Infant Toddler Learning & Development Foundations

distinguishes between two types of
categorization made by infants: perceptual
and conceptual. Perceptual
categorization has to do with similarities
or differences infants sense, such
as similarities in visual appearance.
Conceptual categorization has to do
with grouping based on what objects
do or how they act. According to Mareschal
and French (2000, 59), “the
ability to categorize underlies much of
cognition.” Classification is a fundamental
skill in both problem solving
and symbolic play.
Symbolic Play
Symbolic play is a common early
childhood behavior also called “pretend
play, make-believe play, fantasy
play . . . or imaginative play” (Gowen
1995, 75). Representational thinking
is a core component of symbolic play.
At around eight months of age, infants
have learned the functions of common
objects (for example, holding a play
telephone to “hear” Grandma’s voice).
By the time children are around 18
months of age, they use one object to
stand for, or represent, another. For
example, an 18-month-old may pretend
a banana is a telephone. At
around 36 months, children engage in
make-believe play in which they represent
an object without having that
object, or a concrete substitute, available.
For example, they may make a
“phone call” by holding their hand up
to their ear.
As children approach 36 months of
age, they increasingly engage in pretend
play in which they reenact familiar
events. Make-believe play allows
older infants to try to better understand
social roles, engage in communication
with others, and revisit
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and make sense of past experiences.
Research suggests that engaging in
pretend play appears to be related to
young children’s developing understanding
of other people’s feelings and
beliefs (Youngblade and Dunn 1995).
Outdoor environments, such as sandboxes
(Moser 1995) or play structures,
offer rich opportunities for symbolic
play or pretending. Although outdoor
play areas are often considered most
in terms of motor behavior or physical
activity, they also offer special opportunities
for symbolic play (Perry 2003).
For example, children playing outside
may pretend to garden or may use a
large wheeled toy to reenact going on a
shopping trip.
Attention Maintenance
Attention maintenance has been
described as a form of cognitive selfregulation.
It refers to the infant’s
growing ability to exercise control over
his attention or concentration (Bronson
2000). Attention maintenance
permits infants to gather information,
to sustain learning experiences, to
observe, and to problem-solve. Infants
demonstrate attention maintenance
when they attend to people, actions,
and things they find interesting even
in the presence of distractions. The
ability to maintain attention/concentration
is an important self-regulatory
skill related to learning. There is
significant variability in attentiveness
even among typically developing children
(Ruff and Rothbart 1996).
Understanding of Personal
Care Routines
Personal care activities are a routine
part of the young child’s daily life.
They also present significant opportu-
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT