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Genetic Engineering of Natural Enemies for Integrated Pest Management 299 measurements. The A. californica NPV has also been used as a vector for expression of foreign genes in B. mori (Mori et al., 1995). Homologous recombination of the host gene and the virus allows specifi c alteration of gene sequences (Yamao et al., 2002). The baculovirus expression system has been used to modify silk proteins or production of hormones in silkworm (Kadonookuda et al., 1995; Yang et al., 2002). Genetic Improvement of Beneficial Arthropods Genetic transformation can be used to improve the effi cacy of natural enemies and their adaptation to the environment, resistance to insecticides, control of disease vectors, cryopreservation, and improve the rearing systems. A number of genes have been cloned and expressed in different insect species (Table 9.3). Various aspects of genetic improvement of natural enemies through genetic engineering have been discussed below. Cryopreservation One of the potential applications of biotechnology is the development of cryobiological methods for preserving embryos of arthropod biological control agents. Currently, arthropod biological control agents can be maintained only by continuous rearing or by holding TABLE 9.3 Novel Genes Cloned for Genetic Manipulation of Insects Gene of Interest Species References Acetylcholinesterase (Ace)—pesticide resistance Drosophila Hall and Spierer (1986) Fournier et al. (1989) Anopheles stephensi Hall and Malcolm (1991) Hoffmann, Fournier, and Spierer (1992) Resistance to parathion Cardiochiles diaphaniae Presnail and Hoy (1996) Parathion hydrolase (opd )—parathion resistance Spodoptera frugiperda Dumas, Wild, and Rauschel (1990) Drosophila melanogaster Philips et al. (1990) Esterase b1 amplifi cation core— organophosphate resistance Culex species Mouches et al. (1986, 1990) Glutathione S-transferase (MdGST1)— Musca domestica Wang, McCommas, and Syvanen organohosphate resistance (1991) g-Aminobutyric acid A (GABAA)—dieldrin resistance Drosophila Ffrench-Constant et al. (1991) Cytochrome (P450-Ba)—DDT resistance Drosophila Waters et al. (1992) Glutathione S-transferase (DmGST1-1)— DDT resistance Drosophila Toung, Hsieh, and Tu (1990) Metallothionein genes (Mtn)—copper resistance Drosophila Theodore, Ho, and Marni (1991) continued
300 Biotechnological Approaches for Pest Management and Ecological Sustainability TABLE 9.3 (continued) Gene of Interest Species References Multidrug resistance (Mdr49 and Mdr65)— colchicine resistance Drosophila Wu et al. (1991) Neomycin phosphotransferase (neo)— resistance to kanamycin and neomycin (G418) Transposon Tn5 Beck et al. (1982) Insect microbiocide (Defensin A) Aedes aegypti Kokoza et al. (2000) Trypanocidal protein (Cecropin A) antibody fragment Rhodnius prolixus Durvasula et al. (1997) Resistance to yellow fever virus Rhodnius prolixus Durvasula et al. (1999) antiparasitic genes Aedes aegypti Higgs et al. (1998) Anopheles stephensi Ito et al. (2002) Catalase—hydrogen peroxide resistance Drosophila Orr and Sohal (1992) Wild-type eye color Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) Ceratitis capitata Handler and McCombs (2000) Aedes aegypti Loukeris et al. (1995) Handler et al. (1998), Michel et al. (2001) Biomolecule production Bombyx mori L. Jasinskiene et al. (1998), Kadonookuda et al. (1995), Ho et al. (1998), Yang et al. (2002) Luciferase Aedes aegypti Ward et al. (2001), Jordan et al. (1998), Johnson et al. (1999) Infection in antennal cells Manduca sexata L. Franco et al. (1998) Green fl uorescent protein (GFP) Bombyx mori Toshiki et al. (2000), Olson et al. (2000), Yamao et al. (2002) Aedes aegypti Pinkerton et al. (2000), Afanasiev et al. (1999) Anopheles stephensi Catteruccia et al. (2000) Anopheles gambiae Giles Afanasiev et al. (1999) Tribolium castaneum Berghammer et al. (1999) Stomoxys calcitrans L. O’Brochta, Atkinson, and Lehane (2000) Pectinophora gossypiella Peloquin et al. (2000) Apis mellifera Robinson et al. (2000) Musca domestica Hediger et al. (2001) Anastrepha suspensa Loew. Handler and Harrell (2001) Lucilia cuprina Heinrich et al. (2002) Athalia rosae L. Sumitani et al. (2003) specimens in diapause (for those species that undergo diapause). This is expensive and can lead to loss of colonies, as well as to genetic drift or contamination of the colonies. Mazur et al. (1992) demonstrated that embryos of the fruit fl y, D. melanogaster, can be preserved in liquid nitrogen and then thawed to develop into viable and fertile adults. If cryopreservation can be adapted to other arthropods, a signifi cant saving in rearing costs can be achieved. More importantly, valuable collections of arthropod natural enemies could also be maintained indefi nitely.
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BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR PES
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CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 60
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vi Contents Population Prediction M
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viii Contents Multilines/Synthetics
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x Contents 7. Genetic Transformatio
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xii Contents Horizontal Gene Flow .
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xiv Contents Cereals ..............
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xvi Contents Expressed Sequence Tag
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xviii Foreword Large-scale deployme
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xx Preface of newer insecticide mol
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2 Biotechnological Approaches for P
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10 Biotechnological Approaches for
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7 Genetic Transformation of Crops f
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Genetic Transformation of Crops for
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19 Biotechnology, Pest Management,
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Biotechnology, Pest Management, and
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514 Species Index Arabidopsis thali
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516 Species Index Empoasca fabae HP
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518 Species Index N Nasonovia ribis
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520 Species Index Sorghum (continue
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522 Subject Index Brown planthopper
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524 Subject Index Mass rearing, 4,
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526 Subject Index Toxin genes for i
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