World Development Report 1984

acre increased from 15.4 million to 35.6 million and Easing constraints
their average size fell from 0.27 to 0.14 acres. To
take another example, the average land-man ratio Multiple cropping-more than one crop a year
in Bangladesh is estimated to have declined from from the same piece of land-is a typical way for
0.40 acres in 1960-61 to 0.29 acres in 1979-80. More societies to cope with rising populations. In Asia,
people have been absorbed into agriculture, but where the proportion of potential land under cultiincomes
have risen little if at all. More people are vation was an estimated 78 percent in 1975, about 7
probably having to earn a living as landless labor- percent of the cultivated land is cropped more than
ers. As their numbers have increased, their wages once. For some Asian countries the proportion is
have tended to fall in relation to those who own (or much greater. In the late 1960s 52 percent of cultieven
rent) land. The agricultural system has vated land was cropped more than once in Korea.
adapted, but in ways that have probably increased In Bangladesh in the late 1970s, 43 percent of the
income inequalities in the countryside. land was cropped more than once.
Another constraint on the use of potential Multiple cropping increases production and uses
agricultural land is shortage of water. In many more labor, so that the chief resource required to
developing countries, any large expansion of agri- feed the growing populations of developing councultural
production would require some form of tries is provided by the people themselves. Farm
irrigation. Worldwide, the area under irrigation studies in Africa and Asia show that, on average, a
expanded by almost 6 million hectares a year dur- 10 percent increase in farming intensity (defined as
ing the 1960s. India has shown the most dramatic the percentage of time in the rotation cycle that is
growth, with the irrigated area increasing from 28 devoted to cropping) involves a 3 to 4 percent
million hectares to 55 million hectares over the past increase in the amount of labor per hectare. Labor
two decades, an average of more than 1 million input per hectare increases because, under intenhectares
a year. In the 1970s, however, worldwide sive farming systems, the extra hours required for
expansion of irrigation slowed to just over 5 mil- land preparation, sowing, weeding, and plant prolion
hectares a year. This slowdown occurred tection more than offset the reduction of hoursbecause
some countries, such as Pakistan, started essentially for land clearing-associated with
to run out of land that can be irrigated at an accept- shorter fallow periods.
able cost. But the combined benefits of more employment
Shortage of water in many parts of India, in the and more food do not come automatically. Without
Nile Basin, in Brazil, and in most of the developing modern technical packages-including purchased
countries is constraining irrigation development, inputs such as fertilizers and improved seeds-and
and water transfer projects are being planned on effective price incentives, the amount of labor used
an even bigger scale than those recently built in can increase faster than output. Less fertile land
Pakistan. Countries are also putting more empha- may be brought under cultivation; good land may
sis on groundwater development, on the com- be given less time to regain its fertility. Research
bined use of ground and surface waters, on water into farming systems and increased use of agriculeconomy,
and on more advanced methods of tural extension services can help ensure that new
water management. Poor water management is farming methods are compatible with available
considered by many specialists to be the most resources, including labor. But population presimportant
single constraint to irrigated crop pro- sure is likely to continue. In parts of Africa, and in
duction. Bilateral and multinational agencies are China, Bangladesh, and Java in Indonesia, populanow
trying to arrest the decline in management tion pressure has already forced people to work
standards, and an International Irrigation Manage- harder just to maintain income in traditional
ment Institute has recently been established to agriculture.
promote better use of water. The challenge will, In most developing countries, however, labor
however, remain formidable, especially in some productivity has been maintained. To forestall
countries of sub-Saharan Africa, where little or no diminishing returns to labor, intensification of land
irrigation has been used in the past. This is particu- use has usually been accompanied by better farmlarly
true for the Sahelian countries, where pro- ing methods, the use of fertilizers, investments in
gress has been limited mainly because of high con- irrigation and drainage, and mechanization. Howstruction
costs ($10,000 to $15,000 per hectare ever, such measures are possible only where raincompared
with $2,000 to $5,000 in Asia), low fall is favorable-or where water is available for
farmer response, and poor project management. irrigation-and where topography and soils do not
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