World Development Report 1984

themselves and, by caring for younger siblings, today's production into consumption many years
allow their mothers to work more. The apparent hence that is less risky than are bank accounts,
disadvantages of secondary schooling are com- credit instruments, and precious metals, all of
pounded if children must live away from home or which are subject to theft, inflation, and the jealtravel
long distances to get to school. ousies of neighbors. Even land has to be managed
As parents' income rises, as schooling opportu- to provide income and, in any case, may require
nities improve, and as education becomes more children to work on it and make it a secure asset.
clearly the key to future success for children, par- Fifth, in some developing countries family sysents
everywhere send their children to school and tems may encourage high fertility. Early marriage
keep them there longer. In turn they often have and childbearing are easier if the new couple can
fewer children-because schooling itself and the begin married life in the household of the husloss
of children's help are costly, and because hav- band's parents. For young women who have few
ing two or three educated children becomes a other options, early marriage and many children
better "investment" (for the parents and for the may be the safest route to a satisfying adulthood
children too) than having many who cannot be and a relatively secure old age. In Africa, support
educated. from many relatives for children's education
High infant and child mortality are a third reason reduces the high economic burden of raising chilfor
having many children. Although mortality has dren that potential parents would otherwise bear.
fallen, in many parts of the developing world it is A sixth factor encouraging high fertility among
still high. One out of five children dies before the poor is their limited information about, and
reaching the age of one in some parts of Africa; access to, effective and safe means of contracepone
out of seven in much of Bangladesh, India, tion. The very idea of birth control may be
and Pakistan. Parents may feel the need to have unknown or frowned upon. Modern contracepmany
babies to be sure that a few survive. Where tives may be unknown or simply not available. If
boys are more important than girls-say, for secu- available, they may be expensive, particularly in
rity in old age-parents may need to have five chil- relation to the incomes of the poor-and especially
dren to be sure that one son survives. Yet in poor if they must be bought from private doctors. For a
families many births, especially if they are close poor family, limiting the number of children may
together, may increase the probability of infant therefore mean sexual abstinence, illegal abortion,
deaths by weakening both mother and babies. infanticide-or, at best, ineffective and difficult tra-
Fourth, poor parents are worried about who will ditional contraception. In some circumstances, the
take care of them when they are old or ill. In Indo- psychological or financial costs of avoiding pregnesia,
Korea, the Philippines, Thailand, and Tur- nancy may exceed the costs of having another
key 80 to 90 percent of parents surveyed said they child.
expect to rely on their children to support them in Discussion of children as an "investment"
their old age. In Egypt, especially in rural areas, should not imply that parents in developing counpoor
and uneducated parents are much more tries are influenced only by economic considerlikely
to expect to live with (and be supported by) ations. In every society children bring parents sattheir
children when they are old than are rich and isfaction and pleasure. In poor settings, economic
educated parents. For many adults, the need for gain (where there is any) need not be the main
support in their old age outweighs the immediate cause of high fertility; it is more likely that ecocosts
of children. nomic gain (or a small economic loss) simply pre-
One reason parents look to children for help in vents any interest in having fewer children. The
disability and old age is the lack of safe alterna- social and political functions of large families are
tives. In developed countries there are trusted also important, especially in poor rural areas. For
institutions (banks, pensions, government bonds, better-off farmers in Bangladesh, children repreinsurance,
and mutual aid societies) that help indi- sent opportunities for the family's occupational
viduals to earn today and to save and spend diversification and hence for expansion or consolitomorrow.
In poor countries, capital markets are dation of its local power; a large family also has an
not nearly so well developed. In parts of South advantage in land disputes. In Latin America, by
Asia, there is no tradition of community support; the tradition of compadrazgo, or ritual coparentelsewhere,
community support is weakening as hood, families serve as godparents to the children
mobility increases. For the rural poor, children are of allies and friends, securing ritual bonds that are
the best possible annuity, a way to transform as important as blood ties in cementing alliances.
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