</strong> Sidon is doubtless<br />
chiefly to be accounted for by <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong> advantage<br />
<strong>of</strong> situation which remained with Tyre during <strong>the</strong> period<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> wars became a positive disadvantage when peace<br />
prevailed, <strong>and</strong> all <strong>the</strong> Phoenician cities equally belonged<br />
to a great empire.<br />
It <strong>the</strong>n became a positive disadvantage that Sidon was able<br />
to exp<strong>and</strong> freely while Tyre was confined within a narrow space<br />
(in Strabo’s time it was very closely built, <strong>the</strong> houses having<br />
more stories than in Rome) ; <strong>the</strong> many purple manufactories<br />
were indeed a great source <strong>of</strong> income, hut did not add to <strong>the</strong><br />
amenity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city as a residence (16223). Above all, <strong>the</strong><br />
merchants <strong>and</strong> caravans must have found it much more convenient<br />
to expose <strong>the</strong>ir goods in Sidon than to ship <strong>the</strong>m over to<br />
Tyre. Sidon accordinsly became a successful competitor with<br />
Tyre. That <strong>the</strong> Persian kings deliberately set <strong>the</strong>mselves to<br />
advance Sidon at <strong>the</strong> expense <strong>of</strong> Tyre is hardly likely; <strong>the</strong><br />
situation existed before <strong>the</strong>y came, <strong>and</strong> was not <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir making.<br />
But <strong>the</strong>y promoted its development ; in Sidon <strong>the</strong> Persian kings<br />
had a park (rrap&ruos), <strong>and</strong> it was here that <strong>the</strong> satraps <strong>of</strong><br />
Syria resided when <strong>the</strong>y came to Phcenicia.<br />
Perhaps <strong>the</strong>re was ano<strong>the</strong>r factor in <strong>the</strong> change. As<br />
a result <strong>of</strong> its destruction <strong>and</strong> re-foundation by Esarhaddon<br />
Sidon received a very mixed population ; <strong>and</strong><br />
even although, after <strong>the</strong> fall <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Assyrian monarchy,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Phmnicians recovered <strong>the</strong> ascendancy, <strong>the</strong> foreign<br />
elements (as in Samaria) continued strongly to assert<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves; indeed, we can still trace <strong>the</strong>m even in<br />
<strong>the</strong> scanty materials that have come down to us2 We<br />
can thus underst<strong>and</strong> how in Sidon <strong>the</strong> national narrowness<br />
may have been counteracted, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> rejuvenated<br />
commonwealth have acquired an international character<br />
which had a favourable influence also upon its trade.<br />
Hence we find in Sidon, during <strong>the</strong> whole Persian<br />
period, in spite <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> opposing <strong>political</strong> interests <strong>and</strong><br />
1 The ‘oracle on Tyre ’ (Is. 23) is too uncertain to be referred<br />
to here (see ‘Isaiah’ in SBOT, <strong>and</strong> cp Che. Infr. Is. 138-145,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> commentaries).<br />
2 The fact has been recognised by Winckler (A T Unf. rtcgz,<br />
p. 177). The tomb <strong>of</strong> ’Au&m Zuvpurh’jgou %Govia &e., Asephat,<br />
daughter <strong>of</strong> ESmunSillem, <strong>of</strong> Sidon) in Pirmus (CZS !,119;<br />
CIA 2119) was erected by Yatonbel, son <strong>of</strong> ESmunsdleh,<br />
chief priest <strong>of</strong> Nergal (hij O ~ OJ~J K 23). We see that <strong>the</strong><br />
Assyrian god Nergal is worshipped even in <strong>the</strong> Sidonian colony<br />
at A<strong>the</strong>ns. Moreover <strong>the</strong> name Yatonbel is compounded from<br />
that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Assyrian Bel, not from that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phaenician Baal.<br />
Similarly a Sidonian in Carthage (CIS 1287) bears <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong><br />
szl~y, ‘Ahdbel.<br />
3758
PHO3NICIA PHO3NICIA<br />
repeated hostility between <strong>the</strong> Greek <strong>and</strong> Phcenician<br />
fleets, <strong>the</strong> traces <strong>of</strong> a singularly strong <strong>and</strong> ever growing<br />
Phi1hellenism.l We find this in its highest degree<br />
under King Straton (probably a corruption for ‘Abd‘aStart)<br />
in <strong>the</strong> first half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fourth century. He maintained<br />
a mast luxurious court, <strong>and</strong> brought toge<strong>the</strong>r<br />
from all parts <strong>of</strong> Greece singing <strong>and</strong> dancing women,<br />
who competed at his feasts for prizes in <strong>the</strong>ir art<br />
(Theopoinp. fr. 126 in A<strong>the</strong>nzus 12531 ; Mian, Yur.<br />
hist. 7 ~ ) . He ~ had close relations with A<strong>the</strong>ns, <strong>and</strong><br />
gave his support to <strong>the</strong> embassy which went to <strong>the</strong><br />
Persian court in 367. In return <strong>the</strong> A<strong>the</strong>nians granted<br />
him <strong>and</strong> his successors <strong>the</strong> right <strong>of</strong> pvoxenia <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Sidonian merchants staying at A<strong>the</strong>ns were exempted<br />
from all taxes (CIA 2 86.) The same king’s name<br />
probably occurs in <strong>the</strong> bilingual inscription from Delos<br />
in CZS 1114, where only <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> his name<br />
. . . yiiy is preserved ; perhaps also in CIS 1 4.<br />
In o<strong>the</strong>r respects <strong>the</strong> conditions <strong>of</strong> Phrenicia seem to<br />
have altered but little under <strong>the</strong> Persians. Now as<br />
before it consists <strong>of</strong> four states-Tyre. Sidon, Byblos,<br />
Arados. All four are in separate existence in <strong>the</strong> time<br />
<strong>of</strong> Alex<strong>and</strong>er <strong>the</strong> Great (Arr. ii. 13 7 1565 201 =Curtius<br />
41 6 fi), whilst Herodotus (798) in his catalogue <strong>of</strong><br />
Xerxes‘ fleet mentions only <strong>the</strong> kings <strong>of</strong> Sidon, Tyre,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Aradus. He does not name Byblos at all ; plainly<br />
in his time this city occupied <strong>political</strong>ly <strong>and</strong> commercially<br />
a very subordinate position, <strong>and</strong> partook <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> character<br />
ra<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> a country town.<br />
Also <strong>the</strong> cities which took part in <strong>the</strong> settlement <strong>of</strong> a level<br />
strip <strong>of</strong> coast near <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn end <strong>of</strong> Lebanon beyond <strong>the</strong><br />
Theouprosopon, called by <strong>the</strong> Greeks Tripolis (its Phcenician<br />
name is unknown) were <strong>the</strong> same three-Arados Tyre <strong>and</strong><br />
Sidon. Each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se had a special quarter to itself,’surrounded<br />
by a wall <strong>and</strong> separated from <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs by an interval. Here,<br />
as Dipdorus (following Ephorus) informs us, <strong>the</strong> Phcenicians<br />
were wont to hold a federal meeting <strong>and</strong> joint <strong>political</strong> council ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> king <strong>of</strong> Sidon attends it with 100 councillors. (Scylax,<br />
104 ; Diod. 16 41 45 ; Strabo 16 z 15.) It is hardly probable that<br />
<strong>the</strong> town, or this attempt to bring <strong>the</strong> whole nationality under a<br />
combined organisation, was older than <strong>the</strong> Persian period.<br />
From <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fifth century <strong>the</strong> Phcenician<br />
states also began to introduce <strong>the</strong> employment <strong>of</strong><br />
coinage-that is, <strong>the</strong> issue <strong>of</strong> pieces <strong>of</strong> precious metal<br />
<strong>of</strong> a st<strong>and</strong>ard money weight, bearing <strong>the</strong> emblem <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong>ten also <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> state or <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lord <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
issuing mint. The Persian kings since Darius had<br />
already, as we know. been in <strong>the</strong> habit <strong>of</strong> coining. <strong>and</strong><br />
reserving <strong>the</strong> right <strong>of</strong> gold coinage as a royal privilege,<br />
whilst <strong>the</strong> issue <strong>of</strong> silver money was left to <strong>the</strong> discretion<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vassal princes <strong>and</strong> communities <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> satraps.<br />
Arados coined by <strong>the</strong> Persian st<strong>and</strong>ard, <strong>the</strong> three o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
cities by <strong>the</strong> Phcenician. We are able to determine<br />
with absolute certainty, however, only <strong>the</strong> coins <strong>of</strong><br />
Byblos, which invariably bear <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> king<br />
(Elpa’al, Adarmelek, ‘Azba’al, <strong>and</strong> ‘Ainel) <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
city ; <strong>the</strong> names <strong>of</strong> two o<strong>the</strong>r-earlier-kings <strong>of</strong> Byblos<br />
we know through <strong>the</strong> stele <strong>of</strong> Yehawmelek. Of Tyre,<br />
Sidon, <strong>and</strong> Arados, also many coins are still extant ;<br />
but <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> city <strong>and</strong> ruler is ei<strong>the</strong>r absent or<br />
inscribed in characters that cannot be clearly made out.<br />
Their assignment to <strong>the</strong> three cities seems to have been<br />
satisfactorily determined by <strong>the</strong> researches <strong>of</strong> Six <strong>and</strong><br />
Babelon ; on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> attempt to determine<br />
<strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> individual king, <strong>and</strong> hence establish<br />
fresh historical data, as for example <strong>the</strong> reign <strong>of</strong> a<br />
certain Euagoras in Sidon, is highly precarious.<br />
1 This is visibly brought before us in <strong>the</strong> sarcophagi <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Sidonian royal sepulchres discovered by Hamdy Hey. See<br />
Hamdy-hey <strong>and</strong> Th. Reinach, Nicrojole voynle ri Sidon. On<br />
<strong>the</strong> interpretation <strong>and</strong> on <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sarcophagi in <strong>the</strong><br />
history <strong>of</strong> art, see especially Studniczka, ‘ Ueber die Grundlagen<br />
der geschichtlichen Erklsrung der sidonischen Sarkophage ’ in<br />
Jahr. d. an&oL. Inst. 10 (r894). Hut <strong>the</strong> present writer<br />
cannot concur in Studniczka’s dating <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> tombs <strong>of</strong> Tabnit <strong>and</strong><br />
Eshmuna‘zar (see below).<br />
2 Probably <strong>the</strong> sarcophagus <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mourning Women dates<br />
from his reign.<br />
3 Six, Nzmism. Chron. 1877 : Ren. nunrism. 1883 ; Eabelon,<br />
BuZl. de cowes#. helien. 15 1891 <strong>and</strong> in Cat. des nronraics<br />
grecqrres de le 522. Nat. 2 (“Ls Gases Achkmknides,’ 1893).<br />
3759<br />
It is clear that Berytus throughout belonged to <strong>the</strong><br />
kingdom <strong>of</strong> Byblos. Then comes <strong>the</strong> territory <strong>of</strong> Sidon<br />
to which also Ornithopolis N. <strong>of</strong> Tyre belonged, whilst<br />
Sarepta nearer Sidon was a possession <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Tyrians.<br />
The coast down to Akko <strong>and</strong> Cannel is Tyrian. The<br />
Palestinian maritime plain during <strong>the</strong> Persian period<br />
was also shared by <strong>the</strong> two states. Dor, probably also<br />
Joppa, was Sidonian ; Ashkelon <strong>and</strong> presumably Ashdod<br />
(Azotus) to <strong>the</strong> N. <strong>of</strong> it were Tyrian.l Only Gaza<br />
formed an independent commonwealth <strong>of</strong> very cosmopolitan<br />
character which steadily rose in importance,<br />
above all as <strong>the</strong> goal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> S. Arabian caravans.<br />
During <strong>the</strong> Persian period it issued coins <strong>of</strong> Attic type<br />
<strong>and</strong> Attic st<strong>and</strong>ard.<br />
Of Sidon we have already spoken. Regarding Tyre<br />
we possess only <strong>the</strong> quite legendary narrative preserved<br />
in Justin (183).<br />
According to Justin’s story <strong>the</strong> city was long <strong>and</strong> variously<br />
attacked by <strong>the</strong> Persians ind came <strong>of</strong>f from <strong>the</strong> struggle<br />
victorious indeed. but so echausted that it fell into <strong>the</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s &<br />
<strong>the</strong> slaves who rdse in insurrection <strong>and</strong> massacred <strong>the</strong>ir masters.<br />
Only one, a certain Straton, was saved by his slaves <strong>and</strong> after-<br />
wards after he had shown <strong>the</strong> superiority <strong>of</strong> his kifts, macle<br />
king dy <strong>the</strong> insurgents. In consequence, Alex<strong>and</strong>er at his con-<br />
quest <strong>of</strong> Tyre, by way <strong>of</strong> exemplary punishment, caused all <strong>the</strong><br />
survivors to he crucified with <strong>the</strong> exception <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> descendants<br />
<strong>of</strong> Straton whom he reinstalled as rulers. If this narrative<br />
contains aAy historical element at all, <strong>the</strong> struggles with <strong>the</strong><br />
Persians <strong>of</strong> which it speaks can in reality only be <strong>the</strong> Assyrian<br />
<strong>and</strong> Chaldrean sieges, <strong>and</strong> it might perhaps be assumed that<br />
after <strong>the</strong>se a revolution may have broken out, in which <strong>the</strong><br />
dependent population made <strong>the</strong>mselves masters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city.<br />
Possibly <strong>the</strong> introduction <strong>of</strong> Sufetes in <strong>the</strong> Chaldaean period<br />
may have been connected with this. The whole story, however,<br />
is <strong>of</strong> so dubious a character that it is hardly possible for us to<br />
give it any place in history.2<br />
Arados rose in importance during <strong>the</strong> Persian period ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> whole <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> opposite coast was subject to it : on<br />
<strong>the</strong> N. Paltos <strong>and</strong> Balanaia; <strong>the</strong>n, opposite Arados,<br />
Karnos or Karna (so Plin. 578). which in <strong>the</strong> second<br />
century B.C. for some time issued coins inscribed lip<br />
(Ant-Arados, mod. Tartiis, is <strong>of</strong> later origin <strong>and</strong> is<br />
mentioned only in Ptolemy) ; <strong>the</strong>n Marathus (on<br />
Hellenistic coins nia), which though never mentioned<br />
in <strong>the</strong> older period had in Alex<strong>and</strong>er’s time become a<br />
great <strong>and</strong> prosperous town; finally, Simyra <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
regions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Eleu<strong>the</strong>ros (Am. ii. 137f: = Curt. iv. 16 ;<br />
Strab. xvi. 2 IZ 2 16).<br />
Under <strong>the</strong> Persian rule Phcenicia, in common with<br />
all Western Asia, enjoyed for a period <strong>of</strong> a century <strong>and</strong><br />
a half an epoch <strong>of</strong> peaceful prosperity, within which,<br />
apart from <strong>the</strong> intervention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenician fleets in<br />
<strong>the</strong> struggle with Greece (480-449) <strong>and</strong> afterwards in<br />
that against Sparta (396-387), <strong>the</strong>re is nothing <strong>of</strong> im-<br />
portance to relate. It was not until <strong>the</strong> decline <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Empire had become growingly evident under Artax-<br />
erxes 11. (404-359) that Phcenicia also became involved<br />
in <strong>the</strong> confusions <strong>and</strong> contests which again broke out.<br />
Euagoras <strong>of</strong> Salamis who in <strong>the</strong> unceasing conflict between<br />
Greeks <strong>and</strong> PhmniciaLs for supremacy in <strong>the</strong> isl<strong>and</strong> had once<br />
again for a short time secured <strong>the</strong> ascendancy for <strong>the</strong> Grecian<br />
element in 387 supported by Akoris <strong>of</strong> Egypt, conquered Tyre<br />
also <strong>and</strong> ruied’it for a time (Isocr. Euag. 62 ; Pane,,. 161 ; .Diad.<br />
15 2). Straton <strong>of</strong> Sidon (see above) held close relations with his<br />
son Nicocles ; both became involved in <strong>the</strong> great Satrap revolt<br />
<strong>of</strong> 362 <strong>and</strong> on <strong>the</strong> victory <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Persians, were compelled to<br />
seek <strong>the</strong>ir &n death-Straton by <strong>the</strong> h<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> his wife (Jer. adv.<br />
/m&. 145).<br />
Most disastrous was <strong>the</strong> revolt <strong>of</strong> all Phcenicia which<br />
in 350 Tennes <strong>of</strong> Sidon in alliance with Nectanebos<br />
<strong>of</strong> Egypt stirred up, embittered by <strong>the</strong> harsh oppression<br />
exercised by <strong>the</strong> Persian kings over Egypt <strong>and</strong> by <strong>the</strong><br />
deeds <strong>of</strong> violence perpetrated by <strong>the</strong> satraps <strong>and</strong> generals<br />
in Sidon. The outbreak in Sidon was one <strong>of</strong> great<br />
violence; <strong>the</strong> populace wasted <strong>the</strong> royal park, burnt<br />
<strong>the</strong> stores at <strong>the</strong> royal stables, <strong>and</strong> put to death as<br />
1 See <strong>the</strong> (unfortunately very fragmentary) notice in Scylax,<br />
lot One is strongly tempted to suspect that it is in some way<br />
connected with <strong>the</strong> story <strong>of</strong> Abdalonymos (referred by Diodorus<br />
to Tyre) <strong>and</strong> derived from that. This appears to be <strong>the</strong><br />
supposition <strong>of</strong> Judeich also (jalrrd. d. archreol. Inst. 10 167,<br />
n. 2).<br />
3760
PHCENICIA PHCENICIA<br />
many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Persians as fell into <strong>the</strong>ir h<strong>and</strong>s. At first<br />
<strong>the</strong> movement seemed likely to succeed. When, however,<br />
Artaxerxes 111. advanced at <strong>the</strong> head <strong>of</strong> a great<br />
army, Tennes <strong>and</strong> his captain <strong>of</strong> mercenaries, <strong>the</strong><br />
Rhodian Mentor-who afterwards played so great a<br />
part, as also did his bro<strong>the</strong>r Memnon, in <strong>the</strong> Persian<br />
service-surrendered <strong>the</strong> city to <strong>the</strong> king, who gave<br />
free course to his vengeance. Sidon was given up to<br />
massacre <strong>and</strong> flame. More than 40,000 inhabitants<br />
are said to have perished-chiefly by <strong>the</strong>ir own h<strong>and</strong>s<br />
or in <strong>the</strong> flames <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> conflagration <strong>the</strong>y <strong>the</strong>mselves<br />
had kindled. The traitor Tennes himself, after he had<br />
served his turn, <strong>the</strong> Persian king caused to be put to<br />
death. Hereupon <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Phmnician cities surrendered<br />
(Diod. 16418). In Sidon we again at a<br />
later date find a king Straton installed by <strong>the</strong> Persians.<br />
When Alex<strong>and</strong>er, after <strong>the</strong> battle <strong>of</strong> Issus (Nov. 333).<br />
marched on Phcenicia. <strong>the</strong> citv-kinm with <strong>the</strong>ir con-<br />
i "<br />
22. Macedonian !ingents were with <strong>the</strong> Persian fleet<br />
<strong>and</strong> Roman in <strong>the</strong> Egean. The cities, however,<br />
period.<br />
opened <strong>the</strong>ir gates to him <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
3761<br />
constitution granted by Antiochus 11. took at <strong>the</strong> same time <strong>the</strong><br />
position <strong>of</strong> a free city-i.r., became exempt from <strong>the</strong> jurisdiction<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> satraps, like <strong>the</strong> cities <strong>of</strong> lonia. Seleucus 11. (247.2~5)~<br />
having been supported by Aradus in his struggle with his<br />
bro<strong>the</strong>r Antiochus Hierax, added <strong>the</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r privilege that it<br />
was not compelled to surrender a subject <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Seleucidz who<br />
had taken refuge <strong>the</strong>re, hut was permitted to intern him-a<br />
concession that greatly raised <strong>the</strong> prestige oi <strong>the</strong> city (Strabo,<br />
xvi. 2 14). In 218 <strong>the</strong> city is completely free, <strong>and</strong> enters into a<br />
treaty <strong>of</strong> alliance with Antiochus <strong>the</strong> tireat IO <strong>the</strong> war against<br />
Ptolemy IV. (Polyh. 568).<br />
Marathus, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, seems to have made<br />
use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>political</strong> situation to emancipate itself from<br />
Aradus; from 278 onwards it coins money after <strong>the</strong><br />
Seleucid era, but with <strong>the</strong> heads <strong>of</strong> Lagid kings <strong>and</strong><br />
queens. The o<strong>the</strong>r Phcenician possessions <strong>of</strong> Aradus<br />
also seek to gain independence ; in 218 Antiochus <strong>the</strong><br />
Great mediates between <strong>the</strong>m <strong>and</strong> Aradus. At a later<br />
date Karne also for some time issued autonomous<br />
coins. But <strong>the</strong> Aradians were in <strong>the</strong> end successful in<br />
reasserting <strong>the</strong>ir supremacy. About 148 <strong>the</strong>y attempted.<br />
after having bribed Ammonius <strong>the</strong> minister, to destroy<br />
Marathus with <strong>the</strong> help <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> royal troops by an<br />
assault which, at <strong>the</strong> last moment, after <strong>the</strong> Aradians<br />
had already put to death <strong>the</strong> ambassadors <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hated<br />
city contrary to <strong>the</strong> law <strong>of</strong> nations, was frustrated by<br />
<strong>the</strong> warning <strong>of</strong> an Aradrean sailor. who by night swam<br />
over to Marathus (Diod. 335). Finally, in <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong><br />
Tigranes. with whom (or soon afterwards) <strong>the</strong> coins <strong>of</strong><br />
Marathus come to an end, <strong>the</strong>y achieved <strong>the</strong>ir object,<br />
Marathus was destroyed <strong>and</strong> its territory like that <strong>of</strong><br />
Simyra divided into agricultural lots (Strabo, xvi. 2 12).<br />
Under <strong>the</strong> Roman rule, <strong>the</strong> whole coast from Paltos to<br />
<strong>the</strong> Eleu<strong>the</strong>riis belonged to <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> cities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ptolemrean domain Sidon is again<br />
<strong>the</strong> only one <strong>of</strong> which we know anything. Here <strong>the</strong><br />
kingship continued to subsist for a long time. When<br />
Ptolemy I. in 312 became for <strong>the</strong> time lord <strong>of</strong> Phmnicia<br />
he appears to have made his general Philokles, son <strong>of</strong><br />
Apollonides, king <strong>of</strong> Sidon, for this title is borne by<br />
Persian fleet dispersed. In Sidon<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>er was received with enthusiasm ; he deposed<br />
king Straton <strong>and</strong> elevated to <strong>the</strong> throne a descendant<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> old royal house, Abdalonymos, who is alleged<br />
to have heen living as a gardener in very humble<br />
circumstances.l Tyre alone was recalcitrant, <strong>and</strong> declined<br />
to admit Alex<strong>and</strong>er to <strong>the</strong> isl<strong>and</strong> city, where<br />
he wished to make an <strong>of</strong>fering to Heracles ; plainly its<br />
hope was to regain its independence, <strong>and</strong> as in former<br />
days to be able to defy <strong>the</strong> lords <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mainl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>er, however, was too strong for it. The fleets<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Phcenician cities, those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kings <strong>of</strong><br />
Cyprus, as well as ships from Rhodes <strong>and</strong> Asia<br />
Minor, %-ere at his disposal. By a causeway which he<br />
constructed in <strong>the</strong> sea-it has ever since connected<br />
<strong>the</strong> isl<strong>and</strong> with <strong>the</strong> mainl<strong>and</strong>-he brought his siege<br />
engines to bear. After a seven month's siege <strong>the</strong> city<br />
was carried by storm (July 332). The entire popula- Philokles in inscriptions <strong>of</strong> A<strong>the</strong>ns <strong>and</strong> Delos (CZA 2 1371 ;<br />
tion, so far as it had survived <strong>the</strong> horrors <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> siege, ~ ~ curr. 2 hell. ~ 4327 . 14409, cp 407, etc.). His rule<br />
was sold into slavery, to <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> 30,000 ; mercy can have been only quite transitory, however, although<br />
was shown only to those who had sought asylum in <strong>the</strong> he continued to take <strong>the</strong> title, for in 311 Phcenicia <strong>and</strong><br />
sanctuary <strong>of</strong> Herakles. among <strong>the</strong>m king Azeniilkos, all Syria. had already been reclaimed <strong>and</strong> readministered<br />
<strong>the</strong> higher <strong>of</strong>ficials, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> members <strong>of</strong> a festal embassy by Demetrius <strong>the</strong> son <strong>of</strong> Antigonus. Philocles. although<br />
from Carthage. The city itself had a new population as already said he continued to wear <strong>the</strong> title, appears<br />
sent to it, <strong>and</strong> in <strong>the</strong> period immediatelyfollowing Tyre in <strong>the</strong> immediately following years as Ptolemy's cornfigures<br />
as one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chief garrison-cities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mace- m<strong>and</strong>er-in-chief on <strong>the</strong> A3gean.2 In <strong>the</strong> third century<br />
donians.<br />
we again meet with a native royal family which also<br />
The subsequent history <strong>of</strong> Phcenicia can be told very exercised <strong>the</strong> priesthood <strong>of</strong> Astarte (see above) ; to it<br />
shortly. After Alex<strong>and</strong>er's death <strong>the</strong> satrapy <strong>of</strong> Syria belong kings Eshmunazar I., Tabnit (pronunciation<br />
fell to Laomedon ; but in 320 he was displaced by quite uncertain ; perhaps identical with Tdvvqo) <strong>and</strong><br />
Ptolemy <strong>of</strong> Egypt. In 315 Antigonus made himself Eshmunazar II., all <strong>of</strong> whom we know <strong>of</strong> through <strong>the</strong><br />
master <strong>of</strong> Syria, <strong>and</strong> maintained himself <strong>the</strong>re despite sarcophagi <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two last named.<br />
repeated attempts <strong>of</strong> Ptolemy to dislodge him. He died The sarcophagi are Egyptian, in mummy form : that <strong>of</strong><br />
on <strong>the</strong> battlefield <strong>of</strong> Ipsus (~oI), <strong>and</strong> his kingdom Tabnit bears <strong>the</strong> epitaph <strong>of</strong> an Egyptian general Penptah, <strong>and</strong><br />
seems to have been stolen from an Egyptian tomb, perhaps in<br />
fell to pieces. Demetrius secured, amongst o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> conquests <strong>of</strong> Artaxerxes III., <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n to have passed into<br />
fragments, Sidon. 'Tyre, <strong>and</strong> portions <strong>of</strong> Palestine ; it <strong>the</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> king <strong>of</strong> Sidon. Both cotlins bear a Phcenician<br />
was not until he went to Greece in 296 that Seleucus inscription with imprecatory formulas against <strong>the</strong> violator <strong>of</strong><br />
tombs ;3 that <strong>of</strong> Eshmunazar also enumerates his buildings <strong>and</strong><br />
came into possession. Among <strong>the</strong> many cities which o<strong>the</strong>r benefactions to Sidon. 'l'he date <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se inscriptions has<br />
he founded, we must probably reckon Laodicea, to <strong>the</strong> heen much disputed, but should most probably be assigned to<br />
S. <strong>of</strong> Tyre. <strong>the</strong> ruins <strong>of</strong> which are now known as Umm <strong>the</strong> Ptolemzan period <strong>and</strong> to <strong>the</strong> middle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> third century<br />
el-'Aw%rnid. After <strong>the</strong> death <strong>of</strong> Seleucus (281) Ptolemy B.C.4 The preference shown for poor Egyptian c<strong>of</strong>fins, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se stolen, over <strong>the</strong> splendid Greek works <strong>of</strong> art which <strong>the</strong><br />
11. became master <strong>of</strong> Palestine, Ccelesyria, <strong>and</strong> Phcenicia, kings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Persian period had caused to be made, certainly<br />
<strong>and</strong> not only he but also his successors continued to shows an amazing degeneracy <strong>of</strong> taste, a native reaction against<br />
hold <strong>the</strong>m despite all efforts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Seleucidre to dis- <strong>the</strong> Greek polish <strong>of</strong> Straton <strong>and</strong> Abdalonymus. In priests <strong>of</strong><br />
__ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ . ~. ~ ~-__ -<br />
possess <strong>the</strong>m, till 197. Aradus alone <strong>and</strong> its territory<br />
1 For this <strong>and</strong> subseauent data derived from coins see Babelon.<br />
(also Orthosia ; see Euseb. Chrun. 1251, ed. Schmne) 0). cit.<br />
were retained by <strong>the</strong> Seleucidre, who greatly favoured 2 That <strong>the</strong> case was so has heen shown by Homolle in BUZZ.<br />
that city.<br />
Cory. hell. 15 137. Formerly a later date was given to him.<br />
3 [For <strong>the</strong> inscription <strong>of</strong> Tabnit, cp Driver, TBS, Introd.<br />
The era <strong>of</strong> Aradus dates from <strong>the</strong> year 259, which may be pp, xxvi-xxix.]<br />
taken as marking <strong>the</strong> termination <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> native kingdom- 4 Eshmunazar designates his overlord as 'Lord <strong>of</strong> kings'<br />
it is probable that in that >-ear <strong>the</strong> cityalong with thr republican'<br />
- (0350 y~), which is <strong>the</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ing title <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ptolemies in<br />
~~ ~<br />
1 The story is related in thoroughly romantic st le by Curtius Phcenihan inscriptions (CfS i. 93 95, inscriptions <strong>of</strong> Ma'gab.<br />
(iv.1158) <strong>and</strong> Justin (1110). In Diodorus (1747) it is re- <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> Lamar Lapithu ; transferred to <strong>the</strong> Seleucidie, CfS 1 7).<br />
ferred to Tyrr, <strong>and</strong> in Plutarch (De fort. Al. 28) even to So far as we know, <strong>the</strong> Persian king always took <strong>the</strong> title 'king<br />
Paphos, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> house <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cinyradz. Abdalonymos <strong>of</strong> Sidon <strong>of</strong> kings,' ~ 2 750. 5 ~ At present we must allow decisive weirht<br />
is mentioned also in Pollux (ti 105).<br />
to this argument' <strong>of</strong> Clerrnont-Ganneau.<br />
3762
PHCENICIA P H CE N I C I A<br />
Astarte, however, <strong>and</strong> under <strong>the</strong> rule <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ptolemies such a<br />
phenomenon presents nothing surprising. The Ptolemies were<br />
never favourable, as <strong>the</strong> Seleucidae were, to Hellenism <strong>and</strong> !he<br />
fusion <strong>of</strong> nationalities <strong>and</strong> civilisations, but dealt wlth <strong>the</strong> native<br />
populations as subject mces sharply separated from <strong>the</strong> ruling<br />
Macedonian Greek race.<br />
Eshmunazar 11. reigned for 14 years in conjunction<br />
with his mo<strong>the</strong>r Am‘aStart <strong>the</strong> sister <strong>and</strong> wife <strong>of</strong> Tahnit.<br />
‘ In compensation for <strong>the</strong> great tribute paid by me, <strong>the</strong><br />
lord <strong>of</strong> kings presented us with Dor <strong>and</strong> Joppa, <strong>the</strong><br />
magnificent grain l<strong>and</strong>s1 in <strong>the</strong> plain <strong>of</strong> Sharon, <strong>and</strong><br />
we added <strong>the</strong>m to <strong>the</strong> territory so that <strong>the</strong>y became<br />
for ever <strong>the</strong> possession <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sidonians.’ The old<br />
Sidonian possessions on <strong>the</strong> Palestinian coast thus came<br />
back to <strong>the</strong>m once more. Eshmunazar died while still<br />
young, leaving apparently no children. On his death<br />
perhaps, or at all events not long afterwards, a republican<br />
constitution was introduced in Sidon.<br />
To this not to <strong>the</strong> later era <strong>of</strong> 111 B.c., must be referred <strong>the</strong><br />
era by wdich a bilingual honorary decree <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sidonian colony<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Pirzus is dated : ‘in <strong>the</strong> 15th year <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people <strong>of</strong><br />
Sidon.’z The inscription (Renan Rm. Arch. 3 ser. t. 11 [1888l,<br />
p. sf:. H<strong>of</strong>fmann ‘Ueher einige’phcen. Inschr.,’ in Adh. G%t.<br />
Ges. rb89, p. 36) belongs as Kohler observed (CIA ii. suppl.<br />
1335 I), to <strong>the</strong> third cent& or only a little after it.<br />
In Tyre <strong>the</strong> same thing occurred in 274: it is by<br />
<strong>the</strong> era <strong>of</strong> ‘ <strong>the</strong> people <strong>of</strong> Tyre’ (274-3) that one <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> inscriptions <strong>of</strong> Umm el‘AwHmid (CIS 1 7) <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
Md+Cb is dated. This district accordingly must have<br />
remained Tyrian. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, Akko became<br />
independent. Coins are extant, with Phoenician legends<br />
(n~y), dated most probably according to <strong>the</strong> Seleucidan<br />
era, down to <strong>the</strong> year 47 (=267 B.c.),~ when Akko<br />
was changed by Ptolemy 11. into a Greek city bearing<br />
<strong>the</strong> name Ptolemais (first mentioned Polyb. 437). With<br />
regard to Byblos we have no information. Tripolis<br />
had doubtless been an independent commonwealth<br />
from <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> period <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Diadochi (Diod.<br />
195885); Babelon attempts to make out for it an<br />
independent era from <strong>the</strong> year 156, <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> which<br />
was afterwards taken by <strong>the</strong> Seleucidan era. Berytus<br />
also issued autonomous coins for some time during <strong>the</strong><br />
second century.<br />
From 197 onwards all Phcenicia belonged to <strong>the</strong><br />
Seleucidae ; but not for long. Soon after, with <strong>the</strong><br />
death <strong>of</strong> Antiochus Epiphanes (164 B.C.), began <strong>the</strong><br />
collapse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kingdom-<strong>the</strong> revolt <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jews, <strong>the</strong><br />
appearance <strong>of</strong> rival claimants to <strong>the</strong> throne, <strong>the</strong> loss<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> eastern provinces. At last came <strong>the</strong> complete<br />
break up at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> second century. For some<br />
time <strong>the</strong> kingdom was in <strong>the</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> Tigranes <strong>of</strong><br />
Armenia (82-69).<br />
Phoenicia was affected in various ways by <strong>the</strong>se confusions.<br />
Berytus was destroyed by Diodoros Tryphon<br />
(141-138 ; Strabo, xvi. 2 19). On <strong>the</strong> a<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong> Tyre,<br />
probably in 126 B. c., a for a small sum ’ (Strabo, xvi. 2 z?),<br />
<strong>and</strong> Sidon in 111, received complete autonomy: with<br />
<strong>the</strong>se years new eras begin for each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> respective<br />
cities. Aradus in <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> Tigranes destroyed<br />
Marathus (see above), <strong>and</strong> regained all its old territory.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong> Arabian robber tribes established<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves in Lebanon, wasting <strong>the</strong> territories <strong>of</strong> Byblos<br />
<strong>and</strong> Berytus, <strong>and</strong> seizing Botrys <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r places on<br />
<strong>the</strong> coast (Strabo, xvi. 2 18). In Byblos <strong>and</strong> Tripolis<br />
usurpers or ‘ tyrants ’ (Strabo, 2.c. : Jos. Anf. xiv. 3 2)<br />
arose, as in so many o<strong>the</strong>r places in Syria.<br />
To this intolerable state <strong>of</strong> affairs an end was put by<br />
Pompey in 64. He made Syria a Roman province <strong>and</strong><br />
established order everywhere. The robber tribes were<br />
subjugated, <strong>the</strong> tyrants <strong>of</strong> Byblos <strong>and</strong> Tripolis put to<br />
death. The privileges <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> territories <strong>of</strong> Aradus,<br />
Sidon, <strong>and</strong> Tyre were confirmed <strong>and</strong> enlarged (Strabo,<br />
xvi. 2 14 223; Jos. Ant. xv. 41). In an inscription<br />
1 Or ‘l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> Dagon ’ . see DAGON, DOR, 5 3.<br />
2 As long as <strong>the</strong> kingihip lasted, dates were gben by <strong>the</strong><br />
regnal years ; when it ceased <strong>the</strong> dating was given accordinc: to<br />
<strong>the</strong> years <strong>of</strong> ‘<strong>the</strong> eop1e’-i.c., <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> republi: (where not along<br />
with, or exclusive& by, <strong>the</strong> Seleucidan era).<br />
3 Cp Babelon, 03. cit. clxxvii.<br />
3763<br />
Tripolis also is called iepd ~al dsuhor KU~ ah6vopor<br />
K U ~ vauapxir. In <strong>the</strong> main <strong>the</strong>se arrangements proved<br />
permanent, though <strong>of</strong> course not without certain modifications.<br />
Thus Augustus on account <strong>of</strong> internal disturbances<br />
deprived Tyre <strong>and</strong> Sidon <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir freedom :<br />
that is, he placed <strong>the</strong>m under <strong>the</strong> direct oversight <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
imperial legate (Dio Cass. 547 ; in 20 B.c.). Their<br />
civic self-government, however, with aristocratic institutions,<br />
he preserved <strong>and</strong> maintained in <strong>the</strong> Phoenician<br />
communities as elsewhere throughout Syria.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> centuries that followed Alex<strong>and</strong>er’s time, <strong>the</strong><br />
Greek influence in Syria became continually stronger.<br />
The Phcenician language occasionally appears in conjunction<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Greek legends on coins down to <strong>the</strong><br />
second century A. D., <strong>and</strong> in <strong>the</strong> mouth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> common<br />
people was superseded, as in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jews, not<br />
by Greek but by Aramaic, as Philo <strong>of</strong> Byblos shows (see<br />
above, 15). Greek everywhere makes its appearance<br />
alongside <strong>of</strong> it, however, <strong>and</strong> in <strong>the</strong> inscriptions Greek<br />
rules alone from <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Roman period.<br />
Relations with <strong>the</strong> Greek world become continually<br />
more <strong>and</strong> more active ; here Sidon takes <strong>the</strong> pre-eminence<br />
by far. Among <strong>the</strong> Phoenicians who are named in<br />
Greek inscriptions <strong>the</strong> Sidonians form a majority.<br />
AS early as <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fourth century we find a Sidonian<br />
-Apollonides son <strong>of</strong> Demetrius (he may have been <strong>the</strong> fa<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong><br />
king Philocles mentioned above)-receiving, on account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
services he had rendered to Attic merchants <strong>and</strong> sailors, <strong>the</strong><br />
honour <strong>of</strong> a Proxenos <strong>and</strong> Benefactor, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> right to acquire<br />
l<strong>and</strong>ed property in Attica (CIA 2 171). Of a still earlier date is<br />
<strong>the</strong> decree in favour <strong>of</strong> two Tyrians (ib. 170).<br />
From <strong>the</strong> second century <strong>the</strong> sons <strong>of</strong> Sidonians,<br />
Berytians, <strong>and</strong> Aradians enter <strong>the</strong> corps <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Attic<br />
ephehi (CIA ii. 482467 469 471 482), <strong>and</strong> among <strong>the</strong> victors<br />
in gymnastic games <strong>the</strong>re figure in A<strong>the</strong>ns (ih 448 498 g66<br />
968 970) <strong>and</strong> elsewhere (Bull. cow. hell. 5 207 [Cos],<br />
6 146 [Delos]) Sidonians, Tyrians, Berytians, Byblians.<br />
Soon we meet with artists (e.g., CIA 2 1318) <strong>and</strong><br />
philosophers who come from Sidon <strong>and</strong> Tyre (Strabo,<br />
xvi. 2 24) ; <strong>and</strong>, however much <strong>the</strong>y may try to preserve<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir native traditions, <strong>the</strong>y become imbued with Greek<br />
elements, as Philo’s exposition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phoenician religion<br />
visibly shows.<br />
The Roman rule introduced also a Latin element.<br />
Augustus in 14 B.C. caused Berytus to be rebuilt as a<br />
Roman colony, <strong>and</strong> settled in it two veteran legions<br />
(Strabo, xvi. 220, etc.). From that time Latin became<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficial <strong>and</strong> prevailing language <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city, which<br />
was endowed with an extensive territory reaching as far<br />
as to <strong>the</strong> source <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Orontes. Under Claudius,<br />
Ptolemais, under Septimius Severus, Tyre, <strong>and</strong> under<br />
Elagabalus, Sidon became Roman colonies.<br />
The trade <strong>and</strong> prosperity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phoenician towns<br />
received a great impetus under <strong>the</strong> peaceful, orderly<br />
rule <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Roman emperors <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir governors. On<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phcenician speech <strong>and</strong> nationalitylike<br />
so many o<strong>the</strong>rs-became extinct within <strong>the</strong> same<br />
period. In N. Africa alone did <strong>the</strong>y continue to drag<br />
on a fur<strong>the</strong>r existence for some centuries longer-how<br />
degenerately, is conclusively attested by <strong>the</strong> language<br />
<strong>and</strong> writing <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> inscriptions.<br />
Among works dealing with Pbcenician history or portions Of<br />
it, after Bochart’s Phaleg ef Cunaair (1646), special mention IS<br />
due to Movers’ Die Phonizicr (1842-1856),<br />
23. Literature. which long enj.oyed a great reputation. In<br />
reality it IS quite un<strong>critical</strong> <strong>and</strong> unscientific,<br />
?nd at every opportunity falls into <strong>the</strong> most fantastic combinations<br />
; it is impossible to warn <strong>the</strong> reader too earnestly <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
need for caution in its use. Good <strong>and</strong> very useful, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>f<br />
h<strong>and</strong>, are <strong>the</strong> short surveys by von Gutschmid (art. ‘Phcenicia<br />
in EB(9)18&1$ . in German in <strong>the</strong> 2nd vol. <strong>of</strong> hls Kleinz<br />
Schnzten) <strong>and</strong> by)Pietschmann, Gesch. der Phocnizier, Berlin,<br />
r889 (in Oncken’s Alllgein. Gescfi. in Einzel-darsfellunlgen).<br />
See fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> Phcenician sectlons <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> larger works on<br />
ancient history ; in particular, Duncker’s Gesch. d. Alferfhums,<br />
Maspero’s Hist. anc. des jeujles de IOrienf, <strong>and</strong> E. Meyer’s<br />
Gesch. d. Alterthutns. Al~o H. Winckler’s ‘ Zur phiinizisch-<br />
Karthagischen Geschichte a numher <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>ten very bold<br />
hypo<strong>the</strong>ses(AZtor. Forschu&n, 1 I18971 421.462). For Carthage<br />
Meltzer’s Gesch. d. Karfhalger (2 vols. as yet : 1879, 1895) is<br />
thorough. On Phcenician religion see fur<strong>the</strong>r Baudissin, Stud.<br />
semit. ReL-gesch. 1 118761, 2 [1878], Baethgen, Beitr. ZUY<br />
3764
PHmNIX<br />
smi. jieL-gesch. [1888] NGldeke in ZDMG 42 4708 several<br />
articles <strong>of</strong> E. Meyer ’in Roscher’s Lex. d. Griech. A.. Rdin.<br />
J/ytkolo@e, in particular <strong>the</strong> article ‘ Baal 12%7fi (<strong>the</strong> older<br />
articles ‘Astarte’ <strong>and</strong> ‘El’ are antiquated) <strong>and</strong> W. R. Smith,<br />
ReL Sern.(z), 1894. E. M.<br />
PHCENIX (kn, or [<strong>the</strong> reading <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Massoretic<br />
school <strong>of</strong> Nehardea <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Western recension, Ginsb. Zntrod,<br />
515, but cp Kirnhi, Ek. <strong>of</strong> Roots, who attests only <strong>the</strong><br />
former] irn, @ below).<br />
The name <strong>of</strong> a certain long-lived bird, Job2918<br />
RVm5 (text <strong>of</strong> EV has ‘s<strong>and</strong>,’ which can hardly be<br />
right). This rendering harmonises with <strong>the</strong> preceding<br />
stichus in MT, which EV renders, ‘ Then I said, I shall<br />
die in my nest’ (i.e., in my home), but RV‘W more<br />
corrcctly, ‘ . . . beside [Heb. with] ’my nest.’ An<br />
allusion is supposed (Ew., Hi., Del., Bu., Du. ) to<br />
<strong>the</strong> story <strong>of</strong> tne bird called <strong>the</strong> Phoenix (Herod. 273).<br />
which lived 500 years, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n consumed itself <strong>and</strong><br />
its nest with fire, to rise again as a yonng Phoenix<br />
out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ashes. Franz Delitzsch even produces<br />
linguistic justification for <strong>the</strong> identification <strong>of</strong> h, @Z,<br />
or 5an, 4ziS (so pointed to preclude <strong>the</strong> rendering ‘ s<strong>and</strong> ’)<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Phcenix. But though Ezekielos, <strong>the</strong> Jewish<br />
dramatist <strong>of</strong> Alex<strong>and</strong>ria (2nd cent. B. c.), introduces<br />
<strong>the</strong> Phanix into his drama on <strong>the</strong> Exodus (Del. Gesch.<br />
d. jiid. Puesie, 219, quotes <strong>the</strong> passage in its context),<br />
it is most unlikely that <strong>the</strong> Phcenix myth was known<br />
to Jewish writers as early as <strong>the</strong> composition <strong>of</strong> Job.<br />
’There are three fur<strong>the</strong>r objections to Ewald’s view-viz.<br />
(I) that <strong>the</strong> next verse leads us to expect a figure<br />
from a tree ra<strong>the</strong>r than from an animal, (2) that <strong>the</strong>re<br />
is considerable difficulty in explaining ’ with my nest,’<br />
in <strong>the</strong> first stichus, with reference both to Job <strong>and</strong> to<br />
<strong>the</strong> Phcenix, <strong>and</strong> (3) that 6 points to a different <strong>and</strong><br />
much more natural form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> text.<br />
@ renders v. 18 thus,rIra<br />
64, $ $At& FOV y?pducr’<br />
&rfp urMcy.os 4oivixor rrohiv ~pdvov j3~6uw.<br />
lhis suggests reading for ‘3iJ-W, ‘with my nest,’ ‘3?1?, ‘in<br />
my old age,’<strong>and</strong> for iin91, ‘<strong>and</strong> as <strong>the</strong> s<strong>and</strong>’or ‘<strong>and</strong>’as <strong>the</strong><br />
phcenix,’ h?>, ‘<strong>and</strong> as <strong>the</strong> palm tree’l (cp Che.jQR, July<br />
1897). When we remember that <strong>the</strong> Phcenix<strong>of</strong> later literature is<br />
merely a materialised form <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fine old Egyptian<br />
symbols <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sun-god (<strong>of</strong> which ano<strong>the</strong>r is <strong>the</strong> CROCODILE<br />
[q:~.]), we can give up Job’s supposed reference to <strong>the</strong> fable<br />
without a pang. On <strong>the</strong> Phcenix, see art. ‘Phcenix’ in EB (’3)<br />
(where references are given) ; Delitzsch on Job 29 18 ; Bochart,<br />
Hieroz. 6 5 ; Charles, Sewets <strong>of</strong> Enoch,. IZJ ; James, Texts<br />
<strong>and</strong> Sfudies v. 188 (4 Bar. 6), <strong>and</strong> cp ON 2. For <strong>the</strong> hlidrashic<br />
stories see Hamburger, RE desJzdenth~ms, 2 @.<br />
T. K. C.<br />
PHCENIX, Acts 27 IZ RV, AV PHENICE (q.~.).<br />
3765<br />
PHRY GIB<br />
periods connected <strong>the</strong> sea-coast <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> interior ; <strong>and</strong><br />
Phrygia has in consequence always had a double history<br />
-on <strong>the</strong> one side linked with <strong>the</strong> central plateau <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> East, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r with <strong>the</strong> sea-coast towns <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Greek peoples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> West ’ (Headlam, in Aufhurity<br />
<strong>and</strong> Archeulozy, 363 8). The original extent <strong>of</strong><br />
Phrygia was much wider than is indicated above ; but<br />
it was only for a short time that <strong>the</strong>re was an independent<br />
Phrygian-kingdom.<br />
The Phryges were a group <strong>of</strong> invaders from Macedonia<br />
(Herod. 7 72) who solit UD <strong>the</strong> old emnire (Hittite?) that had its<br />
~~<br />
c;tl>iul at kycri.i i,~’~’~~i,,:;,,l,,,,in. Crkini <strong>the</strong> Htllc-pcat~, <strong>the</strong><br />
l’hryges ,pre.d OVCT A5ta >Iinx, eii\ra.ard.; acru..r ilir 5mig:mti~<br />
a> f;ar as <strong>the</strong> Hal!., <strong>and</strong> wuth-es*iuarda 10 I ycaonia arid <strong>the</strong><br />
‘l’:~urus. In <strong>the</strong> suuih-cii.r, Ic~~~~iuni wi4.l tlx Ixt cit) uf<br />
I’hrygiii. In thc opp.”itc rlirectiuii, <strong>the</strong>y twrdered upcm <strong>the</strong><br />
Hellc.pmi angl <strong>the</strong> I’rqmnti, (cp <strong>the</strong> (;reek ir3ditic)ii <strong>of</strong> :I<br />
I’hrygi;m ‘~li:.l.t~~,u;icy I:a-ting twciity-tiye ye:.rs from q,5 ii.c.;<br />
IJwd. 7 11; ll f I’+m LcItm >wtniii over<br />
I’hrygia as f;rr as <strong>the</strong> Ilnlys (see LYI)IA). ’l‘lirre was<br />
hencrfor\vard no unity in Phrygixn hiator! ; for <strong>the</strong> old<br />
conquering ~ icc itself was at,sorl,ed by <strong>the</strong> native race<br />
which it had conquered : <strong>the</strong> I’lirygea ‘sank to that<br />
placid level <strong>of</strong> character which tielonged to <strong>the</strong> older<br />
subject population <strong>and</strong> is produccd by tlic genius <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
l<strong>and</strong> iri vhich <strong>the</strong>y dwelt-<strong>the</strong> character <strong>of</strong> an agricultttml<br />
aid c:ittle-breetling popul:itioii <strong>of</strong> rustics, pence.<br />
ful <strong>and</strong> god-liuniouretl ’ {E. llcyer. CA 130~). ’l’his<br />
atsorption \vas already coniplete when, in 278 H.C.. <strong>the</strong><br />
(huls entered Asia Minor. As <strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> thcir victories<br />
over <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>n umvarlike I’hrygians.’ <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> thcir defeats<br />
at <strong>the</strong> Ii<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> .\ttnlus l., king <strong>of</strong> PEHCAML‘M (q.~,.),<br />
<strong>the</strong> Gauls were fiiially rcbtricted tu north-eastern I’hrygia,<br />
which thus twanie known as (;alatia.? ‘l‘he nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
part <strong>of</strong> I’hrygia alJo gaiiird a spc-rial name about 205<br />
PHOROS (&mor: .T-, rBA1).<br />
- - L _I<br />
I. I Esd. 5 g= Ezra 2 3, PAROSH (q.~.).<br />
H.C. As <strong>the</strong> outcome <strong>of</strong> wir with t’rusias, king <strong>of</strong><br />
2. I Esd. 8 30 RV = Ezra 8 3. PAROSH (q.~.).<br />
Rithyiiia, Attnlus I. made hiinsrlf niaster <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> region<br />
3. I Esd. !lzb=Ezra10~5, PARDSH (g.~.).<br />
in wliich lay Cotimiin :lilt1 Dorylmirn, which herice-<br />
PHRURAI (apoypal [BLB]), Esth. 111 RV, AV<br />
forth was cnllcd I’hrygia lipictetus (Acquired Phrygia :<br />
PHURIM. See PURIM.<br />
Strxbo, 576).<br />
‘l‘he south.ca&rn corncr, betweeu <strong>the</strong> ranges nom called<br />
PHRYGIA (@PY,-la [WH Ti.], Acts 166, 1823, EmiY./)qh aid .Su/t~m-l)ngh, wa> called Phqgia Pamreui<br />
doubtful whe<strong>the</strong>r as noun or as adjective [ywpg, under- (Ilap6pttoc); it contain, <strong>the</strong> cities I’olylmtui, Philomelium,<br />
lyrizuiii, arid o<strong>the</strong>r, (Ranla. ///st. (;mq~. <strong>of</strong> Ah? r39J). S.<br />
In z Macc. 522 <strong>the</strong> ethnic<br />
1. Geopaphy. stood].<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> .Ytr/tan-Un,~h, :b f:rr as <strong>the</strong> ’I’aiirus, came tlic dktrict<br />
[@pu.] is applied to Philip, governor <strong>of</strong> kiiuwn itr l’i.idic(l’i.,idiait) Phrygin, u,r I’,hr)gia towarda Pi5idin<br />
Jerusalem under Antiochus Epiphanes-Le., about 170 (Strnbo, 576, py+ Tppyla . : . cv cunv q TB nap6 L~OF<br />
hryopivq 4puyra rat 7 rrpos Iltotlm. Cp Polyh. xxii. 5 14, 6toI.<br />
B. C. ). Phrygia, <strong>the</strong> country <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phryges, was <strong>the</strong> name Y. 5i);:j it- one important city Antioch (‘.4wirabu, 557, 56g, 577).<br />
Minor. Speaking generally, we may say that it em- When I’hrygia came to form part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Konlan probraces<br />
<strong>the</strong> extreme western part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> plateau <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> vinei:il sysiem it was dealt ~ ith in a uav thxt (Id \ iulenue<br />
fringing mountains, from <strong>the</strong> confines <strong>of</strong> Bithynia to to Iiistory ;mcl ethiiology. For, on <strong>the</strong> wit’ Iinnd, <strong>the</strong><br />
those <strong>of</strong> Pisidia. The more eastern portion <strong>of</strong> this wstitrit portion in I\ hich lay Ironiuni, arid rltr s(mihcrn<br />
country consists <strong>of</strong> broad open valleys, gradually merg- portion in u hich lay Antioch, ucre attached to thr proing<br />
into <strong>the</strong> great steppe which forms <strong>the</strong> centre <strong>of</strong> Asia viiice G.rl:tti;i, whilst <strong>the</strong> rest fell to <strong>the</strong> province A& ;<br />
Minor ; to <strong>the</strong> west it is more broken ; it has several on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>the</strong> name I’hrygia \has cxterided in<br />
important mountain ranges ; <strong>and</strong> its cities lie in moun- <strong>the</strong> \V. to enibracc all <strong>the</strong> I.ycus vallcp, <strong>and</strong> in <strong>the</strong> SM‘.<br />
tain valleys, through which pass <strong>the</strong> main-lines <strong>of</strong> com- to enilrace all thc country tounrds Lyia. l ‘ l p;ut ~<br />
munication [e.g., <strong>the</strong> valley <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lycus]. Throughout <strong>of</strong> l’hrygia H hich helonged to Galatia \vas cnllcd Ph~g’a<br />
it run <strong>the</strong> two great roads [<strong>the</strong> old Royal Road, <strong>and</strong><br />
1 Cp Herod. B 32, App. Milhr. 19, &fipdo~v dnohipotr.<br />
<strong>the</strong> Eastern Trade Route] which have at different 2 lhe Gauls ako extended <strong>the</strong>ir conquest, ea.twards, mer<br />
territory claimed by <strong>the</strong> Pontic kmg> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cnppadocianb.<br />
1 Cp Ecclus. 5012, where $n~=+obt& See PALM.<br />
3 See Kaiiia. Cifies <strong>and</strong> Bid. <strong>of</strong> t’hrygin, 131~lf:<br />
3766
PHRYGIA PHRYGIA<br />
GaZaatica; that which belonged to Asia was Phrygia<br />
Asiana (Galen, 4312 [Kuhn, 6515]).' Hence many<br />
inscriptions enumerate Phrygia as a component part <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> province Galatia (e.g., CZL 36818, where <strong>the</strong> parts<br />
are Galatia, Pisidia, Phrygia, Lycaonia, Isauria, Paphla-<br />
gonia, Pontus Galaticus, <strong>and</strong> Pontus Polemoniacns ;<br />
date. after 63 A. D. ). Phrygia experienced many vicissi-<br />
tudes ; but <strong>the</strong>se fall outside <strong>the</strong> province <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> student<br />
<strong>of</strong> NT history (for details, see Rams. Hist. Geog?. <strong>of</strong><br />
AM 1sr$).<br />
The Jews were much favoured by <strong>the</strong> Seleucid kings,<br />
who planted large colonies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m on <strong>the</strong> routes leading<br />
3, Jews in from <strong>the</strong> Syrian Antioch through Lycaonia<br />
into Lydia <strong>and</strong> Phrygia. Antiochns <strong>the</strong><br />
Phrygia' Great settled 2000 Jews in <strong>the</strong> cities <strong>of</strong> Lydia<br />
<strong>and</strong> Phrygia about zoo B.c. (Jos. Ant. xii. 33, (i 1485).<br />
Seleucus Nicator had granted <strong>the</strong> Jews full rights <strong>of</strong><br />
citizenship, equal to those <strong>of</strong> Greeks <strong>and</strong> Macedonians,<br />
in all his foundations (id., Ant. xii. 31, (i 119). <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
later kings maintained this policy. Hence <strong>the</strong> Jews were<br />
members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> aristocracy in <strong>the</strong> Phrygian cities (see<br />
on this Rams. Cities <strong>and</strong> Bish. <strong>of</strong> Phrysia, 2667 8).<br />
The Phrygian Jews were considered in <strong>the</strong> Talmud as<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ten Tribes (for many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m had been transplanted<br />
from Babylonia) ; <strong>and</strong> it is said <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m that <strong>the</strong> baths<br />
<strong>and</strong> wines <strong>of</strong> Phrygia had separated <strong>the</strong>m from <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
brethren-by which we must underst<strong>and</strong> that <strong>the</strong>y had<br />
failed to maintain <strong>the</strong>ir own peculiar religion, <strong>and</strong> had<br />
approximated to <strong>the</strong> Grreco-Roman civilisation by which<br />
<strong>the</strong>y were snrrounded (cp Neubauer, Ge'ogr. du TaZmud,<br />
315; Rams. St. Paul <strong>the</strong> Travelleler, 142 8). The<br />
marriage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jewess Eunice to a Greek at Lystra, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> fact that Timo<strong>the</strong>us, <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>fspring <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> marriage,<br />
was not circumcised, is an illustration <strong>of</strong> this declension<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Jewish st<strong>and</strong>ard (Acts 16 I). The result was<br />
that <strong>the</strong> Jews had in <strong>the</strong>ir turn strongly influenced <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
neighbours, <strong>and</strong> thus prepared unconsciously a favourable<br />
field for Paul's teaching (cp <strong>the</strong> many proselytes at<br />
Antioch, Acts 1343 so). On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>the</strong> Phrygian<br />
Christians were strongly inclined to Judaism (Gal. 16 49),<br />
for <strong>the</strong>re was no strong racial antipathy between <strong>the</strong><br />
natives <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jews (cp Rams. Hist. Cumm. on GaZ.<br />
189J).<br />
The distinction between Galatic <strong>and</strong> Asian Phrygia<br />
which held during <strong>the</strong> first century A.D. (8 z), explains<br />
4. Phrygia <strong>the</strong> passage in Acts 166 (TC @puylau Kal<br />
in <strong>the</strong> wT. raharrh-ilv Xhpav, AV Phrygia <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
region <strong>of</strong> Galatia' ; RV ' <strong>the</strong> region <strong>of</strong><br />
Phrygia <strong>and</strong> Gal&'). The word Phry@an is here an<br />
adjective, connected with <strong>the</strong> following 'country' (Xdpav):<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> whole phrase denotes that territory which was at<br />
once Phrygian <strong>and</strong> Galatian-Phrygian from <strong>the</strong> point <strong>of</strong><br />
view <strong>of</strong> history <strong>and</strong> local feeling, Galatian from <strong>the</strong><br />
point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Roman provincial classification, Le.,<br />
' <strong>the</strong> Phrygo-Galatic Region,' or, ' <strong>the</strong> Phrygian .- or<br />
Galatic Region.'<br />
Even if ' Phrygian' (Qpvyiav) in this passage he regarded as<br />
a noun <strong>the</strong> interpretation must be <strong>the</strong> same. Paul was at Lystra<br />
(v. 3);'<strong>and</strong> unless he ab<strong>and</strong>oned his intention <strong>of</strong> visiting <strong>the</strong><br />
brethren 'in every city' in which <strong>the</strong> word had been preached<br />
(Acts 1536), he must necessarily have crossed <strong>the</strong> frontier <strong>of</strong><br />
Lycaonia a few miles N. <strong>of</strong> Lystra (cp Acts 146) into Galatic<br />
Phrygia, <strong>the</strong> region &&pa, Repio)in which <strong>the</strong> cities <strong>of</strong> Iconium<br />
<strong>and</strong> Antioch lav.<br />
This interpretation is entirely independent <strong>of</strong> any view<br />
that may be held with regard to <strong>the</strong> whereabouts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
churches <strong>of</strong> Galatia. [See, however, GALATIA, $1 IO-<br />
14. I<br />
More difficult is <strong>the</strong> explanation <strong>of</strong> Acts 1823, where<br />
<strong>the</strong> same words are found, but in reverse order (74"<br />
raXarir+jv Xhpav Kal +puyiav, AV <strong>the</strong> conntry [RV<br />
region] <strong>of</strong> Galatia<strong>and</strong> Phrygia'). The phrase in Acts 18 23<br />
covers a larger extent <strong>of</strong> ground than does that <strong>of</strong> Acts<br />
166 ; for <strong>the</strong> latter, we saw, fell NW. <strong>and</strong> W. <strong>of</strong> Lystra,<br />
but Derbe <strong>and</strong> Lystra are now included. The order <strong>of</strong><br />
words is also important ; whereas in Acts 166 two<br />
1 4 AapJAarov :UT' pdv &xLq T$S 'Aura4s Qpvyias.<br />
3767<br />
epi<strong>the</strong>ts are attached to one noun following <strong>the</strong>m, in<br />
Acts 18 23 an epi<strong>the</strong>t <strong>and</strong> noun are connected by ' <strong>and</strong> '<br />
with a following epi<strong>the</strong>t (if +puyiav be an adjective here<br />
also) to which <strong>the</strong> preceding noun must be supplied.'<br />
The explanation set forth by Ramsay is that cPpvyiav is<br />
here an adjective-<strong>the</strong> ' Phrygian Region ' being simply<br />
<strong>the</strong> briefer description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> territory spoken <strong>of</strong> in Acts<br />
166 as <strong>the</strong> 'Phrygo-Galatic Region.' The region is<br />
combined with ano<strong>the</strong>r, lying E. <strong>of</strong> it, <strong>the</strong> region con-<br />
taining <strong>the</strong> towns <strong>of</strong> Derbe <strong>and</strong> Lystra-i.~., Galatic<br />
Lycaonia, as opposed to Antiochian Lycaonia which<br />
was ruled by king Antiochus (see LYCAONIA). This<br />
explanation involves <strong>the</strong> assumption that <strong>the</strong> titles Lyca-<br />
unia Galatica <strong>and</strong> Lycaonin Antiochiann could become<br />
' Galatic region ' (FahariKG XLjpa) <strong>and</strong> ' Antiochian<br />
region ' ('Avrroxiavv Xhpa), respectively, in <strong>the</strong> mouth<br />
<strong>of</strong> a Greek (or <strong>of</strong> Greek-speaking Paul) passing through<br />
<strong>the</strong> country. Put in this way <strong>the</strong> parallelism is deceptive.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> one h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Latin titles only <strong>the</strong> second,<br />
Lycaonia Antiochiana, has been found (CZL 10866o),<br />
whilst <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r is inferred from <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> Pontils<br />
Galaticus; on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Greek terms only<br />
<strong>the</strong> second '( AurroXiavG Xdpa : Ptol. v. 6 17 j occurs. The<br />
use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> term ' Galatic region ' (l'axanrb Xhpa) for<br />
<strong>the</strong> Roman part <strong>of</strong> Lycaonia (<strong>and</strong> even its supposed<br />
Latin equivalent, Lycaonia Galaticn), however possible<br />
on grounds <strong>of</strong> analogy <strong>and</strong> desirable in <strong>the</strong> interests<br />
<strong>of</strong> symmetry, is not yet proved. On this ground, not<br />
on that <strong>of</strong> its complexity, we reject Ranisay's explanation.<br />
Its weakness lies in <strong>the</strong> necessity <strong>of</strong> taking <strong>the</strong> passage<br />
in close connection <strong>and</strong> comparison with Acts 166.<br />
Still, even so, what is <strong>the</strong>re to suggest <strong>the</strong> contrast with <strong>the</strong><br />
non. Roman part <strong>of</strong> Lycaonia whereby alone <strong>the</strong> expression<br />
' Galatic region ' (raAaarm$ x&pa)is justified <strong>and</strong> explained'! In<br />
Acts 166 ' Galatic region' (lhbzrLx$ &pa) receives its explana-<br />
tion <strong>and</strong> limitation precisely from <strong>the</strong> word ' Phrygian' (QpvyLav)<br />
with which it appears in combination ; but in Acts 18 23 <strong>the</strong><br />
defining words '<strong>of</strong> Lycaonia ' ( nis Avraovlac : cp Rams. St. Paul<br />
<strong>the</strong> Traveller, 104) have to be supplied by reference to Acts 14 6<br />
(where Lystra <strong>and</strong> Derbe are called 'cities <strong>of</strong> Lycaonia') On<br />
formal grounds also <strong>the</strong> expression '<strong>the</strong> Galatic region <strong>and</strong><br />
Phrygian' (*v raAartr+v X&pav cdr Qvyiav) becomes objec-<br />
tionable if ex lained as Ramsay explains it. For <strong>the</strong> adjective<br />
' Galatic' in tie first member <strong>of</strong> it indicates <strong>the</strong> province, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> part (Fycaonia) is to be supplied by <strong>the</strong> reader ; hut <strong>the</strong><br />
adjective Phrygian' (apvyiav) in <strong>the</strong> second niember <strong>of</strong> it<br />
indicates <strong>the</strong> part, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> province (Galatia) is to he supplied<br />
by <strong>the</strong> reader; for, according to Ramsay, <strong>the</strong> expression means<br />
'<strong>the</strong> Galatic Region (:f Lycaonia) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phrygian Region (<strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> province Galatia). Cp GALATIA,<br />
5 12.<br />
It is a mistake to insist upon <strong>the</strong> parallelism <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
two phrases ; Acts 1823 must be interpreted indepen-<br />
dently<strong>of</strong> Acts 166. In 166 'Phrygian' (@pryla.) is an<br />
adjective, in 18 23 it is a noun. In Acts 1823 ' Phrygia'<br />
is not Phlrgia GaZatica but Phtygia Asiana : <strong>the</strong> words<br />
'<strong>the</strong> Galatic region ' sum up <strong>the</strong> whole breadth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
province Galatia from Derbe to Antioch, including,<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore, both <strong>the</strong> Galatic part <strong>of</strong> Lycaonia (which,<br />
in Acts 146. is described as Lystra <strong>and</strong> Derbe ' <strong>and</strong> ' <strong>the</strong><br />
region that lieth round about ' ) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Galatic part <strong>of</strong><br />
Phrygia (which, in Acts 166, is described as <strong>the</strong> ' Phrygo-<br />
Galatic Region '). See GALATIA. g 9, col. 1598. On<br />
this view, Paul travelled westwards from Antioch<br />
(Pisidinn) <strong>and</strong> struck <strong>the</strong> eastern trade route perhaps<br />
at Metropolis (in <strong>the</strong> TchaGOvaj; but, instead <strong>of</strong><br />
following <strong>the</strong> road through Apameia <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lycus<br />
valley, he took <strong>the</strong> more direct road through Higher<br />
Phrygia, by way <strong>of</strong> Seiblia (see Rams. Cities <strong>and</strong><br />
Risk. <strong>of</strong> Phqzia, 25795). This journey through<br />
Phrygia is described in Acts 191 as a journey * through<br />
<strong>the</strong> upper coasts' (rd dvcorepiKb y.!pp?! RV '<strong>the</strong><br />
upper country'). It is vain to explain this phrase as<br />
having reference to <strong>the</strong> distinction between High Phrygia<br />
<strong>and</strong> Low Phrygia (Rams. Church in Rom. 94)<br />
if non-Galatian Phrygia has not previously been mentioned,<br />
but only Galatic Phrygia; for that distinction<br />
had no validity for Galatic Phrygia. The phrase in<br />
1 For <strong>the</strong> grammatical point here involved see Ramsay,<br />
Church in Roin. Enr$.(5) 486 ; St. Pad <strong>the</strong> Tr&ller, 210f:<br />
3768
PHUD<br />
Acts 191 refers back to, <strong>and</strong> is an expansion <strong>of</strong>, <strong>the</strong><br />
word Phrjyian (+pu$av) in Acts 1823.<br />
Phrygia is also mentioned in Acts 2 io(on thislist, see PONTUS).<br />
If we are not to admit here a cross-division (<strong>the</strong> names <strong>of</strong> Roman<br />
provinces being used indiscriminately with pre-Roman national<br />
divisions emhraced hy <strong>the</strong>m), Phrygia must he taken to st<strong>and</strong><br />
PIBESETH<br />
PHUVAH (nl?), Gen. 4613 AV, RV PUVAH= I Ch.<br />
71 PUAH (4.v.).<br />
for Galatia ; I'h~ug'a Galaticu being, from <strong>the</strong> point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong><br />
Jews, <strong>the</strong> most important part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phrygian province (cp<br />
Acts 13 qf: 14 I).<br />
PHYGELLUS, RV better, Phygelus (ayrshoc.<br />
KCD), is mentioned in 2 Tim. 1151. beside Hermogenes<br />
as having become alienated from Paul. Pseudo-Doro<strong>the</strong>us<br />
speaks <strong>of</strong> both (see HERMOGENES), <strong>and</strong> represents<br />
Phygelus as having been a follower <strong>of</strong> Simon (Magus),<br />
Christianity was introduced into Galatic Phrygia by <strong>and</strong> afterwards bishop <strong>of</strong> Ephesus. O<strong>the</strong>rwise <strong>the</strong> voice<br />
Paul <strong>and</strong> Barnabas on <strong>the</strong> 'first missionary journey' (Acts<br />
5. Christianity 1314$, Pisidian Antioch ; Acts 141$,<br />
in Phrygia. Iconiuni ; both revisited, 1421). On<br />
<strong>of</strong> legend is silent.<br />
PHYLACTERIES (@~A&KTHPI&), Mt. 23s. See<br />
<strong>the</strong> ' second journey' Paul <strong>and</strong> Silas FRONTLETS.<br />
traversed Asian Phrygia, probably from (Pisidian)<br />
Antioch to Dorylzeum (Acts 166J See MYSIA) ; but<br />
no public prexhing was attempted as <strong>the</strong>y were ' forbidden<br />
to preach <strong>the</strong> word in Asia.' On <strong>the</strong> ' third<br />
journey,' Phrygin Galaaticu was traversed a fourth time,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Phvygiu ilsiana a second time; but we have no<br />
PHYLARCHES (0 @~AAPXHC), 2 Macc. 832 RVmg.,<br />
AV PHILARCHES, RV ' <strong>the</strong> phylarch.'<br />
PHYSICIAN (K61, Gen. 502 etc.; I&TPOC, Mt.912<br />
etc. ). See MEDICINE.<br />
record <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> establishment <strong>of</strong> churches in <strong>the</strong> latter<br />
region. There is, however, no reason at all for imagining<br />
that <strong>the</strong> churches <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lycus valley (Colossae,<br />
Laodiceia, <strong>and</strong> Hierapolis) were <strong>the</strong> earliest foundations<br />
in Phrygia; although it is clear from Rev. Irr that<br />
Laodiceia was <strong>the</strong> representative church, at any rate in<br />
SW. Phrygia, in <strong>the</strong> first century A.13. The tradition<br />
that Bartholoniew was <strong>the</strong> apostle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lycaones<br />
makes it probable that central Phrygia was <strong>the</strong> scene <strong>of</strong><br />
his lahours, for <strong>the</strong> Lycaones lay NW. <strong>of</strong> Synnada<br />
(Rams. Citie-r <strong>and</strong> Rish. Phrygia. 2709). In <strong>the</strong><br />
history <strong>of</strong> Christianity in Asia Minor. Phrygia holds an<br />
important place, <strong>and</strong> from it comes a larger number <strong>of</strong><br />
inscriptions claimed a3 Christian than from any o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world except Rome itself.<br />
Christianremainscomr:fromfour dktricts : (1)central Phrygia,<br />
<strong>the</strong> region <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pentapolis. From it comes <strong>the</strong> famous tomhinscription<br />
<strong>of</strong> Avircius Marcellus, hishop or preshytsr <strong>of</strong> Hierapolis<br />
(192 A.U.).l He was <strong>the</strong> leader <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> anti-hlontanistparty,<br />
a 'disciple <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pure Shepherd, who feedeth flocks <strong>of</strong> sheep on<br />
mountains <strong>and</strong> plains ' who ' with Paul for a companion followed<br />
while Faith led <strong>the</strong> Cay' (Rams. Cities <strong>and</strong> Bish. <strong>of</strong>P/zrygia,<br />
2 7098); (2) <strong>the</strong> districts <strong>of</strong> Eumeneia <strong>and</strong> Apameia; (3) Iconium<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> country N. <strong>and</strong> NE. from it (Rams. Hisf. Conrm. on<br />
Gal. 220); (4) N. Phrygia, <strong>the</strong> valley <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong> Tembris (Rams.<br />
Ex#m., 1888, ?4orJ).<br />
PIBESETH (npa+g ; ~Oy~acToc [B.4rI. CTOMh<br />
~ ~ n e l[Q] p & ; Bubastus), a city <strong>of</strong> Egypt which along<br />
with On - Heliopolis is threatened with<br />
Name* destruction by <strong>the</strong> Babylonian armies<br />
(Ezek. 3017). In view <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> connection with cities on<br />
<strong>the</strong> Western frontier <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Delta (Tahpanhes, v. 18)<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> renderings in <strong>the</strong> versions, we must recognise<br />
here <strong>the</strong> famous city not far from <strong>the</strong> W. entrance to<br />
G'oshen. Its ruins, which are still known as Tel(1)<br />
Basta, are situated just S. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> modern city <strong>and</strong><br />
railway-centre ZakBzik.<br />
The earliest Egyptian name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city was ( PL')bst'<br />
(signification unknown), probably to be pronounced<br />
UbFset. The place acquired a religious importance so<br />
high that its divinity, a cat (sometimes also in form <strong>of</strong><br />
a lioness) or cat-headed goddess, had no o<strong>the</strong>r name<br />
than ( W)bstt,2 U6astet, '<strong>the</strong> one <strong>of</strong> Ubeset.' Later,<br />
<strong>the</strong> city was called 'house (or temple)3 <strong>of</strong> Ubastet,'<br />
P (originally Per)-ubaste(t). The Greek rendering<br />
<strong>of</strong> this form changes <strong>the</strong> P to B, as always before<br />
w , ~ <strong>and</strong> drops <strong>the</strong> ending in accordance with <strong>the</strong><br />
vulgar pronunciation. The Coptic version <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> OT<br />
gives <strong>the</strong> ra<strong>the</strong>r old form $,oyBaceI. The Hebrew<br />
' These facts point distinctly to three separate lines <strong>of</strong><br />
Christian influence in Phrygia during <strong>the</strong> early centuries.<br />
orthography has hardly been h<strong>and</strong>ed down correctly ;<br />
it is certainly influenced by <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> *s, ' mouth,'<br />
The first comes up <strong>the</strong> Mz<strong>and</strong>er valley, <strong>and</strong> reaches on<br />
different lines as far as Akmonia, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pentapolis <strong>and</strong><br />
(cp @Q as above). Besides, <strong>the</strong> vocalisation -des&<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> -bast must have been introduced at a quite<br />
Apameia <strong>and</strong> Pisidian Antioch ; <strong>the</strong> second belongs to<br />
Lycaonia <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> extreme SE. district ; <strong>the</strong> third belongs<br />
to <strong>the</strong> NW. The spheres <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se three influences are<br />
recent date after an analogy <strong>of</strong> Hebrew grammar.<br />
Originally, <strong>the</strong> name must have been pronounced by <strong>the</strong><br />
Hebrews also like Pubast(e?). The modern shortenseparated<br />
from each o<strong>the</strong>r by belts <strong>of</strong> country where early<br />
Christian inscriptions are non-existent ' (Ranis. Cit. <strong>and</strong><br />
B5L. 2511). Ramsay would trace all three centres to a<br />
Pauline source (ibid. <strong>and</strong> 715). The persecution <strong>of</strong><br />
Diocletian practically destroyed Christianity throughout<br />
Phrygia.<br />
See Ramsay's monumental work, The Cities <strong>and</strong> Bish. <strong>of</strong><br />
Ph?yKia, <strong>of</strong> whichonlytwoparts-i., LycosValley ; ii., West <strong>and</strong><br />
West-Central Phrygia-have as yet appeared. w. J. w.<br />
PHUD (@oyA [BKA]), Judith 223AV, RV Pu~(g.v.1.<br />
PHURAH, RV Purah (???; as if 'vat'; cp 283<br />
Judg. 725, but see below ; @ap& [BA4L]), Gideon's<br />
attendant, or armour-bearer, Judg. 7 IO/ That a mere<br />
attendant's name is recorded, is remarkable. Purah<br />
must ei<strong>the</strong>r be, or spring from, some clan-name, ei<strong>the</strong>r<br />
ing Basfa(h) is as old as <strong>the</strong> Arabian conquest.<br />
Our knowledge <strong>of</strong> Bubastus has been greatly increased<br />
by <strong>the</strong> excavations <strong>of</strong> Ed. Naville, in <strong>the</strong> winters<br />
1887-89, described in Memoir 8 <strong>of</strong><br />
2.<br />
<strong>the</strong> Egypt Exploration Fund (1891).<br />
where also <strong>the</strong> literature relating to <strong>the</strong> city <strong>and</strong> its<br />
history are collected.<br />
The city, <strong>the</strong> capital <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> eighteenth nome <strong>of</strong><br />
Lower Egypt, must have been very old. Naville<br />
found remains <strong>of</strong> buildings by <strong>the</strong> pyramid-builders<br />
Cheops <strong>and</strong> Chephren (@wfw[i?] <strong>and</strong> @a'f&). At a<br />
still earlier date, <strong>the</strong> local goddess U6nsfet-Bubastis<br />
(presupposing <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city) is mentioned in<br />
<strong>the</strong> texts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pyramids (cp EGYPT, 46). This<br />
goddess was called Artemis by <strong>the</strong> Greeks; <strong>the</strong><br />
3: (see GIOEON, I, n. z, PUAH), or more probably<br />
Ophrah (Judg. 6 11 etc. ) or Ephrath. Cp MEONENIM,<br />
MOREH. T. K. C.<br />
PHURIM (apoypal [BLB]), Esth. 11 I, AV. See<br />
PURIM.<br />
PHUT (B.1B). Gen. 106 I Ch. 18 AV, RV PUT (4.v.).<br />
1 [The view that this inscription owes its origin to a Christian<br />
is extremely doubtful. A mass <strong>of</strong> literature on <strong>the</strong> suhject is<br />
cited, for example, in Rev. de ?h
PICTURES<br />
Egyptians emphasised her joyous <strong>and</strong> benign nature as<br />
contrasted with various warlike goddesses in lioness-<br />
form. Cp <strong>the</strong> feasts <strong>of</strong> Bubastis at which hundreds <strong>of</strong><br />
thous<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> pilgrims from all Egypt assembled for <strong>the</strong><br />
revelries so vividly described by Herodotus (260). Of<br />
course, <strong>the</strong> goddess, like all important divinities, soon<br />
received a solar character, <strong>and</strong> one <strong>of</strong> her chief titles is,<br />
‘ eye <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sun-god,’ by which evidently she is designated<br />
as <strong>the</strong> sun-disk itself. The cat was sacred to Bubastis,<br />
<strong>and</strong> consequently <strong>the</strong>re was near <strong>the</strong> city an enormous<br />
cemetery for cats (<strong>and</strong> ichneumons), which in our<br />
prosaic time has been exploited for manure. That <strong>the</strong><br />
cat was considered sacred not only in Bubastus hut<br />
also throughout all Egypt proves <strong>the</strong> general worship<br />
<strong>of</strong> Bubastis. Male divinities worshipped along with<br />
her were Nefer-tem <strong>and</strong> Ma-hes, in lion-forms.<br />
Various kings <strong>of</strong> all dynasties (6, 12, etc.) built at<br />
Bubastus, even <strong>the</strong> Hyksos-rulers Heyan <strong>and</strong> Apopi ;<br />
above all, however, <strong>the</strong> pharaohs <strong>of</strong> dynasty 22<br />
among whom Lower Egypt had completely gained <strong>the</strong><br />
upper h<strong>and</strong> over <strong>the</strong> Thebaid. Osorkon 11. erected<br />
<strong>the</strong>re a very large hall in commemoration <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong><br />
those jubilee-festivals called (zeb-sid by <strong>the</strong> Egyptians,<br />
7praKovraaT4pt6es ( Inscr. Rosettana, 3) by <strong>the</strong> Greeks.<br />
See for <strong>the</strong> curious sculptures <strong>of</strong> that building Memoir<br />
IO <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Egypt Exploration Fund. The twenty-second<br />
<strong>and</strong> twenty-third dynasties seem to have had <strong>the</strong>ir resid-<br />
ence in Bubastus ; for <strong>the</strong> question, why Manetho calls<br />
<strong>the</strong>m Bubastide kings, see EGYPT, 64. Herodotiis<br />
gives a very impressive description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> temple.<br />
Later it was enlarged by Nectanebes (Ne/LtnFbef), one<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> last Egyptian kings. Diodorus (1649) narrates<br />
<strong>the</strong> capture <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> place by <strong>the</strong> generals <strong>of</strong> Artaxerxes<br />
Ochus. Although <strong>the</strong> Greek <strong>and</strong> Roman rulers do not<br />
seem to have expended much on <strong>the</strong> temple, Bubastus<br />
continued to be a flourishing city down to Arab times.<br />
Diiring <strong>the</strong> middle ages, it was ab<strong>and</strong>oned ; <strong>the</strong> present<br />
ruins do not <strong>of</strong>fer many attractions to tourists.<br />
W. M. M.<br />
3771<br />
PILATE, PONTIUS<br />
[BabAFL] ; Phihahiroth) Ex. 142 g Nu. 337 ; also<br />
HAHIROTH (nVn;! ; alpwe [BAFL] ; Phihahiroth)<br />
Nu. 338. See EXODUS i., 5 IT ; also BAAL-ZEPHON,<br />
<strong>and</strong> MIGDOL, I.<br />
PILATE, PONTIUS (TTONTIOC TTI~ATOC rrrsl-<br />
AATOC KBDI).<br />
In Mt. 27 2 TICLA&TW ri Ijyep6vr ; <strong>the</strong>reafter 8 TIerhGso~ or b<br />
$yep& simply ; Mk. f5 I ‘IIcLA&T~ simply, <strong>the</strong>reafter b 11. ; Lk.<br />
3 I +pVovdovroc TIovriov IIELA~TOV (here only<br />
1. Name <strong>and</strong> Acts 427 <strong>the</strong> double name); for <strong>the</strong> title<br />
a d titles. cp 20 20 : in o<strong>the</strong>r places 6 rI. as in 23 I 8 or<br />
11. simply (as also in Acts3 13); Jn. ISzgfl<br />
has 4 27 onlv b TI.<br />
The Nf, as above shown, uses only <strong>the</strong> title fiy~pdu,<br />
= Lat. prmes, a general term (cp fiyepovla used in Lk.<br />
3 I <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> emperor, in w.hich place it is translated ‘reign,’<br />
EV), used also by Josephus in speaking <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ’governor ’<br />
<strong>of</strong> Judzea (Ant. xviii. 31, § 55). Josephus also <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
employs <strong>the</strong> word 8aapxos (Ant. xix. 92, 363) or<br />
Bmp~h7pjs (Ant. xviii. 42, § 89) ; but <strong>the</strong> specific title <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> governor <strong>of</strong> Judrea was procuratov, in Greek Bai-<br />
~po~os, <strong>and</strong> so he is called by Jos. Ant. xx. 62, 132,<br />
231 ii. 81, 117, 92, 169 <strong>and</strong> elsewhere (cp Tac. Ann.<br />
1544-<strong>the</strong> only passage in which Pilate is mentioned by<br />
a Roman writer). For an account <strong>of</strong> this <strong>of</strong>fice see<br />
PROCURATOR.<br />
Pilate’s birthplace is unknown ; hut <strong>the</strong> legends <strong>of</strong>fer<br />
an ample choice (Muller, Pod Pil. 48J ). His nomen<br />
Pontius suggests a connection with <strong>the</strong> famous Samnite<br />
family <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pontii ; his cognomen Pilatus, if it were really<br />
derived from <strong>the</strong> word pileutus (pilleatus), ‘wearing <strong>the</strong><br />
piZZeus, or felt cap <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> manumitted slave,’ would<br />
suggest <strong>the</strong> taint <strong>of</strong> slavery in <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> his family<br />
(cp <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> Felix, who although actually only a<br />
freedman held <strong>the</strong> procuratorship <strong>of</strong> Judaea). The word<br />
Pilatus may, however, just as probably he connected<br />
with pilutus (piZum) or pilaha (pih), ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> which<br />
derivations would start us upon a very different train <strong>of</strong><br />
imagination, <strong>the</strong> conclusion <strong>of</strong> which would equally<br />
have no historical validity whatever.<br />
PICTURES. The rendering is found only in AV. On <strong>the</strong> death <strong>of</strong> Archelaus in 6 A.D. his kingdom,<br />
I. ni”?v, Wiyyatk, Is. 2 16, RV ‘imagery,’ RVmr. ‘watchwhich<br />
had included Judzea, Saniaria. <strong>and</strong> Idumrea, was<br />
towers.’ ‘ Figured works’ would be <strong>the</strong> most natural rendering ; made a Czesarian province (see HEROD [FAMILY], 8).<br />
but we expect something tall to he mentioned. There seems to Of <strong>the</strong> seven procurators who administered <strong>the</strong> province<br />
he corruption in <strong>the</strong> text. ‘Ships <strong>of</strong> Tarshish’ in n. 16a cannot between 6 A.D. <strong>and</strong> 41 A.D. Pontius Pilate was <strong>the</strong><br />
be right ; <strong>the</strong>y do not come in at all naturally after ‘high towers fifth ; he held <strong>of</strong>fice for ten years (26-36 A. D. Cp Jos.<br />
<strong>and</strong> ‘steep walls.’ Tocorrect ni*?p into niipD, ‘ships’(Siegfr.- Ant. xviii. 42, 5 89).<br />
Stade), is <strong>the</strong>refore unsatisfactory, even apart from <strong>the</strong> fact that According to Philo, Agrippa I. in his letter to<br />
this word, well known in Aramaic, only occurs in <strong>the</strong> late Book<br />
Caligula describes Pilate as inflexible, merciless, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> Jonah 1 (Jon. 16). We can hardly defend it by @BKA mbav<br />
BCuv rrhoiov KC~AAOUS, which is paraphrastic. See EBONY,’ $ z (e). a. StorJr <strong>of</strong> obstinate’ (T+Y $6uiv ~KU~T+S ai p ~ d<br />
2. ni’jl$F, ~lraikbiyyatk. (a) Nu. 33 52 (uKorrcai), ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />
TOO ab0dsous ~ ~ E ~ ~ L K T O<strong>and</strong> S ) , charges<br />
imperial him with<br />
‘fignred(stones),’asRV; cpLev.261, n.3V.a<br />
‘ corruption. violence, robbery,<br />
?>N, ‘figuredstone’<br />
(AVw., RV), <strong>and</strong> see IDOL, $ 13 (6) Prdv.2511 (on @ see<br />
image* ill-usage,oppression, illegalexecutions,<strong>and</strong><br />
BASKET), RV ‘baskets ’ ; hut <strong>the</strong> ‘baskets <strong>of</strong> silver ’ are as never-ending most grievous cruelty ’ (Phil. Leg ad<br />
doubtful as <strong>the</strong> ‘pictures.’ See BASKET.<br />
Caium, 38). The few incidents recorded <strong>of</strong> his career are<br />
PIECE OF MONEY, PIECE OF SILVER, or OP supposed to furnish completely satisfactory evidence <strong>of</strong><br />
GOLD.<br />
this undoubtedly overdrawn characterisation. So ‘ <strong>the</strong><br />
I. “F’kq, &ii@ (Gen. 33 19 <strong>and</strong> II Josh. 24 32 [RV ; AV has very first act by which Pilate introduced himself into <strong>of</strong>fice<br />
‘pieces <strong>of</strong> silver’]; also Job 4211). A doubtful reading. See<br />
was characteristic <strong>of</strong> him who treated with contempt <strong>the</strong><br />
KESITAH.<br />
Jewish customs <strong>and</strong> privileges ’ (Schurer, G3Y 14w ;<br />
2. manip, Mt. 1727t AV, EVw ‘stater,’RV SHEKEL (pa.). ET i. 283). In order to satisfy Jewish scruples it was<br />
3. ID? n$is, ’dg8rath kdseSepk (b@oAoS dwvpiov ; numinuin a st<strong>and</strong>ing order that <strong>the</strong> image <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> emperor borne<br />
argenteum, I 8.2 36 ; EV ‘ a piece <strong>of</strong> silver ’). Doubtful (see upon Roman military st<strong>and</strong>ards should he removed<br />
SPELT).<br />
before troops entered Jerusalem ; hut on one occasion,<br />
4. In 2 K. 5 5 EV has ‘six thous<strong>and</strong> [pieces] <strong>of</strong> gold’ for nuw<br />
probably soon after Pilate’s entry upon <strong>of</strong>fice, it was<br />
331 o.&. RVw. suggflsts ‘shekels’ for ‘pieces’; cp Zech.<br />
11 IZJ ‘[pieces] <strong>of</strong> silver. See MONEY.<br />
discovered that this rule had been evaded by a detach-<br />
5. In Lk. 158 f: <strong>the</strong> ‘piece <strong>of</strong> silver’ is GpaxpG (EVW ment which had entered <strong>the</strong> city by night (Jos. Ant.<br />
‘ drachma ; a coin worth about eightpence ’ ). The ‘ pieces <strong>of</strong> xviii. 3 I,<br />
silver ’ <strong>of</strong> Mt. 26 15 27 3f are hpydpra ; <strong>the</strong> fifty thous<strong>and</strong> pieces<br />
56 ; BJii. 92, § 169).<br />
For five days Pilate<br />
<strong>of</strong> silver in Acts 19 19, apyvpiov pvpi&s ~CVTS.<br />
was deaf to <strong>the</strong> protestations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> crowd which<br />
ga<strong>the</strong>red before his palace at Caesarea. On <strong>the</strong> sixth<br />
PIGEON ($fiJ, Gen. 159 ; n!V, Lev. 128). See<br />
day <strong>the</strong> malcontents were surrounded by troops in <strong>the</strong><br />
DOVE, FOWL.<br />
race-course ; but <strong>the</strong>ir fanatical obstinacy was pro<strong>of</strong><br />
PI-HAHIROTH (llicn3-93 ; in Ex. THC ETTAY~EWC against this display <strong>of</strong> power, <strong>and</strong> Pilate was obliged to<br />
[BAFL], in Nu. CTOMA snipwe [Bl, CT. apWB give way. It was his first experience <strong>of</strong> that strange<br />
intractable temper which made <strong>the</strong> Jews so difficult to<br />
1 Gunkel (SckCjJ 50) thinks ni.?i to be a rare word for govern; he learnt now, at <strong>the</strong> outset <strong>of</strong> his career as<br />
‘ships ’ ; but his <strong>the</strong>ory has no solid basis.<br />
governor, how far <strong>the</strong> people were prepared to go for<br />
3772
PILATE, PONTIUS PILDASH<br />
<strong>the</strong> sake <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir religious scruples. That a massacre<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mob was seriously contemplated, it would be<br />
foolish to assert ; for <strong>the</strong> imperial system was a sensible<br />
attempt to govern by means <strong>of</strong> sensible men. The<br />
utmost that can be extracted from <strong>the</strong> narrative, in our<br />
ignorance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> exact circumstances <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> breach <strong>of</strong><br />
regulations, is <strong>the</strong> conclusion that <strong>the</strong> procurator erred<br />
through inexperience <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people <strong>and</strong> an inopportune<br />
insistence upon a point <strong>of</strong> honour. Pilate's Roman<br />
sentiments must claim weight equally with <strong>the</strong> punctilios<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jewish mob ; but this is <strong>of</strong>ten overlooked.<br />
The o<strong>the</strong>r instances <strong>of</strong> friction will be found upon a<br />
fair review to bear a very different interpretation from<br />
that usually put upon <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
The treasure accumulated in <strong>the</strong> temple was in part<br />
appropriated for <strong>the</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> an aqueduct to<br />
3. O<strong>the</strong>r Jerusalem. This excited vehement opposistories.<br />
tion, <strong>and</strong> a visit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> procurator to <strong>the</strong><br />
city was made <strong>the</strong> occasion <strong>of</strong> a great<br />
popnlar demonstration. Pilate having received previous<br />
information <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> intended outburst issued <strong>the</strong> necessary<br />
orders, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> soldiers mingling with <strong>the</strong> crowd dispersed<br />
<strong>the</strong> rioters with bludgeons, <strong>and</strong> effectually silenced all<br />
open opposition to <strong>the</strong> scheme; this was uot accomplished<br />
without some loss <strong>of</strong> life (Jos. Ant. xviii. 3 z ; BJ ii. 94).<br />
The incident to which reference is made in Lk. 131<br />
(' <strong>the</strong> Galilreans, whose blood Pilate had mingled with<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir sacrifices ') is not elsewhere recorded. When<br />
accmunt is taken <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disrurhed state <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> country,<br />
due to <strong>the</strong> fanatical mutual hatred <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> various religious<br />
groups (cp, for example, <strong>the</strong> act <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Samaritans who<br />
threw bones into <strong>the</strong> temple just before <strong>the</strong> Passover<br />
in order to pollute it-Jos. Ant. xviii. 22, Q 30), we<br />
must recognise in <strong>the</strong> incident only <strong>the</strong> strong h<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
a governor concerned to carry out impartially <strong>the</strong> duty<br />
which was in fact <strong>the</strong> prime requirement <strong>of</strong> a provincial<br />
governor-<strong>the</strong> maintenance <strong>of</strong> order (cp Ranisay, Was<br />
Chist born at BethZekem ? 174f. ). The permanent<br />
difficulty <strong>of</strong> this task in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> Jndzea is evidenced<br />
by <strong>the</strong> insurrection in which Barabhas had been prominent<br />
(Mk. 157 Lk. 2319), <strong>and</strong> also by that collision<br />
between <strong>the</strong> government <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Samaritans which led to<br />
Pilate's recall. These Samaritans, under <strong>the</strong> leadership<br />
<strong>of</strong> an impostor, who promised to reveal <strong>the</strong> sacred<br />
utensils which were supposed to be concealed on Mt.<br />
Gerizini since <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> Moses, ga<strong>the</strong>red in great<br />
numbers armed at <strong>the</strong> mountain, but were dispersed<br />
with bloodshed by Pilate's troops, <strong>and</strong> those <strong>of</strong> repute<br />
<strong>and</strong> influence among <strong>the</strong>m executed. The Samaritans<br />
made complaint to Vitellius, who had come as legatus<br />
to Syria, <strong>and</strong> Vitellius sent Pilate to Rome to answer<br />
for his conduct, making over <strong>the</strong> administration <strong>of</strong><br />
Judza to Marcellus (Jos. Ant. xviii. 42).<br />
The true nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two incidents last sketched is<br />
clear. Upon <strong>the</strong> whole, we must refuse to subscribe to<br />
that unfavourableverdict which has been<br />
4. Pilate's<br />
passed upon Pilate on <strong>the</strong> strength <strong>of</strong><br />
administration.<br />
evidence derived from hostile sources,<br />
whe<strong>the</strong>r Jewish or Christian. The peculiar misfortune<br />
<strong>of</strong> Pilate, that he was connected with <strong>the</strong> tragedy <strong>of</strong><br />
Jesus (see ROMAN EMPIRE), has resulted in all treat-<br />
ment <strong>of</strong> his career being merely a search for evidence in<br />
support <strong>of</strong> a foregone conclusion. His ten years'<br />
tenure <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fice (a length <strong>of</strong> tenure equalled only by<br />
that <strong>of</strong> his predecessor Valerius Gratus, 15-26 A.D.) is<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> general success <strong>of</strong> his administration ;<br />
for <strong>the</strong> reason assigned by Josephus (Ant. xviii. 6 5), that<br />
long tenure was due to deliberate intention on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong><br />
Tiberius to secure if possibIe a mitigation <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficial<br />
rapacity, on <strong>the</strong> principle that ' it is better to leave <strong>the</strong><br />
gorged flies on a sore than to drive <strong>the</strong>m <strong>of</strong>f' is simply<br />
foolish if taken as more than <strong>the</strong>jeu d'esprit <strong>of</strong> a mal-<br />
content (for o<strong>the</strong>r assigned reasons, cp Tac. Ann. l SO).<br />
Pilate's suspension <strong>and</strong> dismissal to Rome just before<br />
<strong>the</strong> death <strong>of</strong> Tiberius (Tac. Ann. 632) proves only <strong>the</strong><br />
greatness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pressure brought to bear upon <strong>the</strong><br />
3773<br />
newly-appointed legate <strong>of</strong> Syria, or at most <strong>the</strong> desire<br />
on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> central government to go still far<strong>the</strong>r<br />
on a path <strong>of</strong> conciliation, signs <strong>of</strong> which tendency had<br />
not been wanting even before this event. For Pilate<br />
had already been compelled by imperial m<strong>and</strong>ate to<br />
remove to Czsarea certain votive shields, without figures,<br />
gilded only <strong>and</strong> inscribed with <strong>the</strong> emperor's name,<br />
which he had huug up in <strong>the</strong> palace at Jerusalem. 'less<br />
for <strong>the</strong> honour <strong>of</strong> Tiberius than for <strong>the</strong> annoyance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Jews,' as <strong>the</strong> letter <strong>of</strong> Agrippa I. unfairly puts it (Philo,<br />
Leg. ad Caiufn, 38). This was probably after <strong>the</strong> death<br />
<strong>of</strong> Seianus (31 A.D.) if it be true that Seianus was an<br />
arch-enemy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jews (cp Schiirer, GVf 1411 ; ET<br />
i. '286 note). Here a corrcct interpretation will see,<br />
not 'a piece <strong>of</strong> purely wanton bravado on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong><br />
Pilate,' but a small concession on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong> his<br />
imperial master overriding <strong>and</strong> correcting <strong>the</strong> attitude<br />
<strong>of</strong> a subordinate, in deference to a petition supported<br />
by powerful names. This new departure was entered<br />
upon very energetically by Vitellius (for <strong>the</strong> details, see<br />
Jos. Ant. xviii.43), <strong>and</strong> had its natural sequel in <strong>the</strong><br />
favour shown by Caligula to Agrippa I. <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> great<br />
advancement <strong>of</strong> Agrippa by Claudius (see HEROD,<br />
FAMILY OF, Q 12).<br />
Pilate has woii notoriety through his connection with<br />
<strong>the</strong> trial <strong>and</strong> sentence <strong>of</strong> Jesus (Mt. 27zJ Mk. 15.f. ;<br />
more fully in Lk. 23 ~ f. Jn. 1828f: adds much to <strong>the</strong><br />
Synoptic accounts). See, fur<strong>the</strong>r, ROMAN EMPIRE.<br />
Of Pilate's end nothing is known.<br />
Refore he reached<br />
Rome Tiberius was dead (Jos. Ant. xviii. 42). Various<br />
5. Legends. traditions were current. Eusehius (L'hron.<br />
<strong>and</strong> HE 27) asserts, on <strong>the</strong> authority <strong>of</strong><br />
unnamed Greek or Roman chroniclers, that he fell into<br />
such misfortunes under Caligula that he committed<br />
suicide. In <strong>the</strong> apocryphal Mors Pilati, his suicide<br />
follows upon his condemnation to death by Tiberius<br />
for his failure to save Jesus. His body was cast into<br />
<strong>the</strong> Tiber ; but evil spirits disturbed <strong>the</strong> water so much<br />
that it was carried to Vienna ( Vienne) <strong>and</strong> cast into <strong>the</strong><br />
Rhone, <strong>and</strong> after various vicissitudes, ended in <strong>the</strong> re-<br />
cesses <strong>of</strong> a lake on Mt. Pilatus, opposite Lucerne (for<br />
this legend <strong>and</strong> its origin, see Muller, Pont. Pil. 82f. ;<br />
Ruskin. Mod. Point. 5 128). In <strong>the</strong> apocryphal IIapd-<br />
doors DrXdsov it is related that Tiberius called Pilate to<br />
account for <strong>the</strong> crucifixion <strong>of</strong> Jesus <strong>and</strong> condemned him<br />
to death ; <strong>and</strong> both he <strong>and</strong> his wife died penitent, <strong>and</strong><br />
were assured <strong>of</strong> forgiveness by a voice from heaven<br />
(see Tisch. E'vang. Apocr. 449f:). According to o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
accounts, Pilate's execution occurred under Nero (so<br />
Malalas. ed. Dind. z5oJ ; <strong>and</strong> authorities quoted by<br />
Schurer, op. cit. 88 n. ). The tendency <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> tradition<br />
to represent both Pilate <strong>and</strong> his wife as embracing<br />
Christianity is easily understood, <strong>and</strong> is in contrast with<br />
<strong>the</strong> unsympa<strong>the</strong>tic estimate <strong>of</strong> later times (cp Tertull.<br />
Ap. 21, jam pro sua conscientia Chistianus. ' already<br />
in conviction a Christian,' at or immediately after Jesus'<br />
death ; Gosp. <strong>of</strong> Nic. 2 ; Orig. Nom. on Mt. 35 ; Stan-<br />
ley, East. ch. 13). Tradition gives <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> Pilate's<br />
wife as Claudia Procula or Procla, <strong>and</strong> by some she has<br />
been identified with <strong>the</strong> Claudia mentioned in z Tim. 4 21.<br />
G. A. Muller, Ponfius Pilafirs der f f t e Proczrator von<br />
J&u, etc., 1888 ; with full list to date <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> literature on<br />
Pilate. Arnold, Die neronische Cht istenver-<br />
6. Literature.fl'ng, 116f: Articles in Exflos. ser. 2. vol.<br />
8 (1884), 1c7f: (Cox), <strong>and</strong> ser. 6, vol. I (IW)<br />
593 (hlacgregor). Taylor Innes, Trial <strong>of</strong>Jesus Chvist, L<br />
legal Mono rap& 1899. The many Lives <strong>of</strong> Chisf may also<br />
be consulterf but with little pr<strong>of</strong>it as regards obtaining a correct<br />
view <strong>of</strong> Pilate himself. For <strong>the</strong> so-called Acts <strong>of</strong>PiZnfe (Gospel<br />
<strong>of</strong> Nicodenzus) consult J. C. Thilo, Codex upocr. NT i., 1832,<br />
1183 4873; R. A. Lipsius, Die Pilatus-Ahfen, 1871.<br />
W. J. W.<br />
PILDASH (~;)B), b. NAHOR (Gen. 2222 : +AAAAC<br />
[AD'PL], -A [D"]). The name, however, looks doubt-<br />
ful, <strong>and</strong> may have been partly assimilated to <strong>the</strong> name<br />
q h which follows (Che.).'<br />
1 Dillniann (adloc.) citesa Nab. name )vi$fi; but <strong>the</strong> reading<br />
is more than doubtful<br />
3774