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Biosafety of Food from Genetically Modifi ed Crops 459 Conclusions Concerns have been raised about the biosafety of food produced through genetically modifi ed organisms. Genetically modifi ed organisms have a better predictability of gene expression than the conventional breeding methods, and transgenes are not conceptually different than the use of native genes or organisms modifi ed by conventional technologies. The focus of biosafety regulations needs to be on safety, quality, and effi cacy. The need and extent of safety evaluation may be based on the comparison of the new food and the analogous food, if any, and the interaction of the transgene with the environment. The overall safety evaluation is conducted under the concept known as “substantial equivalence,” which is enshrined in all international crop biotechnology guidelines. This provides a framework for a comparative approach to identify the similarities and differences between the transgene product and its comparator, which has a known history of safe use. A rigorous safety-testing paradigm has been developed for transgenic crops, which utilizes a systematic, stepwise, and holistic approach. The resultant science-based process focuses on a classical evaluation of the toxic potential of the introduced novel trait and the wholesomeness of the transformed crop. The lack of any adverse effects resulting from the production and consumption of transgenic crops grown on more than 100 million hectares supports the conclusions that food derived from genetically modifi ed plants is safe for human consumption. Risks to human health associated with the use of specifi c viral DNA sequences in genetically modifi ed plants are negligible. Given the long history of DNA consumption from a wide variety of sources by animals and humans, it is likely that such consumption poses no signifi cant risk to human health, and that additional ingestion of DNA of genetically modifi ed crops will have no adverse effect. It may not be necessary or feasible to subject all genetically modifi ed foods to the full range of evaluations, but those conditions that have to be satisfi ed should be defi ned. Research should be undertaken to develop modern profi ling techniques and to defi ne the “normal” composition of conventional plants. The procedures to assess allergy should be expanded to encompass inhalant as well as allergy to food. Labeling of food derived from transgenic or other sources will remain a challenge, as much of the food produced in developing countries is consumed in unprocessed and unpackaged form locally. References Aaziz, R. and Tepfer, M. (1999). Recombination in RNA viruses in virus-resistant transgenic plants. Journal of General Virology 80: 1339–1346. Ames, B.N. and Gold, L.S. (1999). Pollution, pesticides and cancer misconceptions. In Morris, J. and Bate, R. (Eds.), Fearing Food: Risk, Health and Environment. Oxford, UK: Butterworth Heinemann, 18–38. Aumaitre, A., Aulrich, K., Chesson, A., Flachowsky, G. and Piva, G. (2002). New feeds from genetically modifi ed plants: Substantial equivalence, nutritional equivalence, digestibility, and safety for animals and the food chain. Livestock Production Science 74: 223–238. Beever, D.E. and Kemp, C.F. (2000). Safety issues associated with DNA in animal feed derived from genetically modifi ed crop: A review of scientifi c and regulatory procedures. Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews 70: 175–182.
460 Biotechnological Approaches for Pest Management and Ecological Sustainability Bennett, A.B., Chetelat, R. and Klann, E. (1995). Exotic germplasm or engineered genes: Comparison of genetic strategies to improve fruit quality. In Genetically Modifi ed Foods: Safety Issues. Washington, D.C., USA: American Chemical Society, 88–99. Berberich, S.A., Ream, J.E., Jackson, T.L., Wood, R., Stipanovic, R., Harvey, P., Patzer, S. and Fuchs, R.L. (1996). The composition of insect-protected cottonseed is equivalent to that of conventional cottonseed. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 44: 365–371. Bernstein, I.L., Bernstein, J.A., Miller, M., Tierzieva, S., Bernstein, D.I., Lummus, Z., Selgrade, M.K., Deerfl er, D.L. and Seligy, V.L. (1999). Immune responses in farm workers after exposure to Bacillus thuringiensis pesticides. Environmental and Health Perspectives 107: 575–582. Brake, D.G., Thaler, R. and Evenson, D.P. (2004). Evaluation of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) corn on mouse testicular development by dual parameter fl ow cytometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52: 2097–2102. Brake, J. and Vlachos, D. (1998). Evaluation of transgenic event 176 “Bt” corn in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 77: 648–653. Capy, P., Anxolabehere, D. and Langin, T. (1994). The strange phylogenies of transposable elements: Are transfers the only explanation? Trends in Genetics 10: 7–12. Carpenter, J., Felsot, A., Goode, T., Hamming, M., Onstad, D. and Sankula, S. (2002). Comparative Environmental Impacts of Biotechnology Derived and Traditional Soybean, Corn, and Cotton Crops. Ames, Iowa, USA: Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. Chesson, A. and Flachowsky, G. (2003). Transgenic plants in poultry nutrition. World’s Poultry Science Journal 59: 201–207. Chowdhury, E.H., Shimada, N., Murata, H., Mikami, O., Sultana, P., Miyazaki, S., Yoshioka, M., Yamanaka, N., Hirai, N. and Nakajima, Y. (2003). Detection of Cry1Ab protein in gastrointestinal contents but not visceral organs of genetically modifi ed Bt11-fed calves. Veterinary and Human Toxicology 45: 72–75. Cockburn, A. (2002). Assuring the safety of genetically modifi ed (GM) foods: The importance of an holistic, integrative approach. Journal of Biotechnology 98: 79–106. Conway, G. (2000). Crop Biotechnology. Benefi ts, Risks, and Ownership. The Rockfeller Foundation. http://www.rockfound.org/news/03062000.cropbiotech.html. Ding, Y.L., Xu, Z.C., Yang, T.Z., Yan, X.F., Liu, X.Z., Yie, H.C., Zhang, H. and Chen, G.L. (2001). Analysis on quality indexes of insect-resistant transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.). Journal of Huazhong Agricultural University 20: 81–84. Doerfl er, W. (2000). Consequences of foreign DNA integration and persistence. In Foreign DNA in Mammalian Systems. New York, USA: Wiley-VCH Verlag, 129–146. Duggan, P.S., Chambers, P.A., Heritage, J. and Forbes, J.M. (2000). Survival of free DNA encoding antibiotic resistance from transgenic maize and the transformation activity of DNA in bovine saliva, ovine rumen fl uid and silage effl uent. FEMS Microbiology Letters 191: 71–77. Einspanier, R., Klotz, A., Kraft, A., Aulrich, K., Poser, R., Schwagele, F., Jahreis, G. and Flaschowsky, G. (2001). The fate of forage plant DNA in farm animals: A collaborative case study investigating cattle and chicken fed recombinant plant material. European Food Research Technology 212: 2–12. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)/WHO (World Health Organization). (1996). Biotechnology and Food Safety. Report of a Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization Consultation. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)/WHO (World Health Organization). (2001). Evaluation of Allergenicity of Genetically Modifi ed Foods. Report of a Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/ World Health Organization Consultation. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization/ World Health Organization. Fearing, P.L., Brown, D., Vlachos, D., Meghji, M. and Privalle, L. (1997). Quantitative analysis of CryIA(b) expression in Bt maize plants, tissues, and silage and stability of expression over successive generations. Molecular Breeding 3: 169–176. Flachowsky, G. (2000). GMO in animal nutrition: Results of experiments at our institute. In Proceedings, 6th International Feed Production Conference, 27–28 November, 2000, Piacenza, Italy, 291–307.
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BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR PES
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CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 60
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vi Contents Population Prediction M
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viii Contents Multilines/Synthetics
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x Contents 7. Genetic Transformatio
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xii Contents Horizontal Gene Flow .
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xiv Contents Cereals ..............
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xvi Contents Expressed Sequence Tag
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xviii Foreword Large-scale deployme
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xx Preface of newer insecticide mol
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2 Biotechnological Approaches for P
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10 Biotechnological Approaches for
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514 Species Index Arabidopsis thali
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516 Species Index Empoasca fabae HP
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518 Species Index N Nasonovia ribis
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522 Subject Index Brown planthopper
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524 Subject Index Mass rearing, 4,
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526 Subject Index Toxin genes for i
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