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APPENDIX 1 

BIRKELAND’S SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS 

1886 Antallet af frie bevægelser i et leddet stangsystem, Tidsskrift for 

Mathematik (Kbh.),R.5, ˚Arg. 4, s. 174–176. 

1887 En generalisation af Sylvester skjæve pantograf, Tidsskrift for 

Mathematik (Kbh.),R.5, ˚Arg. 5, s. 17–18. 

1890 Ein Satz uber ¨ algebraische Curven, Naturwissenschaftliche 

Monatsheftefur f¨ f Mathematik und Physik, Jg. 1, s. 417–424. 

1892 Electrische Schwingungen in Drähten, ¨ directe Messungen der 

fortschreitenden Welle, Annalen der Physik und Chemie. N.F., Bd. 47, 583– 

612. 

1893 Ondes electriques ´ dans des fils; la d´ epression ´ de l’ondes qui se propage 

dans des conducteurs, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de 

l’Académie ´ des Sciences, T. 116, 93–96. 

1893 Sur les ondes electrique ´ dans des fils la force electrique ´ dans le 

voisinage du conducteur, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de 


1893 Sur les ondes electriques ´ le long de fils mince; calcul de d´ epression, ´ 

Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de l’Acad´ emie ´ des Sciences, 

T. 116, 625–628. 

1893 Sur la réflexion ´ des ondes electriques ´ a´ l’extrémit´ ´ e d’un conducteur 

lineaire, ´ Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des S´ eances ´ de l’Academie des 

Sciences, T. 116, 803–806. 

1894 Sur la nature de la réflexion ´ des ondes electriques ´ ues au bout d’un fil 

conducteur, Kr. Birkeland et Ed. Sarasin, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires 

des Séances ´ de l’Acad´ emie ´ des Sciences, T. 117, 618–622. 

1894 Sur l’aimantation produite par des courants hertziens, Comptes Rendus 

Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de l’Acad´ emie ´ des Sciences, T. 118, 130–134. 

1894 Sur la réflexion ´ des ondes electriques ´ au bout d’un fil conducteur qui 

se termine dans une plaque, Ed. Sarasin et Kr. Birkeland, Comptes Rendus 

Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de l’Acad´ emie ´ 

des Sciences, T. 118, 793–796.

182 APPENDIX 1 

1894 Über die Strahlung electromagnetischer Energie im Raume, Annalen 

der Physik und Chemie. N.F., Bd. 52, 357–380. 

1894 Über die Reflexion und Resonanz der Hertz’schen electrischen 

Schwingungen, Erklärung ¨ der Hagenbech-Zehnder’schen Versuche, 

Annalen der Physik und Chemie, N.F., Bd. 52, 468–495. 

1894 Om krafttransmission, særlig i et elektromagnetisk Felt, Tidsskrift for 

Physik og Chemi, 3. bind, 353–373. 

1895 Solution gén´ ´ erale ´ des equations ´ de Maxwell pour un milieu absorbant 

homogène ` et isotrope, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des S´ eances ´ de 


1895 Sur la transmission de l’énergie, ´ Archives des Sciences Physiques et 

Naturelles, 3eme ` p´ eriode, ´ T. 33, 297–309. 

1895 Solution on gén´ ´ erale ´ des equations ´ 

de Maxwell pour un milieu 

absorbant, homogène ` et isotrope, Archives des Sciences Physiques et 

Naturelles. 3eme ` p´ eriode, ´ T. 34, Geneva, p. 5–56. 

1895 Sur l’aimantation produite par des courants hertziens, Un diélectrique ´ 

magnétique, ´ Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des S´ eances ´ de l’Acad´ emie ´ 

des Sciences, T. 120, 1320–1324. 

1896 Sur les Rayons Cathodiques sous l’action de forces magnetiques intenses, 

Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, 4ème ` p´ eriode, ´ T. 1, 

Geneva, 497–512. 

1896 Sur un spectre des rayons cathodiques, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires 

des Séances ´ de l’Academie des sciences, T. 123, 492–495. 

1896 Om kathodestraaler under paavirkning af stærke magnetiske kræfter, 

Elektroteknisk Tidsskrift, Kristiania, Vol. 9, 104–110. 

1896 Cathode Rays under the influence of strong magnetic forces, Electrical 

Review, p. 968. 

1896 Über Katodestrahlen unter Einwirknung von intensiven magnetiscen 

Kraften, ¨ Zeischrift f¨ fur 

Elektrotechnik, Wien, Vol. XIV, 448–450 and 475– 

482. 

1896 Sur les Rayons Cathodiques sous l’action de forces magnetiques intenses, 

Archives des Sciences Physiques. Geneve, Vol. 4, 497–512. 

1898 Om indsugning af katodestraaler mod en magnetisk pol, Archiv for 

Mathematik og Naturvidenskab,Bd. 20, no. 15. (28 pages). 

1898 Sur le phénom` ´ ene ` de succion de Rayons Cathodiques par un pole 

magnétique, ´ Archives de Scieces Physiques et Naturelles, 4` eme ` p´ eriode, ´ T. 

6, Geneva, 205–228.

BIRKELAND’S SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS 183 

1898 Sur le spectre des rayons cathodiques II, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires 

des Séances ´ de l’Academie des Sciences, T. 126, 228–231. 

1898 Sur une analogie d’action entre les rayons lumineux et les lignes 

de force magnétiques. ´ Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des S´ eances ´ de 


1899 Recherches sur les taches du soleil et leur origine, Videnskabselskabets 

skrifter. I, Mat.-naturv. klasse, 1899, no. 1. (175 pages). 

1899 Über die Strahlung electromagnetischer Energie, Wied. Ann., Leipzig. 

1900 Sur la constitution physique du soleil, Rapport present au Congrès 

International de Physique, Réuni ´ aP ` aris en 1900. (17 pages). 

1901 Courants electriques ´ dans l’athmosph` ere ` polaire et aurores bor´ eales ´ 

(Communication sur les résultats ´ obtenus par l’exp´ edition ´ Norv´ egienne ´ 

de 1899–1900 pour l’étude ´ des aurores bor´ eales), ´ Archives des Sciences 

Physiques et Naturelles, 4ème ` p´ eriode, ´ T. 12, Geneva, p. 480–488. 

1901 Resultats ´ des recherches magn´ ethiques ´ faites par l’expedition 

Norvegienne ´ de 1899–1900. Pour l’´ etude ´ des aurores bor´ eales, ´ Archives des 

Sciences Physiques et Naturelles. 4ème ` p´ eriode, ´ T. 12, Geneva, 565–586. 

1901 Expédition ´ Norv´ egienne ´ de 1899–1900 pour l’etude des auroras 

boréales: ´ Resultats 

´ des recherches magn´ ethiques, ´ Videnskabsselskabets 

skrifter I, Mat.-naturv. klasse, Kristiania, no. 1 (180 pages). 

1901 Les taches du Soleil et les planètes, ` Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires 

des Séances ´ de l’Acad´ emie ´ des Sciences, T. 133, p. 726–729. 

1902 On a new electric current breaker, Videnskabsselskabets skrifter, Mat.naturv. 

klasse, Kristiania, no. 11. (11pages) 

1902 The proposed magnetic researches at the Norwegian Polar stations 

1902–1903, Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, Vol. 7, 

81–82. 

1903 Concerning observations of terrestrial magnetism and clouds carried 

out at the Norwegian stations during the years 1902–1903, Terrestrial 

Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, Vol. 8, 74–75. 

1906 On the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen in electric arcs; To the 

Faraday Society, July 2, 1906, Transactions of the Faraday Society, Vol. 2. 

1906 On theoxidation of atmosphericnitrogen inelectric arcs, Nature, No. 

1506, Vol.58(22 pages). 

1907 Über die Oxydation des atmosphärischen ¨ Stickstoffs im electrischen 

Lichtbogen, Nach einem in der Faraday Society gehaltenen Vortrage, 

Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitat ¨ 

und Electronik, Bd. 3, 264–290.


1908 The Norwegian Aurora Polaris Expedition 1902–1903. Vol. 1, On the 

Cause of Magnetic Storms and the Origin of Terrestrial Magnetism, Sect. 1. 

Kristiania, Aschehoug; (Lpz.: Barth London, New York: Longmans; Paris. 

Klincksieck.) 1–316. 

1908 Sur la cause des orages magnétiques, ´ Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires 


1908 Les orages magnétiques ´ polarires et les auroras bor´ eales, ´ Comptes 

Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de l’Acad´ emie ´ des Sciences, T. 148, 

30–33. 

1909 Courants telluriques d’induction dans les régions ´ polaires, Comptes 


56–59. 

1909 Sur les orages magnétiques ´ polaires en 1882–1883. Comptes Rendus 

Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de l’Acad´ emie ´ de Sciences, T. 148, 1006–1009. 

1910 Transit of Halley’s comet across Venus and the Earth in May 1910, 

Nature, Vol. 83, 217–218. 

1910 Sur le déviabilit´ ´ e magnétique ´ des rayons corpusculaires proventant 

du Soleil, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de l’Acad´ emie ´ des 

Sciences, T. 150, 246–248. 

1911 Sur la lumière ` zodiacale, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des 

Séances ´ de l’Acad´ emie ´ des Sciences, T. 152, p. 345–348. 

1911 Les Anneaux de Saturne sont-ils dus à une radiation électrique ´ de la 

panète? ` Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des S´ eances ´ de l’Acad´ emie ´ des 

Sciences, T. 153, 375–377. 

1911 The simultaneity of certain abruptly-beginning magnetic disturbances, 

Lecture at Congress International de Physique, Paris, Nature, Vol. 87, 

483–484. 

1911 Le Soleil et ses taches, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances 

de l’Académie ´ des sciences, T. 153, 456–459. 

1911 Sur la constitution électrique ´ du Soleil, Comptes Rendus 


1911 Orages magnétiques ´ et aurores polaires, Archives de Sciences 

Physiques et Naturelles, 4ème ` p´ eriode, ´ T. 32, Geneva, 97–116. 

1912 Mouvement d’une particule électris´ ´ ee ´ dans un champ magnetiques, 

Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles. 4ème ` p´ eriode, ´ Geneva, T. 

33, 32–50.


1912 Mouvement d’une particule électris ´ ee ´ dans un champ magn´ etique ´ II, 

Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles. 4ème ` p´ eriode, ´ T. 33, Geneva, 

151–175. 

1912 Sur l’origine de planètes ` et de leurs satellites, Comptes Rendus 


1912 Sur la source de l’électricit´ ´ e des étoiles, ´ Comptes Rendus 

Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de l’Acad´ emie ´ des Sciences, T. 155, 1467– 

1470. 

1913 The Norwegian Aurora Polaris Expedition 1902–1903, Vol. 1, On the 

cause of magnetic storms and the origin of terrestrial magnetism, Sec. 2, 

Aschehoug; Kristiania, 319–801. 

1913 Sur la conservation et l’origine du magnétisme ´ Terrestre, Comptes 


275–277. 

1913 Oscillations hertziennes produites par des décharges ´ intermittentes 

partant des teches isolées ´ d’une cathode dans un tube de Crookes, Comptes 

Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de l’Academie des Sciences, T. 156, 

879–881. 

1913 Sur le magnétisme ´ g´ en´ ´ eral ´ du Soleil, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires 


1913 Remarques sur les essais faits par Halepour determiner ´ le magn´ etisme ´ 

general du Soleil, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de 

l’Academie des Sciences, T. 157, 394–395. 

1913 Sur la conservation et l’origine du magnitisme terrestre, Comptes 

Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de l’Academie des Sciences, T. 157, 

275–277. 

1913 De l’origine des mondes, Archives de Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, 

4eme ` p´ eriode, ´ T. 35, Geneva, 529–564. 

1913 La formation des nuages du niveau supérieur: ´ Revue g´ en´ ´ eral ´ des sciences 

pures et appliquées, ´ Avec une introduction de J. Loisel, 24e ann´ ee, 

no. 15, 576–581. 

1913 Das Werden der Wellen, Naturwissenschaftliche Umschau der 

Chemiker-Zeitung, Jg. 2, 17–19. Nach einem Vortrage vor der Videnskabsakademiet 

i Kristiania am 31. Januar 1913. 

1913 Die Wolkenbildung in höhern ¨ Schichten, mit Einleitung von J. Loisel, 

Revue Gén´ ´ erale ´ 

des Scinceses.


1914 On a possible method of photographically registering the intensity of 

the ultraviolet light from the sun and stars—preliminary note, The Cairo 

scientific journal, Vol. 8, no. 99, 287–194. 

1914 Calcul des lignes d’intensités ´ egales ´ dans la lumi` ere ` zodiacal, Kr. 

Birkeland et Th. Skolem, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de 


1914 Calcul des lignes d’intensités ´ egales ´ dans llumi` ere ` zodiacale, en 

supposant que celle-ci provient de la lumière ` diffus´ e par une nébleuse ´ 

d’électrons ´ ou de la mati` ere ` radiants d’origine solaire, Kr. Birkeland et 

Th. Skolem, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances ´ de l’Academie 

des Sciences, T. 159, 464–466. 

1914 Sur la lumiere ` zodiacal, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des S´ eances 

de l’Academie des Sciences, T. 159, 229–234. 

1915 On a possible crucial test of the theories of auroral curtains and polar 

magnetic storms, Videnskaps-selskapets skrifter. I, Mat.-naturv. Klasse, 

Kristiania, no. 6. (6 pages). 

1915 Une méthode ´ enum ´ erative ´ de la g´ eometrie. ´ Videnskapsselskapets 

skrifter, I, Mat.-naturv. klasse, Kristiania, no. 12 (61 pages). 

1916 Les rayons corpusculaires du soleil qui pén ´ etrent ` dans l’athmosph` ere 

terrestre sont-ils négatifs ´ ou positifs? Archives des Sciences Physiques et 

Naturelles, 4eme ` p´ eriode, ´ T. 41, Geneva, 22–37. 

1916 Les rayons corpusculaires du soleil qui pén ´ etrent ` dans l’athmosph` ere 

terrestre sont-ils négatifs ´ ou positifs? Archives des Sciences Physiques et 

Naturelles, 4eme ` p´ eriode, ´ T. 41, Geneva, 108–124. 

1916 Are the solar corpuscle rays that penetrate into the earth’s atmosphere 

negative or positive rays? Videnskapsselskapets skrifter. I, Mat.-naturv. 

klasse, Kristiania, no. 1 (27 pages). 

1917 Simultaneous observations of the zodiacal light from stations of nearly 

equal longitude in North and South Africa, The Cairo Scientific Journal, 

Vol. V 9, no. 100 (Jan/March) (18 pages). 

POPULAR SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS 

1894 Om krafttransmission, særlig i et elektromagnetisk Felt, Lecture in 

Polyteknisk Forening, Printed inTidsskrift for Physik og Chemi, 3.bind, 

no. 12, 353–373. 

1896 Om hurtigt vexlende strømmes magnetiserende virkninger. Elektroteknisk 

Tidsskrift, Aarg. 9, p. 3–5.


1896 De Røntgen-ske Straaler, Morgenbladet; 25 March. 

1898 Et bud fra solen, Verdens Gang; 16 September. 

1898 Om indsugning af katodestraaler med en magnetisk pol, Archiv for 

Mathematik og Naturvidenskab, Bd. 20, no. 15. (28 pages). 

1900 UnderligeTegn i Sol og Stjerner, Aftenposten; 13 January. 

1900 Nordlysexpeditionen, Elektroteknisk Tidsskrift, Aarg. 13, No. 3, 

1–198. 

1905 Norsk salpeterindustri p˚a grundlag af Birkeland–Eyde’s elektrokemiske 

proces, Kr. Birkeland and S. Eyde, Norsk Tidsskrift for Haandverk 

og Industri, 

1910 Magnetiske storme og nordlys, Eletroteknisk Tidsskrift, Aarg. 23, 

s. 235–245, also publishedin Teknisk T Ugeblad, 

p. 604–607. 

1913 Om verdnernes tilblivelse, Contributions inAftenposten, 1 February; 

also published in Festskrift til Aars og Voss’ skoles femtiaars jubilæum. s. 

227–246; Elektroteknisk Tidsskrift, Aarg. 26, p. 59–63; andbythe Norwegian 

Academy of Science and Letters, 31 January.

APPENDIX 2 

ARCHIVES AND UNPUBLISHED SOURCES 

The following archives have proven very helpful inwriting this biography, 

especially the first three. These and Birkeland’s publications have been our 

primary sources. 

OLAF DEVIK’S PERSONAL ARCHIVE 

Olaf Devik gathered and annotated most of Birkeland’s published scientificpapers, 

originalletters, as well as documents belonging to Dr. Tønnes Birkeland, 

donated by his grandson Gunnar Birkeland. The archived documents mostly 

relate to the Haldde Observatory, Nobel Prize nominations, the Birkeland 

Festschrift F , his will and divorce settlement. Birkeland’s correspondence with 

Sem Sæland, Carl Størmer, Amund Helland, Kaja Geelmuyden, and Richard 

Birkeland isalso available along with the original letter of January 1918 from 

GerdaThomsen (Dr. Eriksen’s wife)in Egypt to Karl Devik.Asignificant number 

of the documents concern Birkeland’s financialdealings, conflicts with Sam 

Eydeandhisrelationshipwith Norsk Hydro. It also contains roughdrafts ofletters, 

manuscripts, lecture notes, photographs, excerpts from magazine articles 

and mail sent from Japan shortly before Birkeland’s death. 

THE BIRKELAND–EYDE INDUSTRIAL MUSEUM AT NOTODDEN 

This archive mainly documents early testing of theBirkeland–Eyde process, as 

well as the planning, building, and operating of the first factory at Notodden. 

It contains telegraphic communications between Birkeland and Eyde. Some 

written materialfrom Karl Devik isalso preservedhere, e.g. a letter to his father 

conceding that Eydeand Størmer actedfairly in disputes with Birkeland. 

– October 1901 to 1903: Correspondence on the electromagnetic cannon 

and electric switches. 

– July 11, 1903: Birkeland’s letters to Lady Sander offering to work on the 

electromagnetic cannon in England and to Monsieur le President de la 

Commission des Inventions, Paris (Figure 52).


– 1903: Eyde’s letters to Birkeland regarding the production goal of 400 

kg/kW-year. 

– October 21, 1903: Letter from Eyde saying that more funds would not be 

forthcoming. 

– September 26, 1903: Birkeland’s letter to Storting requesting 10,000 kroner 

to analyze 1902–1903 polar expedition data. 

– 1905: Birkeland’s description of tests at Notodden. 

– May 2, 1905: Manuscript of Birkeland’s speech at the opening of Notodden 

Factory. 

– 1905: French positive impression with Birkeland process for fertilizer 

production. 

– April 7 and 12, 1906: Birkeland’s letters to Marcus Wallenberg. 

– April 18, 1906: Wallenberg’s response. 

– May 18, 1906: Birkeland’s agreement with Wallenberg to become the 

Adviser Director of Norsk Hydro and to receive an annual stipend for life. 

(Copies at the other archives.) 

– July 10, 1907: Rector Brøgger’s letter granting Birkeland permission to 

place an antenna on the roof of Domus Media at his own expense. 

– August 15, 1906: Birkeland’s letter on consultative directorship of Kvelstoffkompaniet. 

– 1908–1910: Documents about Otto Schonherr’s ¨ method for nitrogen fix- 

ation. 

– July 1912: Protocols increasing Birkeland’s stipend from 10,000 kroner 

in 1910 to 12,000 in 1912. 

– December 5, 1939: Copies of letters from R. Sohlman of The Nobel 

Institute, regarding the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for Birkeland and 

Eyde. 

NORWEGIANTECHNICALMUSEUM IN OSLO 

This archive contains many documents concerning Birkeland’s work with 

X-rays, electric discharges and the terrella chambers. It also contains interesting 

documents about the establishment of Norsk Hydro. 

– February 17, 1903: Eyde–Birkeland agree to pursue Birkeland’s concepts 

and methods. 

– June 5, 1903: Birkeland’s first company formed. 

– December 11, 1905: Copy of 75,000 kroner check from Enskilda Banken 

in Stockholm. 

– June 7, 1910: copy of 60,000 kroner check from Enskilda Banken in 

Stockholm.

ARCHIVES AND UNPUBLISHED SOURCES 191 

– June 7, 1910: Birkeland’s letter of dismay with Kvaelstoffkompaniet- 

BASFagreement. 

THE NATIONAL LIBRARY ARCHIVE 

– December 30, 1890: Letter to Vilhelm Bjerknes regarding Hertz radio 

experiments. 

– February 15, 1983: Letter to Vilhelm Bjerknes concerning his illness in 

Paris. 

– December 17, 1893: Letter to VilhelmBjerknes on “teaching theSwedish 

bear to drink.” 

– February 2, 1894: Letter to Elling Holst regarding his first meeting with 

Heinrich Hertz. 

– Christmas, 1900: Letters to Elling Holst from Haldde on scenery and 

budgetary troubles. 

– 1903–1905: Documents related to establishment of Norsk Hydro. Copies 

of these documents are at several archives. 

– 1909–1913: Documents related to Birkeland’s involvement in iron and 

bismuth mines. 

NORSK HYDROARCHIVE 

This collection provides an excellent source on Norsk Hydro’s foundation and 

history, emphasizing technological details. 

– 1902–1909: Documents on patents and history of processes related to 

plasma furnaces. 

– December 11, 1903: Establishment of Kvælstoffkompaniet. 

– January 2, 1904: Establishment of Elektrokemisk. 

– May 6and Oct. 5, 1903: Letter from Eyde toBirkeland regarding new 

employees. 

– May 18, 1906: Letter from Wallenberg to Birkeland about Technical Director 

position. 

– 1912: All of Birkeland’s patents purchased by Kvælstoffkompaniet. 

SAM EYDE ARCHIVE 

In contrast to Birkeland, Eyde took great care of important documents, letters, 

and unpublished sources. Background materialfor his 1939 autobiography Mitt 

liv og mitt livsverk is found here. However, some controversial documents are 

missing.


– 1903–1905: Several letter and telegram exchanges between Eyde and 

Birkeland. 

– August 12, 1904: Letter from Eyde to complain about his name not on 

patents and to demand equal representation. 

– Fall, 1909: Birkeland appointment to head oversight committee in competition 

with BASF. 

NORWEGIAN STORTING ARCHIVES 

– Years Y 1901–1903, 1911–1917 contain interesting assessments of Birkeland’s 

work. The review of the Haldde 1899–1900 expedition (p. 1024– 

1018)isverycritical of Birkeland’s bookkeeping. 

UNIVERSITY OF OSLO, CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION 

Contains many of Birkeland’s letters concerning leaves of absence, new offices, 

and laboratories, the employment of assistants as well some references to his 

publications. 

STOCKHOLM ENSKILDA BANKEN ARCHIVES 

– 1905–1915: 

Wallenberg. W 

Birkeland’s correspondence with Marcus and Knut 

NORWEGIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AND LETTERS ARCHIVE 

The annual reports of 1896–1917 contain information about Birkeland’s activities 

and lectures to the Academy. Birkeland was elected a member on March 

23, 1896. 

PRINTED SOURCES FROMNORWEGIAN 

NEWSPAPERSAND JOURNALS 

Aftenposten: 

– January 13, 1900: UnderligeTegn I Sol og Stjerner. 

– Summer—Fall, 1902: Several articles regarding the auroral expedition. 

– March 6–7, 1903: Professor Birkeland and den Elektromagnetiske Kanon. 

– February 1, 1913: Om Verdnernes Tiblivelse. 

– March, 1915: Stormvarsler. Automatiske stasjoner. 

– June 28–29, 1915: Den Birkeland–EydeskeOpfindelse. 

– June 24, 1916: Den I dePolske landherskende Nød.

ARCHIVES AND UNPUBLISHED SOURCES 193 

– June 17–18, 1917: Several articles about Birkeland’s death. 

– May 15, 1920: Birkeland’s undersøkelser I Egypt. 

Verdens r Gang: 

– September 6, 1898: Et bud fra solen. (Messenger from the Sun.) 

– October 19, 1898: Portrait P of Professor Kr. Birkeland. 

Morgenbladet: 

– November 10, 1894: Articleonsolution of Maxwell’s equations. 

– March 25, 1896: De Røntgen‘ske straaler. (About X-rays.) 

– April 15, 1900: Sem Sæland articleabout the Haldde expedition. 

– December 6, 1905: Birkeland and Eyde describe the Birkeland-Eyde 

method. 

– October 7, 1917: Foran Birkelandssol.Ogbak verdensrummetskulisser 

Tidens T Tegn: 

This is also one of the biggest newspapers in Kristiania. 

– August 18, 1912: Den spiritistiskeHumbug. Birkeland articleabout Mrs. 

Wreidt’s séance. 

Teknisk T Ukeblad: 

– December 7, 1905: No. 49, p: Norsk salpeterindustri p˚a grunnlag af 

Birkeland–Eydes elektrokemiske proces (Norwegian saltpeter and the basis 

of the Birkeland–Eyde electro-chemical process) No. 49, p. 497–514 

and No. 50, p. 525–526. 

– 1910 p. 604–607: Magnetiske storme og nordlys (Magnetic Storms and 

Northern Lights) 

– page 604 to 610. Also an article in 1911 on the same subject. 

– 1917 No. 26: Professor Kr. Birkeland. 

Allers Familie-Journal: 

– June, 1900: Nordlysekspedisjonen. 

– October 14, 1906 (No. 41). Professor Kr. Birkeland, a detailed portrait. 

Elektroteknisk Tidsskrift: 

– October 17, 1910: Om Magnetyiske stormer og Nordlys.Vol. V 23. p. 235– 

245. 

– February 1, 1913: Om Verdnernes Tiblivelse. 

– 1895–1917: References to Birkeland’s work and activities in every year.


BIOGRAPHIES 

– Devik, Olaf and Krogness, Ole A.: Professor Kr. Birkeland, Naturen, July 

24, 1917. 

– Editor: Professor Kr. Birkeland, Elektroteknisk Tidsskrift, July 29, 1917. 

– Eyde, Sam, Professor Kr. Birkeland, Bergverksnyt, 13, pp. 97–98, 1917. 

– Sæland, Sem, Professor Kristian Birkeland, In Memoriam, Aftenposten, 

June 24, 1917. 

– Sæland, Sem, Professor Birkeland, Teknisk T Ukeblad, 

32, pp. 33–42, 1919. 

– Sæland, Sem, Professor Kristian Birkeland, Fysisk Tidsskrift, VVol. 

XVI, 

pp. 34–53, 1918. 

– Vegard, Lars, Professor Kr. Birkeland, Teknisk T Ukeblad, 

26, pp. 300–303, 

June 1917. 

– Vegard, Lars, Professor Kristian Birkeland, pp. 407–415, 1917. 

– Almost all Norwegian newspapers carried Birkeland obituaries.

APPENDIX 3 

PATENTS A 

Birkelandheld 60 Norwegian patents, including 10 with Sam Eydeand 5with 

Olaf Devik. Inthe following tables, patents are listed topically in the first line 

of each table; columns list information date, patent number, and ashort title 

along with the name(s) of patent holder(s). 

Date Patent Number Short Title Patent Holder(s) 

Electromagnetic Cannon 

Sep 16, 1901 11,201 New method to fire projectiles 

using electromagnetic forces 

Kr. Birkeland 

Dec 11, 1901 11,342 Projectiles for electromagnetic 

cannons 

Kr. Birkeland 

Apr 22, 1902 11,228 Theelectromagnetic cannon Kr. Birkeland 

Oct 24, 1901 11,445 A method to avoid electric arcs 

with current-braking switches 

Kr. Birkeland 

Mar 12, 1903 13,035 Rapidhigh-energy electric 

generation g applied to 

electromagnetic cannons 

Kr. Birkeland 

Apr 23, 1903 13,052 Electromagnetic cannon systems Kr. Birkeland 

Nitrogen Fixation, Plasma Furnace and Absorption System 

Mar 20, 1903 12,961 New approach to produce 

electric discharges with 

maximum surfaces to 

decompose atmospheric 

gasses g in the atmosphere 

May 26, 1903 14,350 Approach and instruments for 

automatic current switching 

independent on voltages, and 

applications in different 

technology 

Jun 16, 1903 13,244 New instruments for use in 

patent 12,961 with suggested 

methods 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland



Jun 16, 1903 13,280 Approach to chemical binding or 

splitting ofgasses by electric 

discharges from large arcs 

Aug 26, 1903 13,240 New approach to reduction or 

oxidation o of solid matter in 

electric heated furnace 

Sep 14, 1903 12,989 New approach for instruments 

for use in patent 12,961 with 

suggested methods 

Oct 28, 1903 13,753 Furnace to produce chemical, 

binding reactions in gasses. 

Feb 11, 1904 13,705 New methods to accelerate 

electric reactions in gasses by 

large-arc discharges 

Feb 02, 1904 13,279 New instruments for producing 

electric reactions in gasses by 

electric discharges 

Mar 29, 1904 13,738 New approach to Birkeland 

electric furnace system 

Mar 30, 1904 15,052 Regardinggas circulation in 

Electric flame furnaces 

Mar 30, 1904 13,281 The mounting of the electrodes 

in electric flame furnaces 

Jan 12, 1905 14,229 The use of big magnetic fields in 

furnaces of system Birkeland 

Apr 01, 1905 16,294 Electric flame furnace to treat 

gasses g 

Jun 10, 1905 17,429 Electrode mounting and use of 

magnetic fields in electric 

flame furnace of Birkeland 

system for chemical binding 

or dissociation of gasses 

Oct 23, 1905 15,706 New electrodes in the electric 

furnace for treating gasses 

Jan 31, 1906 15,896 New mounting of electric flame 

furnaces 

Feb 16, 1906 15,898 New approachfor construction 

of electric flame furnaces 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkelandand 

Sam Eyde 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland and 

Sam Eyde 

Kr. Birkeland 


Sam Eyde 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland

PATENTS A 

197 


Feb 16, 1907 17,400 New instrumental approach to 

electric discharges using 

magnetic fields between the 

permanent electrodes to 

produce fast and intense arcs 

Mar 11, 1907 17,834 Furnace for dissociation of 

atmospheric gasses 

Mar 23, 1907 18,236 Electric furnaces for oxidation 

of nitrogen 

Sep 27, 1907 18,854 Different gas reactions using 

electric arcs 

Oct 31, 1908 20,486 New design for circulation of air 

inelectric stoves by using a 

plasma torch 

Apr 21, 1909 20,670 Increased energy in electric 

furnace 

Oct 29, 1909 24,385 Anew approach to obtain higher 

yields and increased 

concentrations of nitric acid 

withfurnaces using larger 

arcs generated by magnetic 

fields 

Aug 29, 1903 12,879 Method to transform nitric acid 

into saltpeter, calcium nitrate 

Aug 15, 1906 17,051 Absorption system to produce 

nitrogen oxide 

Nov 20, 1906 18,092 Method to utilize patent 17,051 

in another way to produce 

similar products 

Nov 28, 1906 17,287 New methods for absorption 

system to produce nitrogen 

oxides o 

Jan 11, 1907 19,261 New methods to oxidize different 

gasses g 

Melting Furnaces 

Sep 19, 1903 13,040 Method to reduce or oxidize 

solid matter using of aplasma 

torch 

Oct 20, 1904 14,585 Furnaces for hard-to-melt 

metals and minerals 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland and 

Sam Eyde 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 


Sam Eyde 


Sam Eyde 

Jan 12, 1905 15,349 New design for melting furnace Kr. Birkelandand 

Sam Eyde



Apr 01, 1905 18,243 Electric melting and 


metallurgical processes Sam Eyde 

Apr 02, 1906 19,272 New approach to the treatment Kr. Birkeland and 

of different metals during 

melting 

Sam Eyde 

Jan 11, 1907 19,635 New approaches and tools for Kr. Birkeland and 

the treatment of different 

metalsandminerals during 

melting 

Sam Eyde 

Radio-wave Propagation 

Dec 18, 1906 17,557 Methodsandinstruments for 

propagation of electric waves 

from a transmitter to same 

receiver r unperturbed by the 

presence other waves 

Kr. Birkeland 

Mar 15, 1907 17,558 Electrodes for magnetic wave 

propagation using the plasma 

torch in radiotelegraphic 

apparatus 

Kr. Birkeland 

Mar 26, 1907 17,559 Methodstoproduce radiowave 

oscillations 

Kr. Birkeland 

Sept 05, 1907 17,975 Radio receivers Kr. Birkeland 

Sept 23, 1907 17,370 An instrument for radio 

telegraphy and telephony 

Kr. Birkeland 

Oct 03, 1907 17,974 An instrument to generate 

radiowave r oscillations 

Kr. Birkeland 

Apr 04, 1907 17,499 New equipment to start and stop 

high voltages in engines and 

control high voltages in 

general g circuits 

Kr. Birkeland 

Hardening of Oil 

Mar 15, 1912 24,371 Method to refine and use whale Kr. Birkeland and 

oil 

Olaf Devik 

May 16, 1912 24,288 Methodstoharden different oils Kr. Birkeland and 

Olaf Devik 

Jul 05, 1912 24,471 Methodstoharden different oils Kr. Birkelandand 

using pressurized hydrogen Olaf Devik 

Jun 06, 1913 24,472 New methods to harden different Kr. Birkeland and 

oils 

Olaf Devik 

Jun 18, 1913 24,470 Methodstotransform oil to fat Kr. Birkeland and 

with higher melting-point oils 

using hydrogen under 

pressure 

Olaf Devik

PATENTS A 

199 


Bismuth 

Feb 21, 1912 23,542 Methodstoproduce ammonium 

nitrate 

Kr. Birkeland 

Dec 04, 1912 24,423 Methods to produce calcium 

saltpeter while extracting 

metals 

Kr. Birkeland 

Dec 23,1912 26,329 Methods to extract clean metals Kr. Birkeland 

Miscellaneous Patents 

Apr 30, 1910 21,334 Method to feed humans and 

animals with chemical 

materials and reaction 

monitoring equipment 

Jan 11, 1912 23,446 New method to treat organic 

waste products, such as 

garbage, g and cadavers of 

different animals 

May 04, 1912 26,865 New approach to electric 

melting and reduction stoves 

Dec 12, 1912 26,329 A method to produce clean 

metals from sulphurous 

products 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland 

Kr. Birkeland

Dear Kaja, 

APPENDIX 4 

LETTERS 

LETTER: BIRKELAND TO KAJA GEEMUYDEN 

Paguebot Paul, Locat. 

4 April 1917 

We are on the leg of our journey from Colombo toSingapore. Dr. Eriksen 

(Holth’s friend, and the Danish General Consul) and I plan to visit China and 

Japan, countries we both have dreamed about, before continuing our journey 

home via Vladivostok. While I still do not know my traveling companion very 

well, he gives the impression of being a warm hearted and good man, who 

is also intelligent. He is married to a magnificent and unusual lady who is 

three-quarters Norwegian (Blackstad family). She and Eriksen are both eye 

specialists. 

I am very much looking forward to seeing my friends in Kristiania again. As 

usualfor me, I came to Egypt full of confidence ineverybodyandeverything. However, for the first time in mylife Ilearned than one must not give blind 

confidence to new friends because they can, if they are successful, deceive you 

more than your most dangerous enemies. Most of all I long for my natural 

home to continue my work and to write of my Odyssey, wwhich 

will be filed 

in a secret archive. I have recently experienced things in Egypt that cannot be 

discussed openly. I can perhaps convey them verbally toselected loyal, and 

well-tested friends, of which I don’t have many. Together we can try to figure 

out what has really happened; this is of utmost interest to me. I believe some 

of the most virulent people live in Egypt. They lieanddeny facts. During the 

war this became worse than before. Egyptians use every means availabletohurt 

suspicious Englishmen who are in “the water up to their heads.” My impression 

is that I have undergone much suffering through the fault of France, the country 

we have loved the most since childhood.


In your last letter you said that you have not seen (Karl) Devik recently. I hope 

that by now you have had a chance to meet him. You should be very friendly 

toward him because he is certainly an excellent man. 

Translated T 

by A. Egeland. 

With W the most friendly regards 

Yours Y sincerely 

Kr. Birkeland

LETTERS 203 

EXTRACTS FROM TERADA’S DIARY CONCERNING KRISTIAN 

BIRKELAND IN MAY–JUNE 1917 

Translated from Japanese by N. Fukushima 

19 May (Saturday) I received a letter from Prof. Birkeland inHotel Fujiya 

at Miyanoshita, Hakone. 

24 May (Thursday) Birkeland wrote me that he would like tomovetoa 

hotel near our university; I recommended the Ueno 

Seiyôken. ˆ 

28 May (Monday) In his replyBirkeland wrote that hewould move soon 

to Seiyôken. ˆ 

29 May (Tuesday) Birkeland came to our university. He seemed to have 

come to the Seiyôken ˆ the day before. I presented to 

himacopyof my recent paper on geomagnetism. 

30May(Wednesday) Prof. Nagaoka (Dean of theScience College) told me 

that when hevisited Birkelandinthe morning, his 

actions and words were extremely abnormal, and 

very excited; he spoke about his dissatisfaction 

with the British government. Prof. Nagaoka felt 

as if Birkeland might commit suicide.Iwill visit 

him tomorrow morning to see what we can do for 

him. 

31May(Thursday) Ivisited Birkeland this morning.Iheard that hecollapsedyesterday 

morning,andhadhim examined 

by the Norwegian Minister’s physician. He was 

still sleeping, so I came back to the University 

to discuss the situation with Prof. Nagaoka. In 

the afternoon I went to him again with Dr. Miura 

(of the Medical College); he said that Birkeland 

seemed to have been poisoned by a large dose of a 

sleeping drug. After Dr. Miura left Birkeland told 

me about harassment he had [received] from the 

British authorities in Egypt. His story sounds like 

the Odyssey,as Birkelandcalls it. He told me that 

he knew that a British detective had been watching 

him in Hakone. Birkeland said, “I am too tired. So I 

took eight tablets to finish them all.” This evening, 

in the rain, I visited Prof. Nagaoka to relate all I 

had heard directly from Birkeland.


1 June (Friday) Prof. Nagaokavisited Birkeland this morning and saw 

that he was recovering rather quickly. 

3 June (Sunday) This morning I heard that Birkeland had come to my 

room in the university; I went immediately tothe 

Seiyôken. ˆ Prof. Nagaoka also came to visit him. 

4 June (Monday) Birkeland came to the university in the morning; he 

borrowed from me papers by van Bemmelen and 

Bildingmeier. A telegram was sent to the Zikawei 

Observatory asking for its report on aurora. 

8 June (Friday) Birkeland came to me inthe morning; he took withhim 

a paper by Størmer. He came again intheafternoon. 

9 June (Saturday) Birkeland came to me in the morning; weatelunch 

together at theUniversity. 

15 June (Friday) In the morning I received an urgent call from the 

Seiyôken ˆ informing me that Birkeland was in criti- 

cal condition. I went to the hotel immediately along 

with Dr. Miura, the Norwegian Minister and Prof. 

Nagaoka. We heard that last night he took eleven 

grams of veronal, possibly with the intention of committing 

suicide. Although his breathing had already 

stopped Dr. Miura and his students tried artificial 

respiration on him for about an hour without success. 

We requested an inspection by the police, and 

his body was then transported to the Department of 

Anatomy in our university. We decided to keep his 

body for awhile in the university(until we receive a 

reply from Norway to the Minister’s telegram). 

16 June (Saturday) In the afternoon I sent a wreath of flowers to be placed 

on Birkeland’scoffin. 

17 June (Sunday) At the university Prof. Nagaoka and I discussed our 

funeral address for Birkeland and other matters. 

21 June (Thursday) Since the funeral ceremony will be held at the German 

churchin central Tokyo at 14:30 next Monday, 

the invitational circular was sent to concerned people 

including the staff of the Central Meteorological 

Observatory. 

22 June (Friday) This morning Birkeland’s body was placedintoacoffin 

and transported to the church.

LETTERS 205 

LETTER: TERADA TO BIRKELAND (WRITTEN IN ENGLISH) 

May 19, 1917 

Dear Professor Birkeland, 

Science College 

Imperial University 

Tokyo, Japan 

I am very happy to learn that some of the phenomena I have studied show 

an intimate relation with the results of your valuable investigation on zodiacal 

light.Iamvery much interested and will be glad to learn more details about it. 

The problem which puzzled me is what determines the magnitude of the period 

of the most frequent waves. I will be pleased to learn [your] opinion about it. 

In spite of thorough inquiries in the main library of the University, the second 

volume of your paper could not be found at last. I am infinitely sorry for it. I 

will continue searching, but withlittle hope. 

How are you getting along in Hakone? I hope you will soon get over the trouble. 

With W kindest regards, I remain 

Yours Y very truly 

T. Terada T



May 24, 1917 




Tokyo, Japan 

Iamveryglad to learn you are getting better and intending to take a lodging near 

us. There is a Hotel, Seiyôken ˆ in Ueno Park (not the one with the same name 

in Tsukiji), which is within 15 minutes walk from our College. It is situated in 

the green forest near the edge of a wooded terrace and seems to be quite good 

for health. The lodging will cost 6.5 to 7 Yen in all. It will however be better 

to settle the matter after you have seen if the room will fit you. We will be all 

very glad to have you coming near us. 

With W kindest regards 

Yours Y sincerely 

T. Terada T

LETTERS 207 

LETTER: NAGAOKA TO BIRKELAND (WRITTEN IN ENGLISH) 

May 24th, 1917 



Physical Institute 


Tokyo, Japan 

We are nowadays welcoming numerous foreign guests from every part of the 

world, but among a host of tourists it is very rare to find a world-renowned 

physicist as you are. It was therefore with no little surprise that I was apprized 

of your arrival. I told the rector of the University of your visit to the Physical 

Institute; he regretted very much not having seen you. If you will return to Tokyo 

and care to come to the University again, the rector desires to invite you to Tiffin, 

where w a number of professors in physics, electrotechnics and electrochemistry, 

will also be present. He lets me ask you when it will be convenient for you. 

We shall be very happy if you will take the trouble by that occasion to give a 

lecture of an hour or so to graduates and students of physics on any subject you 

like to choose. 

Mr. Terada tells methat you intend to come to Tokyo andlodge in the neighborhood 

of the University; I should like to recommend to you Seiyoken on the 

margin of Uyeno Park about a kilometer distant from our institute. 

Expecting to see you inTokyo and waiting for your answer, I remain 

Yours Y faithfully 

H.Nagaoka



May 31, 1917 

Dear Prof. Birkeland, 




Tokyo, Japan 

I can see now quite well how unhappy you must have been in Egypt.Iam 

infinitely sorry for it. Now you are among us the scientific men who are brethren 

all over the world, are they not? You can be quite assured that we all esteem you 

as one of the distinguished members of the scientific world and [are] veryglad 

to have you staying near us. I do not believe that any persecution of the kind 

you imagine may continue to bother you. Here it is so peaceful that you will 

perhaps notice yourself in (the) course of time. If you have still anything you 

may feel uneasy or nervous (about) please let us know about it straightforward. 

Prof Nagaoka and I will try anything to make it all right and make your sojourn 

among us as easy as possible. Please write to us anything you have to complain 

against the Hotel etc. 

Prof. K. Miura is the best man of the faculty. You will soon get over your illness 

if you would trust him and follow his prescription. We will come and see you 

by and by. Take the best care of your health. You will be soon quite happy as 

ever. 


T. Terada T

LETTERS 209 

LETTER: NAGAOKA TO BIRKELAND (WRITTEN IN ENGLISH) 

May 31st, 1917 





Tokyo, Japan 

Ihave the pleasure of introducing Professor K. Miura of the medical faculty.He 

is perhaps the best medical man that I can recommend for curing your illness. 

Professor Miura is versed in German, French and English languages, but he 

will prefer the first mentioned. Hoping for your rapid recovery 

I remain 


H.Nagaoka


LETTER: GERDA THOMSEN TO KARL DEVIK 

Translated by A. Egeland 

Dear Devik, 

Finally aletter from you (polite form) reached Egypt; it was on the wayfor 

a long time, before it arrived. You asked my husband for news about Prof. 

Birkelandbut since he has been fully occupied, he asked me to answer you. 

Last autumn I visited the Professor a few times; he was very busy with some 

new instruments and with a letter he received from the British Admiralty. He 

was somewhat excited and told me that hedrinks alot of coffee in order to 

work without becoming tired. He told our Ambassador and informed us that 

his work would soon be finished and it did not pose any danger to him. This, I 

believe, occurred near the end of October. 

One evening around New Year’s day Dr. Røder came by. He hadbeen inHelwan 

to see a patient then visited the Professor. He came to us very concerned and 

asked us if we could go with him to see the Professor. He and I went there the 

next evening together with Mustachi, and Marie (both from National Bank) 

whowere theonly people he trusted.Hewasquite worn out, thin, hiseyes were 

flickering andheshowed a marked paranoia. He feltthat theEnglish were after 

him in some way; he was completely disconnectedfrom theworld.TheEnglish 

run around the house day and night. They had spies everywhere; among them 

was his housekeeper, whom he fired about a month ago. He did have some 

medicine: “With a half beer glass of whisky and two grams of veronal, nothing 

frightens you. You can fight like a lion.” 

He was very pleased to be among Scandinavians who speak his language, but 

he was markedlychanged.Hehad two dogs. His garden was closed to everyone, 

andhe had revolver and ashotgun ready for use in the bedroom. 

Poor Birkeland, he has had a bad time. The next day my husband went out there 

and found him much better. However, we cannot visit him every day, the trains 

are slow and few. We suggested that he move to live next to us in a guesthouse. 

This was a significant change that allowed us to see him a few times every day. 

Dr. Røder treated him; he would lie quietly in bed, would sleep and eat, and 

eventually looked on whisky with disgust and a violent dislike. My husband had 

a strong soothing effect on him and they went for walks together. Once again 

the Professor could enjoy himself and laugh like in the old days. When he was

LETTERS 211 

out of bed we would eat together and his appetite was excellent. His perception 

of people as being threats to him did not disappear, but it grew steadily weaker. 

He felt well protected here because my husband was a diplomatic agent. He 

regarded his own consul and in particular the deputy, among the worst “spies.” 

He steadily improved and wanted to start working, but could not. He was like a 

child who could not be left alone for long. Constantly he was thinking about how 

he could get back to Norway. Staying here for another summer was unthinkable, 

and traveling home via England was impossible. One evening while we were 

talking, I spontaneously suggested, “Why don’t you travel the other way via 

the Far East?” He was immediately enthusiastic, but said that he could not 

travel alone. Again his spirit deflated slightly as he considered who could travel 

with him. I then suggested my husband had been thinking about a trip home. 

He was delighted, and the decision was made. The next day at the shipping 

office, everything was planned and arranged. A lot of things happened in these 

days. My husband has a diplomatic passport and from his travel company he 

received special recommendations and advice on getting the best treatment in 

the different countries through which they would pass. In a very short time after 

the travel was decided, he was nearly the same as in the old days. He attended 

two small parties where he was full of life and very amusing. Everyone at the 

guesthouse loved “monsieur le Professur.” Nobody was aware of hissickness. 

Finally on10th March they departed from here. He radiated with happiness 

and promised me to drown all “English spies intheRed Sea.” My husband said 

that he kept his word. After Colombo spies were no longer mentioned. They 

had an enjoyable voyage. 

What a shame it should end so sadly for Professor Birkeland. If you could 

respond and tell us how it happened, we would be very thankful. Ambassador 

Anker has not answered our letters or telegrams. When the professor decided 

not to travel home, my husband gave him (Anker) an accurate description of 

the situation, but he seemed to find my husband strange and did not take the 

situation seriously, but promised to take care of the Professor while he was in 

Japan. 

Iwas very sorry when I heard that he wasdead. Mrs. Hooker (the wife of the 

Norwegian consul) informed me. Of course after that I had to give her the keys 

andlet her makethe decisions about the house and garden. They seem to have 

rentedit out for thewinter and that is just as well. 

Yes, the poor professor had a very difficult time, and I have often blamed myself 

Y 

for not visiting him sooner. The cause of his sickness, I believe, was a combination 

of hard work, abuse of coffee and later of whisky and veronal. There 

were other circumstances as well. First, he felt that he was under surveillance,


and we cannot be sure that this was not true. However, his life was never in the 

danger he thought. He had been in contact with the (British) headquarters here. 

Although they had been obliging, he thought that they were just trying to give 

him a false sense of security. The second point, which was very difficult for him, 

was that since October or early in November, he received no communications 

from you. Until he left, no news arrived even though he and my husband sent 

several telegrams to you. He constructed all kinds of hypotheses, althoughthe 

only real explanation was censorship. In addition, he had difficulty surviving 

our unusually warm and humid weather. 

It is a terrible misfortune and a sorrow for everyone who knew him, that he 

should die so young, alone andinafar off country. You can understand that it is 

verysadfor us, and particularly for my husband,who left himthere. However, 

everyone advised them against traveling home, especiallythe Professor because 

of thecold weather anddarkness. He was so pleased to find a Norwegian (Anker) 

family, f who promised to take care of him. He lived together with them up in 

the mountains, whilemyhusband was traveling. He also made preparations to 

resume hiswork, having met Japanese professors who were old acquaintances. 

Thus, myhusbandbelieved that hewasin good shape. 

We are pleased to hear that your workhas lead to positive results, and we hope, 

once again when you have time let us hear from you. Let us hope that the war 

ends soon so that we may see you here againnextwinter! 

With W kind regards from my husband. 

Yours, Y 

GerdaThomsen

Translated by A. Egeland 

May 18, 1917 

Dear Birkeland, 

LETTERS 213 

LETTER: ERIKSEN TO BIRKELAND 

Hotel Pleasanton 

Yokohama 

We did not succeed in seeing each other again this time. I am of course interested 

in knowing what your arrangements will be; whether you will travel home or stay 

in Japan this summer. My address the day after tomorrow: P. Leakt, M. M. Kobe 

and a few days later: Consul General of Norway, Shanghai, where I will greet 

Mr. Eitzen and family. I sent this letter to the Norwegian Legation in Tokyo, 

because I believe that is the most secure address. A few hours after eating dinner 

I will go aboard the Pane Licit at 8 o’clock. 

When we lay over the whole day after tomorrow in Kobe,Iwill trytovisit 

Kyoto. I was in Tokyo yesterday and with General Consul Wadsted and saw 

some places I have not seen earlier. Early today I travelledbytrain to Kamokura 

and met with Wadsted again. 

If needed, chargé d’affaires Fevrell isstill interestedin helping you with tickets. 

Finally, then I say good-bye and wish you well and thank you for your pleasant 

company over nearly four months andhope that we will meet again in the not 

too distant future. 

Yours Y sincerely, 

Eriksen 

Note: This letter was found in the Seiyôken Hotel, Tokyo and was returned via the 

ˆ 

Norwegian embassy.Onthe back of theenvelope Birkeland wrote by hand: “Dr. Eriksen 

is a most valuable diplomat and other documents are found in my house in Helwan.”

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Documents of the Norwegian-Academy, Vol V .I&II.

Aars, Jonathan, 19, 22, 133, 137 

Abel, Niels Henrik, 21–2, 24 

Adler, Hanna, 157 

Akasofu, Syun-Ichi, 80, 176, 178 

Alexander, Anton, 24 

Alfvén, ´ Hannes, 77, 81, 83–5, 173, 176, 178 

Amundsen, Roald, 156, 162 

Andersen, Kjetel Gjølme, 215 

Anker, Peder Bernt (Ambassador), 149, 150, 

152, 153, 154, 163, 211, 212 

Appell, Paul-Emile, 23 

Appleton, Edward V., 16 

Aristotle, 13 

Armstrong, James, 105, 173 

Arrhenius, Svante A., 49, 49n. 

Bamberger, Max, 139 

Bartels, Julius, 14, 73 

Bavalet, Louis, 48 

Bergius, Friedrich, 119 

Birkeland, Ida Charlotte (f. Hammer), 3, 143, 

144, 145, 157, 163 

Birkeland, Ingeborg, 17 

Birkeland, Reinert, 17–8 

Birkeland, Richard, 18–9, 156, 163, 166, 175, 

189 

Birkeland, Tønnes Gunnar, 17–9, 22, 142, 

153–4, 161–4, 190 

Bjerknes, Carl Anton, 13 

Bjerknes, Vilhelm, 13, 22–3, 27, 60, 79, 141, 

156, 159, 161, 191 

Bødtker, Henning, 156, 163 

Bohr, Niels, 8, 127 

Borisoff, Alexander, 63 

Børresen, Admiral Urban J. R, 116 

Bosch, Karl, 119 

Bostrom, ¨ Rolf, 171 

Boye, Elisar, 53–5, 65, 132 

Bredal, Johan O, 118, 144, 155–6, 162–3 

Brøgger, Waldemar Christopher, 25, 110, 

134, 139, 190 

Brundtland, Terje, 39, 40 

Bryn, Alfred, 129 

Bull, Anders Henrik, 129, 131 

INDEX OF NAMES 

Carlheim-Gyllenshøld, Vilhelm, 140 

Cassini, Giovanni, 94 

Celsius, Anders, 14, 167 

Chapman, Sydney, 13, 73, 76, 77, 80, 81, 82, 

83, 84, 165, 168, 170 

Coleman, Catherine, 178 

Collett, John Peter, 215 

Cook, James, 13 

Cowley, Stanley, W. H., 177, 179 

Crookes, Sir William, 109, 185 

Curie, Marie, 6, 130 

de Marian, Jean Jacques Dortoùs, ` 48 

Dessler, Alexander J, 85, 141, 173, 176 

Devik, Karl, 6, 9, 18, 35, 38, 43, 96, 97, 

142–3, 145–7, 149–51, 158, 163, 176, 

189, 202, 210 

Devik, Olaf, 6, 9, 10, 18, 32, 35, 53, 78–9, 

105–6, 123, 126, 128, 131–2, 134, 143–5, 

154–6, 158–9, 163, 166, 175–6, 178, 189, 

194–5, 198 

Dietrichson, Jørgen, Ludvig, 32, 35, 158 

Dungey, James, 170 

Ege, Ingeborg Susanne, 17 

Egeland, Alv, 13, 84, 176, 210, 213 

Egenæs, Olaf, 61 

Einstein, Albert, 127, 167 

Eriksen, Justinius (Generalconsul), 143, 148, 

150, 151 

Eriksen’s wife; see Gerda Thomsen 

Eyde, Sam, 9, 110–24, 129, 138, 139, 145, 

156, 175, 187, 189–98 

Fabricus, Johan J., 60 

Falsen, Consul, 63 

Faraday, Michael, 14 

Falthammer, ¨ Carl-Gunne, 173 

Friedman, Robert Marc, 138, 139 

Fritz, Herman, 15 

Fukushima, Naoshi, 8, 77, 81–2, 170, 176 

Gaimard, Paul, 48 

Galileo, 13, 14

220 INDEX OF NAMES 

Gassendi, Pierre, 13 

Gasslander, Olle, 124, 140 

Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 13, 15 

Geelmuyden, Hans, 13, 161 

Geelmuyden, Kaja, 18, 150, 157, 161, 189 

Gilbert, William, 13 

Glazebrook, R. T., 106 

Gleditsch, Ellen, 6, 130, 157 

Goldschmidt, Heinrich Jacob, 139 

Goldstein, Eugen, 16 

Grimnes, Ole K., 216 

Guldberg, Alf, 24 

Guldberg, C. M., 160 

Haber, Fritz, 119 

Hagerup, Harald, 62 

Hagerup, Johan, 62 

Halley, Edmund, 14, 92, 167 

Hammer, Ida Augusta Charlotte, 3, 143 

Hansen, Alf Scott, 139 

Hansteen, Christofer, 13, 14, 15, 21, 167 

Harang, Leiv, 131 

Harendel, ¨ Gerhard, 177 

Hartree, Douglas R., 16 

Heaviside, Oliver, 16 

Heitman, Johan, 46 

Helland, Amund, 146, 156, 161, 162, 175, 189 

Helland-Hansen, Bjørn, 47 

Henriksen, Noralf, 12, 119 

Hertz, Heinrich, 22, 23, 24, 28, 141, 159, 

167, 168, 191 

Hiorter, Olaf Peter, 14, 167 

Holmboe, Carl Fred, 131, 135 

Holst, Elling Bolt, 19, 20–22, 24, 52, 156, 191 

Holst, Helge, 122 

Huygens, Christian, 27 

Ibsen, Henrik, 24, 135 

Iijima, Takesi, 174 

Isaachsen, Daniel, 145, 175 

Jago, Lucy, 10, 106, 142–3, 147, 156 

Jones, George, 95 

Joule, James Prescott, 172 

Keilhaug, K Wilhelm, 217 

Kennelly, K Arthur E., 16 

King Frederik VI, 12 

King H˚akon ˚ VII, 5, 11, 121, 133, 162 

King Kristian IV, 1n. 

King Oscar II, 3, 4, 11, 52, 104, 137 

Kirchoff, Gustav Robert, 172 

Klason, Peter, 139 

Knox-Shaw, Harold, 96, 145, 163 

Knudsen, Gunnar, 60, 103, 104, 110–1, 156 

Koren, K Johan, 63 

Korsakoff, K Rimski, 63 

Krag, Ole Herman, 103, 104 

Krekling, Richard, 61, 63–4 

Krogness, OleAndreas, 6, 9, 67, 78–9, 92, 95, 

97–8, 131, 154, 156, 160, 163, 166, 194 

Lange, Richard, 54 

Langmuir, Irving, 29, 169 

Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 15 

Lemstrøm, Karl Selim, 50 

Lenard, Philippe E., 24 

Lie, Sophus, 24, 156 

Lodge, Sir Oliver, 156 

Mann, John, 152 

Marconi, Gulielmo, 16 

Maxwell, James Clerk, 2, 14, 167 

Miura, Dr. K., 152–3, 203–4, 208–9 

Mohn, Henrik, 13, 62, 143, 156, 159, 160 

Mørner, Countess Anna Ulrika (Ulla), 124 

Muir, Jessie, 67 

Næss, Eivind Bødtker, 113 

Nagaoka, H., 149–54, 203–4, 207–9 

Nansen, Fridtjof, 3, 11, 47, 59, 105, 134, 137, 

156, 160, 162 

Newton, Isaac, 27, 85 

Nordberg-Schultz, Thorvald, 101 

Oguti, Takasi, 177 

Olden, Ole F., 126 

Olsen, Kristian Anker, 215, 218 

Ørsted, Hans Christian, 13, 14 

Pauersson, O., 140 

Paulsen, Adam, 49, 50 

Peratt, Anthony L., 120, 165, 177 

Perrin, Jean, 33 

Persson, Niels, 114, 116 

Picard, Émile, 23

Planck, Max, 177 

Poincaré, ´ Henri, 22–3, 32, 156–7, 167 

Potemra, Thomas A., 174, 176 

Quale, Anders, 48 

Rayleigh, John W. Lord, 106, 156 

Riddervold, Hans, 63, 65–6 

Riiber, Claus Nissen, 30, 113, 115, 131, 167 

Rive, Lucien de la, 23 

Rødseth, Jørgen, 112 

Roeder, Louis, 142, 149, 150 

Rontgen, ¨ Wilhelm Conrad, 126 

Roux, Alan F., 178 

Russeltvedt, Nils, 62–3 

Rutherford, Ernest, 8, 127 

Sæland, Sem, 6, 7, 9, 34, 52–3, 55, 61–2, 64, 

78, 105, 132, 134, 142, 154, 156–8, 166, 

175, 189, 193 

Sander, Lady, 106, 189 

Sarasin, Edouard, 23, 25, 27, 28, 181 

Schaaning, Hans Thomas, 63, 65 

Schiøtz, Oscar Emil, 13, 22, 126 

Schlosing, Dr. Alphones Théophile, ´ 115 

Schonherr, ¨ Otto, 113, 118, 139, 190 

Schuster, Arthur, 80, 96, 98, 145 

Schwabe, Heinrich, 14 

Scott-Hansen, Alf, 139 

Shaw, H. Knox, 96, 145 

Skolem, Thoralf, 6, 96, 131, 145, 147, 149, 

166, 186 

Sohlman, Ragnar, 139, 190 

Southwood, David, 177 

Spandonides, Hella, 146–7, 157 

Stewart, Balfour, 16 

Størmer, Carl, 6, 9, 19, 41–3, 97–9, 140, 145, 

149 

Sugiura, Masahisa, 80 

INDEX OF NAMES 221 

Tanakadate, T Professor, 151 

Terada, T Torahiko, 143, 149–55, 203, 

205–8 

Thompson, Silvanus, 115 

Thomsen, Gerda, 148–51, 157, 163, 

189, 210–2 

Thomson, Joseph John, 8, 34, 34n., 

101 

Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin), 8 

Tillberg, Knut, 114, 116 

Topfer, ¨ Otto, 51, 61 

Tromholt, T Sophus, 15 

Van Allen, James, 176 

Vasyliunas, V Vytenis, M., 171–2 

Vegard, Lars, 6, 67, 131, 155, 156, 160, 161, 

166 

Verne, Jules, 1 

Vestine, V E. H., 80–2 

Vogt, Johan Hermann, 139 

Voss, V Thomas A., 19, 22, 133, 137 

Waage, W Peter, 20 

Wallenberg, W Knut, 116–7, 126–7, 

192 

Wallenberg, W Marcus, 110, 114–7, 123–5, 

126–7, 129, 139, 156, 190–2 

Wallenberg, W Raoul, 123 

Wendelboe, W Per, 123 

Wereide, W Torstein G., 166 

Weyprecht, Carl, 45 

Wiechert, W Emil, 34 

Wilkan, W Steinar, 218 

Witt, W Otto, 115 

Wriedt, Madame, 155–6 

Zeuthen, Georg, 19 

Zelgenyi, Leo A., 178 

Zmuda, A. J., 173

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Hans Rickman 


Volume 260: 

V Solar Cosmic Rays, by Leonty I. Miroshnichenko 

Hardbound, ISBN 0-7923-6928-9, May 2001

Volume V 259: The Dynamic Sun, edited byArnold Hanslmeier, Mauro Messerotti, 

Astrid Veronig 


Volume V 258: Electrohydrodynamics in Dusty and Dirty Plasmas—Gravito-Electrodynamics 

and EHD, by Hiroshi Kikuchi 


Volume V 257: Stellar Pulsation—Nonlinear Studies, edited by Mine Takeuti, 

Dimitar D. Sasselov 


Volume V 256: Organizations and Strategies in Astronomy, edited by André Heck 


Volume V 255: The Evolution of the Milky Way-Stars versus Clusters, edited by Francesca 

Matteucci, Franco Giovannelli 

Hardbound, ISBN 0-7923-6679-4, January 2001 

Volume V 254: Stellar Astrophysics, edited byK.S. Cheng, HoiFung Chau, Kwing Lam Chan, 

Kam Ching Leung 

Hardbound, ISBN 0-7923-6659-X, November 2000 

Volume V 253: The Chemical Evolution of the Galaxy, by Francesca Matteucci 

Paperback, ISBN 1-4020-1652-2, October 2003 


Volume V 252: Optical Detectors for Astronomy II, I edited by Paola Amico, James W. Beletic 


Volume V 251: Cosmic Plasma Physics, by Boris V. Somov 


Volume V 250: Information Handling in Astronomy, edited by André Heck 


Volume V 249: The Neutral Upper Atmosphere, by S.N. Ghosh 


Volume V 247: Large Scale Structure Formation, edited by Reza Mansouri, Robert 

Brandenberger 


Volume 246: 

V The Legacy of J.C. Kapteyn, edited by Piet C. van der Kruit, Klaas van Berkel 

Paperback, ISBN 1-4020-0374-9, November 2001 

Hardbound, ISBN 0-7923-6393-0, August 2000

Volume V 245: Waves in i Dusty Space Plasmas, byFrank Verheest 

Paperback, ISBN 1-4020-0373-0, November 2001 


Volume V 244: The Universe, edited by Naresh Dadhich, Ajit Kembhavi 


Volume V 243: Solar Polarization, edited by K.N. Nagendra, Jan Olof Stenflo 


Volume V 242: Cosmic Perspectives in Space Physics, by Sukumar Biswas 


Volume V 241: Millimeter-Wave Astronomy: Molecular Chemistry &Physics in Space, 

edited by W.F. Wall, Alberto Carramiñana, ˜ Luis Carrasco, P.F. Goldsmith 


Volume V 240: Numerical Astrophysics, edited by Shoken M. Miyama, Kohji 

Tomisaka,Tomoyuki T 

Hanawa 


Volume V 239: Motions in the Solar Atmosphere, edited byArnold Hanslmeier, 

Mauro Messerotti 

Hardbound, ISBN 0-7923-5507-5, February 1999 

Volume V 238: Substorms-4, edited byS. Kokubun, Y. Kamide 


For further information about this book series we refer you to the following web site: 

www.springeronline.com 

To contact the Publishing Editor for new book proposals: 

Dr. Harry (J.J.) Blom: harry.blom@springer-sbm.com

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