St.Mark's Station, High Street, Lincoln - Archaeology Data Service

A Report to Simons Estates Ltd 

May 1998 

St.Mark's Station, High Street, Lincoln 

Archaeological Investigation 

Volume Two - Specialist Reports 

CLAU Archaeological 

Report No.: 338 

LINCOLN 

archaeology

I £ SM \Sfc7 ^ 

Contents 

CLAU Report No. 338: St. Mark's, High Street, Lincoln - Archaeological Investigations 

Volume II 

ST. MARK'S STATION, HIGH STREET, LINCOLN 

1: Roman Pottery - Barbara Precious 

2: Post-Roman Pottery - Jane Young 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS 

VOLUME TWO: SPECIALIST REPORTS ... ...... - ., • 

3: Registered and Bulk Finds - Jenny Mann 

4: Architectural Stone - Jeremy Ashbee 

5: Ceramic and Non-Ceramic Building Materials - Jenny Mann 

6: The Human Skeletal Remains - Lynda Isaac and Charlotte Roberts 

7: Animal Bone Assessment - James Rackham 

8: Plant Macro fossils and other Remains: An Assessment - Val Fryer and Peter Murphy 

9: Soils Micromorphology: Field Visit and Evaluation - Richard Macphail and Gill Cruise 

List of Figures (accompanying report on human skeletal remains) 

Fig. 1: Location map 

Fig. 2: Preservation of articulated skeletons 

Fig. 3: Percentage of postmortem damage and surface erosion 

Fig. 4: Demography of adult burials 

List of Plates (accompanying report on human skeletal remains) 

Plate 1 Skeleton 7506 - impacted maxillary canines 35 

Plate 2 Skeleton 7414 - sacral segments 36 

Plate 3 Skeleton 7414 - sacral neural arches 37 

Plate 4 Skeleton 7414 - bifurcated rib 37 

Plate 5 Skeleton 6552 - osteitis of the left tibia and fibula 40 

Plate 6 Skeleton 7322 - fractured ribs 40 

Plate 7 Skeleton 6474 - osteoarthritis of the left wrist 45 

Plate 8 Skeleton 6474 - osteoarthritis of the left wrist 45 

Plate 9 Skeleton 6560 - erosive arthropathies 47 

Plate 10: Skeleton 6560 - erosive arthropathy, detail 

47 

Page 

1 

6 

9 

15 

19 

21 

53 

63 

78 

22 

24 

24 

28


Volume II 

1.0 Introduction 

by Barbara Precious 

The Roman pottery has been recorded to basic archive standard according to the guidelines of the 

Study Group for Roman pottery, and using the existing CLAU database system. 

Site zeb95 produced a large assemblage of Roman pottery: 2,569 sherds, of which 2,351 sherds have 

been phased, leaving 218 sherds unphased. Table 1 (below) shows that the majority of the assemblage 

came from Area 7, where two Roman buildings were located, and a further 665 sherds were extracted 

from site zea95 located in the western part of the excavated area. The areas adjacent to Area 7, Area 6 

and the Combined Services Trench (CST), produced similar amounts of pottery, and the distribution is 

marginally less in Areas 8 and 8a. In Areas 2 and 3, located further west, and closer to the evaluation 

(zea95), the amount of pottery has clearly diminished. Overall, this may be an indication of the spread 

of Roman occupation, but could equally be a reflection of the extent and depth of the excavation 

trenches. 

Table 1: zeb95 - Distribution of Roman Pottery by Area as a Percentage of Sherd Count. 

2.0 Condition 

SHS % AGE AREA 

145 6.17% 2 

45 1.91% j 

243 10.34% 6 

1293 55.00% 7 

187 7.95% 8 

182 7.74% 8a 

256 10.89% CST 

2351 100.00% TOTAL 

665 100.00% zea95 

Contexts with fresh or quite fresh pottery are in the minority from site zea95. Most consisted of pottery 

with evidence of some abrasion and, to a lesser extent, heavy abrasion. Several contexts contained 

pottery with clearly visible root encrustation. An almost equal amount produced pottery with evidence 

of burning, some quite heavily burnt (context 212). Only one possible sherd-link was apparent at 

zea95, between contexts 101 and 104 which contained similar grey ware sherds. 

In contrast, zeb95 produced a higher proportion of contexts containing fresh or quite fresh sherds than 

with abraded pottery. Few contexts had pottery with root encrustation, but there were three with 

evidence of mortar attached to the pottery (7577, 18334 and 18523). Several contexts produced pottery 

that had been burnt, but fewer than zea95. Those that contained heavily burnt pottery were: 1004, 

6465, 7431, 18481 and 18552. Two contexts stand out from the rest of the assemblages: 7445, in Area 

7, Phase I - the post-Roman horizon, a very large group with several profiles and generally 

homogeneous in date, with late to very late 4th-century pottery; 9000, a medium sized group, with 

minimum abrasion and sherds of early black-burnished ware 1 (BB1) pottery, but unstratified and of 

1


Volume II 

the same date as that from 7445. Twenty-four contexts were either directly linked by joining sherds or 

contained similar sherds (see archive database for the joins and comments). 

Table 2: zeb95 - Distribution of Roman Pottery by Area Phase as a Percentage of Sherd Count. 

SHS % AGE AREA PHASE 

25 1.06% 2 - 

13 0.55% 2 II 

54 2.30% 2 III 

28 1.19% 2 IV 

25 1.06% 2 V 

2 0.08% j II 

30 1.28% 3 III 

12 0.51% 3 IV 

1 0.04% 3 V 

16 0.68% 6 - 

117 4.98% 6 Ill 

89 3.78% 6 IV 

21 0.89% 6 V 

1 0.04% 7 - 

791 33.64% 7 I 

284 12.08% 7 II 

192 8.17% 7 III 

8 0.34% 7 IV 

17 0.72% 7 V 

27 1.15% 8 III 

13 0.55% 8 Ilia* 

103 4.38% 8 IV 

32 1.36% 8 V 

12 0.51% 8 N/A 

7 0.30% 8a III 

106 4.51% 8a Ilia* 

55 2.34% 8a IV 

5 0.21% 8a V 

9 0.38% 8a N/A 

15 0.64% CST - 

J 0.13% CST II 

99 4.21% CST III 

42 1.79% CST IV 

97 4.12% CST V 

2351 100.00% TOTAL 

2

3.0 Dating 


Volume II 

Only a third of the total Roman assemblage appears to have been stratified in Phase I Roman or 

immediate post-Roman abandonment deposits in Area 7 (see below, Table 2). Although clearly 

diminishing, there were moderate amounts of pottery from Area 7, Phases II and III. Apart from 

medium-sized assemblages in Area 6 - Phase III, Area 8 - Phase IV, Area 8a - Phase Ilia*, and the 

Combined Services Trench - Phases III and V, the Roman pottery groups are negligible. In most areas 

the amounts appear to have diminished in the later deposits. 

25 

20 

15 

10 

si a 

Fig. 1: Plotdate of the Roman Pottery from zea95 (percentage of sherds). 

Fig. 2: Plotdate of the Roman Pottery from zeb95 (percentage of sherds) 

3


Volume II 

The Plotdate (Fig. 1) for the overall dating of the pottery assemblage for site zea95 shows that the site 

was probably first occupied during the 2nd century, but may not have been fully developed until the 

mid- to late 3rd century (although it is worth noting that earlier deposits were not excavated). 

Thereafter, wares dating from the mid- to late, and very late 4th century increase in proportion. A 

similar pattern is shown by the Plotdate for zeb95 (Fig 2). There is evidence from zeb95 of occupation 

by the mid-2nd century and, in common with zea95, an increase in pottery dating to the later 3rd 

century. The bulk of the material, however, consists of wares dating to the very late 4th century. 

These later assemblages, although dated by the latest sherds to the very late Roman period, include 

earlier wares, in some cases moderate amounts. The presence of Central Gaulish, fine samian tableware 

in some quantity together with black-burnished ware 1 (BB1) cooking pots suggests that the site was 

first occupied in the Antonine period and, although the samian could have continued in use beyond the 

date of production, the black-burnished ware is more likely to have been contemporary. 

Examination of the pottery from Area 7, the main area of Roman occupation, Phases I-III, reveals a 

pattern similar to the overall chronology (see below, Tables 3-5). The bulk of the material from Phase I 

is dated by the pottery to the very late 4th century. Phase II differs in that there appears to be more 

pottery dating to the 3rd century, but still including a substantial amount of late Roman wares. The date 

of the pottery from Phase III is very similar to that of Phase II, but it consists of smaller quantities. It is 

possible that the earlier pottery from Phases II and III may have been redeposited or was the result of 

external dumping, although as the groups are small they may simply lack wares more diagnostic of a 

later Roman date. 

Table 3: zeb95 - Area 7, Phase I, Date-range by sherd count. 

DATE-RANGE SHS 

L3+/POSTRO 12 

4C 51 

M4 27 

L-VL4 26 

L-VL4/POSTRO 675 

Table 4: zeb95 - Area 7, Phase II, Date-range by sherd count 


ML2/POSTRO 1 

3+/POSTRO 4 

M3+/POSTRO 13 

L3+/POSTRO 29 

L3-4 17 

L3-4/POSTRO 56 

4C 18 

4/POSTRO 48 

L4/POSTRO 12 


4


Volume II 

Table 5: zeb95 - Area 7, Phase III, Date-range by sherd count. 


3/POSTRO 1 

3+/POSTRO 4 

M3+/POSTRO 7 

ML3+/POSTRO 3 

L3/POSTRO 13 

L3-4/POSTRO 30 

4/POSTRO 23 


RO/POSTRO 3 

4.0 Function 

A preliminary analysis of the functional elements of the Roman pottery from zea95 and zeb95 shows 

that the two areas have almost identical functional components. Concentrating on the larger site, zeb95, 

Fig 3 (below) suggests that the principal function of the pottery was to serve as cookware (kitchen) 

and, primarily, to be used for cooking and then brought to be served at the table (Table/Kitch). Most of 

these wares are cooking pots, bowls and dishes which were made in a grey, sandy fabric and 

manufactured locally, but also shell-tempered wares which were probably produced in simple bonfire 

kilns situated in the North Lincolnshire area. Mortaria, used for grinding ingredients, are also included 

in this category, the majority being supplied by the local Swanpool kilns. 

Fig. 3: zeb95 functions (sherd count). 

1 

1 S }r 

£ —. 

Drinking vessels also appear to be well-represented, but this is due to the quantification method used 

(sherd count) as these finer vessels tend to break into smaller pieces (hence a larger sherd count), than 

heavier containers such as amphorae. The majority of the drinking vessels are beakers that were 

produced at the Nene Valley kilns. These are often highly decorated with barbotine, trailed slips 

frequently featuring decoration based on vegetation but also on animals and the human figure. Other 

5


Volume II 

decoration includes applied scales and zones of rouletting. Apart from beakers and cups, pottery used 

solely as fine table vessels (Table) largely consists of red-gloss samian ware, often mould-decorated 

and manufactured at kilns in Central and East Gaul. 

Containers for liquids (Liq Holder) are mainly represented by greyware flagons and narrow-necked 

jars, and occasionally fineware flagons also from the Nene Valley kilns. Large jars used for storage are 

rare, as are amphorae, mainly imported from Spain and South Gaul, which contained olive oil and 

wine. 

5.0 Potential and Further Work 

The St. Mark's area of Lincoln has been the subject of a number of excavations, most notably the large 

area at St. Mark's Station excavated in 1986 (z86), and at St. Mark's Station East (ze87). These sites, 

together with zea95 and zeb95, have the potential to form the basis of a concentrated study of the entire 

area in order to ascertain the status and function of the vicinity, and to relate it to the Roman city of 

Lincoln as a whole by analysis of the late and very late Roman groups in particular, of which there are 

substantial assemblages from z86, zea95 and zeb95. In addition, there is a relatively high proportion of 

pottery identified as having been manufactured at the Swanpool kilns which warrants further 

comparison with the kiln material itself. 

Twenty-six vessels have been selected for drawing; some of these are unique and are not represented 

within the current corpus of Roman pottery from Lincoln (in prep.), while a number illustrate the 

chronology of the site. Specialist examination of the samian is also recommended in order to conform 

to and enhance the existing database, and to clarify the dating of the site. 

* Contexts assigned to sub-phase Ilia at the time of writing this report are now allocated to Phase III. 


2= POST-ROMAN POTTERY 

by Jane Young 

A large and significant assemblage of post-Roman pottery was recovered from the site, ranging in date 

from the Late Saxon to the early modern period. The pottery has been examined and recorded at basic 

CLAU archive level (ware type by sherd count with note of diagnostic vessel form) using the standard 

CLAU classification. 

Vessels are mostly represented by medium to large sherds in good preservation, showing little sign of 

continual post-deposition movement. Most of the medieval and later sherds have at least one freshly 

broken edge, but no joining sherds were recovered. It is probable that a large number of vessels 

originally were discarded as complete, or near-complete pots, as evidenced by a few restorable 

examples. Several of the near-complete vessels merit full restoration, including four jugs of 

Dissolution date, one of which has immense significance for the understanding of the end of the 

pottery industry in the city. This jug has two monogrammed 'IHS' seals on its shoulder, linking it with 

a 15th-century lobed fineware cup bearing a similar seal and known to have been made in Lincoln, and 

thus providing the first positive evidence for a late 15th-/16th-century industry surviving in the city. 

Some of the vessel forms occurring on the site are unique finds in the city, the most notable being a 

10th- or 1 lth-century funnel made at Torksey. One of the most important assemblages from the site is 

6

CLAUReport No. 338: St. Mark's, High Street, Lincoln - Archaeological Investigations 

Volume II 

an uncontaminated group of pottery dating to the early part of the 10th century. Although pottery of 

this date has been found elsewhere in this area of the Wigford, it is always mixed with later 10th- and 

11 th-century material. This group, containing a wide range of forms and fabrics, shows definite 

evidence for occupation of the area and corroborates the suggested date of reoccupation of the Wigford 

suburb. 

2.0 Late Saxon and Saxo-Norman (lOth-llth centuries) 

A similar range of ware types was recovered to that found on other sites in Lincoln. Most of the 

material was produced in the city with a smaller amount coming from local centres such as Torksey. 

The forms of the vessels, together with the sooting patterns and residues found on them, show that 

most of this local material was intended for domestic use. Jars, bowls, pitchers and lamps were used for 

everyday purposes such as lighting, cooking, dry and liquid storage, serving at the table and dairy 

production. A few groups of lOth-century material contain an abnormally high number of vessels with 

internal iron-rich coatings, intended to help 'waterproof them; their decalcified interiors also show that 

they were used to contain an acid liquid, possibly alcoholic. This concentration, taken together with the 

presence on the site of the only locally known ceramic funnel, may indicate specialist production of ale 

at this period. 

A few regional imports from East Anglia and Stamford indicate long-distance trade. The large storage 

jars from East Anglia were probably bought for their contents, whereas the glazed and sometimes 

decorated jars, bowls and pitchers from Stamford would have been purchased specifically for use in 

the kitchen or more probably at the table. Two sherds from the Andenne region, and one from the 

Pingsdorf area in the middle Rhineland, probably pitchers for containing wine, attest to the occupants 

being wealthy enough to afford imported vessels. 

3.0 Early Medieval (12th century) 

This is a period that is rarely represented ceramically on other sites in Wigford. Material from the site 

shows good preservation, with several key groups. An unknown centre in Lincolnshire, producing a 

handmade shell-tempered ware, provided almost all the vessels for everyday cooking, lighting and the 

dairy. Most of the glazed pottery forms (jugs and jars) were imported from Stamford and Nottingham, 

with only a small amount coming from Lincoln itself. A small number of jugs come from unidentified 

sources outside the local area and may have been brought into the city by their owners. Several of the 

vessels are of good quality and they generally indicate reasonably high status ownership. 

4.0 High Medieval (13th-14th centuries) 

This period is well represented ceramically, especially the earlier part, before the foundation of the 

friary. A large number of high quality, well decorated jugs was recovered. A number of these jugs had 

been burnt, perhaps in a fire, or they may possibly represent 'seconds' from a nearby kiln. Decoration 

on the jugs includes examples of elaborate modelled motifs - possibly knights - and these, together 

with at least one aquamanile (a vessel used for washing hands at the table) modelled as a ram and two 

imported French jugs, again indicate high status occupation. Quite a large number of the plainer jugs 

contain a thick, white internal deposit. This could have been caused by using them for heating liquids, 

causing a furring-up of the internal surface rather like a modern kettle, or for storing urine. Although a 

number of smaller 'pipkins' were found, few large cooking pots were recovered, perhaps indicating 

that cooking was taking place over a spit and in metal rather than ceramic vessels. 

7


Volume II 

5.0 Later Medieval (14th-15th centuries) 

This period is represented mainly by a wide range of forms produced at the kiln found on the east side 

of the High Street (ze87), opposite the friary site. A small number of these vessel can be identified at 

least as rejects, if not complete wasters, and were possibly introduced on to the site as hardcore during 

building episodes. Little material can be directly dated to any particular part of the period, with the 

exception of some of the imported German stoneware drinking jugs, which belong to the later 15th 

century. Most of the vessels are jugs; again, a number contain internal deposits. A range of other vessel 

forms - plain bowls, jars, cooking pots and dripping pans - indicate the preparation, cooking and 

storage of food while a number of more elaborate decorated vessels were used for serving food at 

table. 

6.0 Early post-medieval (16th century) 

This period covers the Dissolution of the monasteries and is well represented on the site by several 

groups of near-complete vessels. Groups are quite diverse and include: large jugs, jars and bowls from 

Lincoln, Toynton All Saints, Bourne, Derbyshire and Yorkshire; cisterns or ale pots from Toynton All 

Saints and Derbyshire; cups from Lincoln, Surrey, Derbyshire and Yorkshire; drinking jugs from the 

Rhineland; flasks from France; cooking vessels from the Low Countries, and a number of elaborate 

vessels of unknown function. 

7.0 Late post-medieval 

A high number of imported German drinking vessels indicates that high status occupancy continued in 

the area during the 17 th and 18th centuries. Perhaps the most interesting vessel is a lustre ware cup, 

produced in the late 1890's in Bohemia and decorated with a transfer print of Lincoln Cathedral - an 

early tourist souvenir. 

8.0 Further work 

i) Integration of the pottery and stratigraphic information is essential to the understanding of site 

formation and use. This involves both interpretation and synthesis of the pottery in conjunction with 

site and other finds information. 

ii) The only groups with suitable pottery to quantify by eves and weight are those from the possible 

Dissolution groups. This material can be counted as a key group in the dating of both the Lincoln and 

local medieval pottery sequences. 

iii) Little illustration is viewed as absolutely essential, apart from some of the vessels from the possible 

Dissolution groups and a small number of unique forms, rim types or decorative elements. There are, 

however, a number of vessels that it would be desirable to draw (in pencil only) for future reference. 

Drawings are essential to any restoration work. 

iv) Restoration of eight vessels for future exhibition is recommended. 

8

• u III 


Volume II 


by Jenny Mann 

More than 800 registered finds were recovered from the evaluation (zea95) and subsequent excavations 

(zeb95) at this site, together with a quantity of bulk materials such as slag, bottle glass, iron nails and 

clay tobacco pipes. 

The greater proportion (61.9%) of the registered finds comprises metalwork, principally of iron 

(forming some 32.6% of the total assemblage) and copper alloy (22.6%), with some lead (6.0%) and 

four silver coins. Forty-one other coins and five jetons, all of copper alloy, were also recovered. 

Stonework formed an unusually high proportion (23.6%) of the finds but this is due largely to the 

number of architectural mouldings (See Architectural Stone, this vol.); eight grave markers or covers 

and two stone coffins were also found. There is some glass, both vessel and window (forming 8.9% of 

the total assemblage), while other materials such as worked bone, antler or ivory and ceramic or fired 

clay objects are relatively poorly represented. There is a single instance each of jet and amber, but 

conditions were not conducive to the preservation of organic materials. 

The metalwork in general is heavily corroded, while some of the less stable items such as the bone or 

ivory seal matrix (see below) and the medieval glass required immediate remedial treatment and 

stabilisation by the Lincoln City and County Museum Conservation Laboratory. 

The nature of the excavation, as outlined in Volume I, directly affected both the recovery and the 

interpretation of the finds; although much of the material came from Phase III contexts associated with 

the use of the friary or from the Phase IV demolition and robbing, few items are of use in interpreting 

the nature of specific buildings (but see 4, below). In part, this reflects the piecemeal nature of 

excavation, as well as the extent to which these levels were disturbed by later activity. An unusually 

large proportion of the material came from unstratified or unphased contexts. 

2.0 Archive 

All registered finds and bulk materials were recorded to basic CLAU archive level and all data entered 

onto the database using the CLAU thesaurus of finds and bulk material codes (see archive). All metal 

objects (excluding lead) were X-rayed, and all urgent remedial treatment undertaken by the Lincoln 

City and County Museum Conservation Laboratory. 

None of the metalwork has been cleaned and identification has therefore been made from the X-rays in 

conjunction with visual examination. 

3.0 The Finds 

Dating and provenance of the finds 

A very small proportion (4.6%) of the registered finds was recovered from Phase I contexts, all within 

Area^, although few were stratified in Roman levels. The majority are from the destruction levels of 

the Roman buildings and from the overlying deposits. A number of Roman finds were also redeposited 

in later levels, e.g. within the fills of Phase II burials that had cut through the underlying deposits. A 

similarly small quantity (approx. 5%) of material came from Late Saxon to medieval Phase II contexts; 

unfortunately, the most interesting Late Saxon pieces occurred residually in later deposits. 

9


Volume 11 

Almost half (41.9%) of the finds are from Phase III contexts and although these are associated with the 

use of the friary, most of the material is intrinsically undatable or of types that can only be broadly 

dated to the medieval period. Among the very few pieces that are of use in establishing relative dates 

of construction for different parts of the friary complex are some of the architectural fragments (see 

Architectural Stone, this vol.) but, as noted above, few items shed any light on the nature of use of 

particular structures and there appear to be little or no meaningful concentrations of material (but see 4, 

below). 

Phase IV contexts postdating the friary, and particularly those levels that represent the robbing and 

destruction of the buildings, contained residual finds almost certainly derived from the structures 

themselves, together with some contemporary material, but again shed little light on specific structures. 

A large proportion (32.8%) of the finds came from modern (Phase V: 13.8%) or unphased contexts 

(19%). 

Roman 

Vlost of the Roman finds were recovered from Area 7, the only part of the site where Roman levels 

were reached, although none was associated directly with the occupation of either of the two buildings, 

ST2 and ST3. A very small assemblage recovered from cg319 (accumulation postdating the 

abandonment of ST2) includes a copper alloy finger-ring of 3rd-century type (ZEB95 ) while 

the latest of two coins is a Constantinopolis issue of 330-5 (this may be an irregular issue, in which 

case the production date would extend to between 330 and 345). 

The post-Roman soil horizon cg310 that sealed both of the Roman buildings contained a modest 

assemblage of material comprised mainly of 3rd- and 4th-century coins, a feature displayed by post- 

Roman accumulation elsewhere in this area of the city (e.g. St. Mark's church: sm76, St. Mark's 

Station: z86). In common with the pottery (see Roman Pottery, this vol.), none of the datable material 

appears to be any earlier than the late 2nd century. 

Apart from the finger-ring noted above, the only other items of potential significance are several very 

small fragments of colourless glass (ZEB95 ), almost certainly from a single vessel with what 

appears to be mould-blown decoration, from Trench 3 in Area 7 (eg 177). Positive identification will 

only be made by specialist examination; meanwhile, the possibility that this is an intrusive modern 

fragment cannot be entirely ruled out. If it is Roman, however, it represents one of very few such 

vessels known from Lincoln. 

Late Saxon-Early Medieval 

The majority of the Late Saxon finds are again from Area 7, suggesting that occupation was 

concentrated largely against the Ermine Street frontage. Although there is nothing among the finds that 

provides definite confirmation of, or supporting evidence for the 'industrial' activity suggested by the 

stratigraphic (see Vol. I), ceramic (see report on Post-Roman pottery, this vol.), or environmental 

evidence (see Plant Macrofossils, this vol.), a scatter of material provides slight evidence of craft 

activity here. 

A limestone spindle whorl with incised ornament (ZEA95 ), of Late Saxon type, was recovered 

from a Phase III context (cg353) in the Remediation Trench while another (ZEB95 ), of late 

llth-century or later date, was redeposited in the fill of a modern feature in Area 8a. (Two bone 

spindle whorls from Phase III contexts in Area 7 (eg 194, 282) were both associated with redeposited 

material and may also be of Late Saxon or early medieval date) Part of a single-pointed bone pinbeater 

(ZEB95


Volume II 

Two other tools, socketed bone points of distinctive Late Saxon type (ZEA95 & ZEB95 ), 

were also found; similar objects are known from late 9th- to 1 lth-century contexts at Flaxengate, 

Lincoln (Mann 1982, fig 32) and from Anglo-Scandinavian contexts elsewhere, as at York 

(MacGregor 1982, fig 51, 518-21). MacGregor suggests (1985, 174-5) that the occurrence of several in 

a leather-working shop at York may be indicative of their use as craft tools. 

Another possible indication of craft or industrial activity here may be the number of hones 

(whetstones) recovered from the site. These form an unusually high proportion of the stone artefacts, 

and although none occurred in levels predating Phase III, given the generally high degree of 

redeposition here it is likely that at least some are residual. One hone in particular is almost certainly 

of Late Saxon date; this (ZEB95 ) is made of a fine-grained rock, almost certainly imported 

phyllite. On each face at one end is a small drilled pit, probably representing unfinished perforations; 

Late Saxon and medieval hones were commonly worn on the person, attached by means of a ring (or 

perhaps a thong) passed through a hole or around a groove (c/Mann 1982, 29-30). Each face of this 

hone also bears a series of fine scored lines with, on one face, an incised motif or 'doodle'. The hone 

bears all the hallmarks of an unfinished hone, used also as a trial-piece. 

A number of the finds from Area 7 are of particular interest in view of the unusual early lOth-century 

pottery assemblage from this part of the site (see Post-Roman Pottery, this vol.), because these are of 

distinctive Viking type or display decorative features strongly influenced by Viking styles. One such 

piece is a copper alloy disc brooch (ZEA95 ), which the X-ray suggests to be ornamented with 

Borre-style relief decoration (precise details are unclear) and thus datable to the late 9th or 10th 

century; this came from a Phase II context (cg288) in Trench 1. From the fill of a Phase II cut feature 

(cg308) in the same trench was recovered part of a small rectangular amber pendant (ZEB95 ), 

almost certainly of similar date (c/Mann 1982, fig 8, 82) while a possible destruction horizon (cg213) 

in Trench 2 contained a copper alloy buckle with attached buckle plate (ZEB95 ). The front of 

the buckle frame is ornamented in a style suggestive of Viking influence. 

Two other pieces are worth noting here; one (ZEA95 ) is a small fragment from a double-sided 

composite comb ornamented with panels of incised ornament. Both the form of decoration and, in 

particular, the angular profile of its connecting plates, suggest that this too may be a Viking piece. 

Perhaps the most interesting find is an ?ivory gaming piece (ZEB95 , redeposited within the fill 

of a Phase III burial (cg282) in Trench 1; the burial had truncated the upper levels of a linear feature, 

cg287, from which the gaming piece may have originated. It is lathe-turned and onion-shaped, with a 

small pit in its flat base (probably originally made by the lathe-centre) for housing a small peg. This is 

a distinctive Viking type of playing piece, almost certainly used for the board-game hnefatafl (Murray 

1952, 56); although a similar, albeit larger playing piece is known from excavations at Goltho 

(Beresford 1987, fig 162, 17) none other is known from the city. 

Medieval 

There is little evidence for the construction or internal fittings of the friary buildings, apart from the 

architectural fragments which are discussed separately (see Architectural Stone, this vol.). Although 

little medieval window glass survived, the presence of paint on seventeen fragments (out of a total of 

48) suggests that at least some of the windows were glazed with decorated rather than plain panels. 

While specialist examination may enable the identification of particular decorative elements and thus 

provide closer dating of individual fragments among this small assemblage of painted window glass, 

preliminary examination suggests that at least some of the pieces may be of 13th- to 14th-century date, 

representing the glazing of some of the earliest friary structures. 

Most of this glass, as expected, was recovered from post-Dissolution levels but some fragments were 

found in Phase III contexts, providing evidence of alterations to the structural layout during the 

lifetime of the friary. Almost half of the window glass was recovered from Area 2 while Area 6 was 

the only part of the site not to produce any; this, however, is less likely to reflect the original pattern of 

11


Volume II 

glazing than the comparative extent of the areas investigated and the overall distribution of the material 

recovered. A small quantity (1.8kg) of molten and resolidified glass and lead, from the Phase IV fill 

(eg 1403) of a stone-iined pit or garderobe (cg390) associated with ST5/6, almost certainly represents 

the remains of windows. 

Only eighteen pieces of lead window came were recovered, two of these being small sections of 

window light with the glass still in place, while several fragments of crumpled or twisted lead strip are 

almost certainly the remains of similar cames. A few other scraps of waste lead were found, but only 

one - a small rectangular sheet with parts of two iron nails still in situ - is recognisable as a structural 

item; this is almost certainly a piece of sheet roofing lead. The relative absence of leadwork, which 

could have been used for plumbing as well as structural fittings, is almost certainly a reflection of the 

fact that, after the Dissolution, ecclesiastical buildings in general provided a valuable source of 

materials for reuse (Stacker 1990, esp. table 1). 

A small group of structural ironwork includes a number of locks and keys, although most of these can 

only be broadly dated as of Late Saxon-medieval type, and some are almost certainly redeposited from 

earlier levels. It is just possible, however, that these represent some of the products of the smithing 

activity associated with the early use of the friary, of which evidence was found during earlier 

excavations to the south (z86). Other fittings include an unusually complete iron candleholder (ZEB95 

) of'pricket' type, where the candle was impaled on a central spike. 

A very small quantity of medieval vessel glass was recovered and the only other non-ceramic vessels 

worth noting are parts of two limestone mortars, both from Area 2. One is a fragment of rim and spout 

(ZEA95 ), possibly from a lugged mortar of common medieval type, but the outer part of the 

vessel wall is missing. The provenance of this mortar - the fill (cg652) of a Phase IV pit(?) between 

ST9 and 10 - is of interest in view of the identification of ST9 as a kitchen. The second mortar is a 

small fragment from the base and lower part of the vessel wall; the degree of wear shown by its 

internal surface evidences much use. This fragment came from the robbing (cg529) of the east-west 

wall of ST5. 

A small but noticeable number of both iron knives and stone hones (see Late Saxon-Early Medieval, 

above) came from this site and although there is no apparent concentration in any one area it is perhaps 

curious that three of the seven certainly identified knives came from the fill (cgll44) of the same 

?garderobe, ST19. None of the knives is complete, but four are clearly of later 14th- or 15th-centurv 

type because the X-rays clearly reveal the presence of non-ferrous shoulder plates at the junction of 

scale tang and blade. One of these (ZEB95 ) is of particular interest in that the X-ray also reveals 

what appears to be a non-ferrous maker's mark close to the shoulder and back of the blade, almost 

certainly inlaid into the blade. 

Another blade (ZEB95 ) is ornamented with non-ferrous metal but this is in the form of a partial 

inscription, reading 'MARIA'; the blade itself is broken, and the full inscription almost certainly read 

'AVE MARIA'. (A similar inscription, reading 'AVE MARIE', appears as part of the ornament on the 

handle of a late 14th-century knife from Swan Lane, London: Cowgill et al 1987, pi. 4e & fig 65, 138) 

Without conservation, the precise technique employed to ornament this blade, i.e. whether it is inlaid, 

overlaid, or even stamped, remains conjectural. 

Personal items recovered from the site include a single annular copper alloy brooch (ZEB95 ) of 

13th- or 14th-century date, together with the usual range of costume fittings such as buckles, strap-ends 

and lace tags. A more unusual item is a complete copper alloy mirror-case (


Volume II 

harness, while a more unusual find is a complete, decorated copper alloy stirrup (ZEB95 ) of late 

14th- or 15th-century type, from the robbing (cgl 141) of ST19. 

A small group of fmds, all from Areas 2 and 3, is virtually the only material that may be associated 

with ecclesiastical use, although such finds are not unknown from secular contexts. Two complete 

bone 'parchment-prickers' were recovered, one (ZEB95 ) from the Phase IV robbing (cg567) of 

ST7, the other (ZEB95 ) from an unphased context. Within the demolition debris (cg791) of 

ST12 was another very similar piece (ZEB95 , but lacking the metal point characteristic of such 

items (c/Biddle 1990, fig 211, 2286-7); its shaft tapers very suddenly to a sharp point, and may have 

been trimmed for reuse after its original point had broken off. From the robbing (cg586) of ST9 was 

recovered a lead stylus-shaped object (ZEB95 which could have served as a writing lead; one 

end is pointed but the other is flattened and could have served for marking out or ruling lines on 

parchment; similar items are known from Winchester and elsewhere (ibid, fig 212, 2306-7). 

A very small copper alloy hinge (ZEB95 ) from a Phase III layer (cg434) predating ST 16 is 

almost certainly a book fitting, while part of a copper alloy book clasp (ZEB95 ) with a scrap of 

leather still in place came from the fill (cg463) of the stone-lined pit cg466, ST14. Another very small 

copper alloy hinge from Area 2 (cg653) may also be a book fitting or, like a thin copper alloy strip 

(ZEA95 ) from the Remediation Trench (Phase III, cg348), is perhaps from the binding of a chest 

or even a reliquary. 

Music certainly played a part in the life of the friary, as evidenced by part of a bone tuning peg 

(ZEB95 ), from the same context (cg653) in Area 2 as the possible book hinge noted above. The 

position of the perforation (to house a string), through the rectangular-sectioned head of the tuning peg, 

suggests that this is from an instrument such as a psaltery, rather than from a harp or lyre (cf Lawson 

1990, 713, Type B). 

One surprising find is a very small bone gaming die (ZEB95 ) which was found attached to the 

corrosion surrounding an iron object, recovered from a layer of demolition debris (cg587) between 

ST8 and 9. The die is cube-shaped, each face measuring no more than 5 mm across; the numbers are 

represented by small drilled pits but do not display the 'regular' arrangement whereby those on 

opposing faces total seven. Instead, opposing faces show six and one, three and five, two and four. 

Although dice are suggested to have been used in a religious context, in order to decide what course of 

action to take (Biddle 1990, 698), it is tempting to conclude that this die was deliberately made so 

small for the express purpose of concealment, suggesting illicit gaming by the Carmelite friars! 

Possible evidence of commercial activity is provided by the balance fork (ZEA95 ) from a set of 

scales, found in a Phase III context (cg348) in the Remediation Trench; unfortunately, this cannot be 

more closely dated than Late Saxon or medieval. A lead cloth seal (ZEB95 ) was found in the 

demolition debris (cg791) of ST12, together with a copper alloy French jeton, almost certainly of mid- 

14th to 15th-century date. Jetons, occasionally called 'abbey tokens' in the past because of the 

frequency with which they occurred on such sites, were used in conjunction with a squared cloth or 

board in order to reckon up accounts. A total of five certainly identifiable jetons, together with one 

other possible piece, was found here. Such items are frequently recovered from secular as well as 

ecclesiastical sites and in Lincoln they occur in areas which other evidence suggests to have been 

involved in commercial activity; it, may be coincidence, or due to other factors (such as the 

redeposition of material from elsewhere) that the largest concentrations are from two church sites. 

The Seal Matrix (see cover illustration)- 

The most unusual yet enigmatic find from this site is the bone or ivory seal matrix (ZEB95 ) 

from burial cgl016. The seal itself is of pointed oval ('vesica') shape; three apparently interconnecting 

perforations, two drilled through the reverse and one from the adjacent end of the seal, may have 

served for attachment or suspension. During remedial treatment by the Lincoln City and County 

Museum Conservation Laboratory, an impression of the seal was taken; photographs of both seal and 

13


Volume II 

impression were submitted to Mr John Cherry of the Department of Medieval and Later Antiquities at 

the British Museum. His suggested reading of the inscription is: '+ S EMCINE DE MORTEINE', 

interpreted as a personal name with 'Emcine' representing the forename and 'Morteine' representing the 

surname, while the central device is a pelican feeding her young. Mr Cherry suggests a later 13 thcentury 

date for the seal, based partly on the style of lettering, while the pelican feeding her young is a 

device more commonly used in the later middle ages. The forename is unusual, its 'ine' ending possibly 

suggesting a French-influenced woman's name at this date. 

The burial with which the seal was associated was that of an adult female but this may be sheer 

coincidence, while the suggested date of the seal may conflict slightly with that of the associated grave 

cover, which is ornamented in a style conventionally dated to the later 12th to mid-13th century (see 

Architectural Stone, this vol.). The burial itself may have been disturbed, as indicated by the displaced 

grave cover and the damage to the skull; the precise location of the seal, within the soil filling the 

damaged skull, indicates that it, too, may have been disturbed from its original location. If the seal was 

originally buried with the body it may have been disturbed at the same time as the burial; the possible 

discrepancy in date between the grave cover and the seal may suggest the former to be reused. It is 

equally possible, however, that the seal originally had no association with the burial and that it simply 

represents a casual loss that, by pure chance, was reaeposited here. 

Late Medieval and Post-Medieval 

There is little of significance among the post-Dissolution and later levels and, apart from a few clay 

tobacco pipes and glass bottle fragments, little that is closely datable. The only items worth noting are 

substantial proportions of two glass vessels, perhaps suggesting that these were complete when 

originally deposited. 

The first vessel, represented by rim, neck and base fragments, appears to be a bottle or flask with 

'wrythen' decoration on its long neck (ZEB95 ); this is probably of 16th-century date, and was 

recovered from the Phase IV demolition/backfill (eg 1144) of ST 19 (garderobe?), together with a small 

group of pottery probably dating to the Dissolution period. The second vessel (ZEB95 ), of 

which a large part survives but in fragmentary condition, is almost certainly an urinal; this came from 

the Phase IV infill (cg6) of a stone recess/alcove (cg!3) on the north side of ST1, together with an 

interesting assemblage of ceramic vessels (see Vol. I). 

4.0 Further Work 

The finds from St. Mark's Station are of potential use in furthering our understanding of the history and 

development of this area of the city, particularly the small but important group of Viking and Late 

Saxon material. Without conservation, however, there is little more that can be said at present of the 

metalwork, such as the ?Borre-style brooch, while certain items or groups of finds require specialist 

examination in order that they may be more certainly identified (for example, the possible Roman 

mould-blown glass vessel fragments) or more closely dated (such as the decorated window glass). 

Largely owing to the piecemeal nature of excavation here, those finds that were stratified in levels 

associated with the friary or in contexts related to its demolition and robbing appear to contribute little 

towards our understanding of its use or development. It is entirely probable, however, that further work 

on this material, and in particular on associated assemblages of ceramic and non-ceramic finds, 

together with a more comprehensive examination of the stratigraphy both here and in the area to the 

south that was previously investigated (z86), would prove fruitful. 

Some finds are sufficiently unusual, or of intrinsic importance, to merit further work in their own right 

and publication as a short note in an appropriate journal; the most significant of these is the seal matrix. 

14


Volume II 

5.0 Bibliography 

Beresford, G, 1987 Goltho: The development of an early medieval manor c.850-1150, Engl Heritage 

Archaeol Rep, 4 

Biddle, M, 1990 Object and Economy in Medieval Winchester, Winchester Studies 7. ii, Artefacts from 

Medieval Winchester 

Cowgill, J, de Neergaard, M, & Griffiths, N, 1987 Knives and Scabbards, Medieval finds from 

Excavations in London, 1 

Lawson, G, 1990 Pieces from Stringed Instruments, in Biddle 1990, 711-8 

MacGregor, A, 1982 Anglo-Scandinavian Finds from Lloyds Bank, Pavement, and Other Sites, 

Archaeology of York, 17/3 

MacGregor, A, 1985 Bone, Antler, Ivory and Horn: the Technology of Skeletal Materials since the 

Early Roman Period 

Mann, J E, 1982 Medieval Finds from Flaxengate I: objects of antler, bone, stone, horn, ivory, amber 

and jet. The Archaeology of Lincoln, 14/1 

Murray, H J R, 1952 A History of Board-games other than Chess 

Stocker, D A, 1990 The Archaeology of the Reformation in Lincoln, a Case Study in the 

Redistribution of Building Materials in the Mid Sixteenth Century, Lines Hist & Archaeol, 25, 18-32 


4: ARCHITECTURAL STONE 

by Jeremy Ashbee 

(Historic Royal Palaces) 

The writer was requested to undertake an assessment of potential for the assemblage of architectural 

fragments from the excavations on the site of St. Mark's Station, Lincoln (zea95/zeb95). In view of the 

size of this assemblage, much of the recording of the individual stones was carried out by Ms. Yvonne 

Rose at Lincoln, to a specification agreed with the writer: characteristics noted included context data 

and stone type, function, approximate date of fabrication (where possible), tooling (presence/absence 

and tooling type as appropriate). Where it was felt appropriate, the tooling was recorded by rubbing. 

This information has provided the basis of the assessment report which follows. Those parts of the 

assemblage which appear to provide the most potential for further analysis are identified, and a 

provisional method statement for further work is proposed. 

Using Ms Rose's existing notes as a basis, the assessment was carried out by Jeremy Ashbee during 

1995 and 1996 on the site, at the Lincoln City and County Museum and on the premises of the City of 

Lincoln Archaeology Unit. 

This assessment report has been written in accordance with the specification laid down in MAP2 

Appendix 4.1 (English Heritage 1993, 32). 

15


Volume II 

2.0 The Quantity of Material 

The total number of fragments within the assemblage examined is 157: 2 from zea95 and 155 from 

zeb95. In addition, zea95 produced 16 fragments bearing one or more worked surfaces but no 

moulding. It was recommended that a tooling record be made of these fragments but that they should 

be discarded. 

Every fragment was examined by Jeremy Ashbee at the time of the assessment and points of interest 

were noted. A brief textual record, together with annotated and scaled sketch drawing, was provided by 

Yvonne Rose in advance of the assessment. 

3.0 The Condition of the Material 

At the time of examination, the assemblage was stored in a variety of locations including the Lincoln 

City and County Museum stores, the premises of the City of Lincoln Archaeology Unit and its stores at 

Cuthbert's Yard, Lincoln. The condition of the assemblage appeared to be good: moulding profiles 

remained sharp and there was no clear evidence of mechanical damage (abrasion) through 

manhandling the fragments. In view of their size, some of them were kept on the floor of the store, 

rather than on pallets. The store was also filled to its capacity; in such circumstances, examination of 

the stones itself entailed a certain amount of manhandling to take the stones to a more suitable space 

for examination. In such circumstances, it is possible that the movement of the fragments in such a 

constricted space might unavoidably result in further damage. 

Care has been taken at all stages of the project to examine the stones and identify those which could be 

subjected to the most basic record and then discarded. It is a measure of the unusually high quality of 

the assemblage that 157 fragments bore mouldings in sufficiently good condition to preclude their 

abandonment. It is acknowledged that the retention and storage of stone assemblages of this size poses 

a problem in the long term. 

4.0 The Provenance of the Material 

Virtually all of the fragments examined could be provenanced to stratified archaeological contexts. 

With regard to the implications of the architectural material for the dating of contexts, few comments 

are possible at this stage. However, it will be noted from the comments in section 5 below that the 

assemblage appeared on the evidence of this brief examination to contain overwhelmingly medieval 

fragments, with very little material from the later medieval and post-medieval periods. Other finds 

evidence and the site sequence will necessarily provide more information on this matter. However, the 

homogeneity of the architectural material is such that many of the more productive contexts may be 

dumps associated with the alterations to or demolition of buildings during the life of the Carmelite 

friary, or with the final demolition in 1539. 

5.0 The Range and Variety of Material 

The assemblage was studied with the preliminary intention of identifying the structural elements 

represented and making a provisional assessment of their date range. Other features noted at the time 

of assessment include evidence of burning, reuse, mason's marks and the nature and extent of coursing. 

With two exceptions (ZEB95 : sandstone and ZEB95 : Purbeck Marble), all of the 

fragments examined are fashioned from a type of Jurassic limestone, probably from the local area of 

the city; some fragments (e.g. ZEB95 ) are executed in coarser material than the majority. No 

petrological analysis has been undertaken, but prima facie examination suggests that in terms of the 

material, the assemblage is basically homogeneous in character. 

16


Volume II 

Forty-one of the fragments could not be identified as particular structural elements for several reasons, 

including the fragmentary nature of individual pieces or, more usually, the absence of mouldings 

beyond simple chamfers. 

Forty-two fragments contain clear evidence for mouldings, but could not be identified as particular 

structural elements on account of their fragmentary nature. This group is likely to contain fragments of 

jambs of windows and doors, window mullions and possibly vaulting ribs. Little generalisation is 

possible within the group, beyond the fact that almost all appear to be of medieval date, with a 

preponderance of forms likely to date to the later thirteenth and early fourteenth century, as suggested 

by filleted rolls and ogees. 

With these exceptions, by far the largest category represented by the assemblage is window tracery, 

elements of which consist of window mullions (eighteen fragments), and other traceried elements 

(fourteen fragments). Fragments of several periods are represented, but there is a particularly strong 

representation of a form consisting of a filleted ogee flanked by quirked hollow chamfers (e.g. ZEB95 

). Several fragments with this profile (e.g. ZEB95 ) are clearly from elaborate traceried 

windows with cusping; the ogee curve on one piece (ZEB95 ), again cusped, suggests a 

Curvilinear Decorated, or Reticulated form. The profile can be provisionally dated to the first half of 

the fourteenth century; it appears, for instance, in the 'Bishop's Eye' rose window in the south transept 

of Lincoln Cathedral, dated to c. 1320: it therefore seems likely that the fenestration of the friary church 

may have received alteration in the early fourteenth century. Of particular interest among the fragments 

of this type is party of a mullion (ZEB95 ) with a glazing groove to one side and a plain rebate 

or masonry return on the other. A possible interpretation of this anomaly is to see the fragment as part 

of a complex window in which only one section was glazed (the remainder being blank): an unusual 

phenomenon, more commonly associated with the later medieval period (e.g. London Guildhall of the 

early fifteenth century). Another group of window dressings is likely to date to the later medieval or 

early post-medieval period; these are characterised by plain hollow chamfers running to central fillets 

both internally and externally (e.g. ZEB95 ). 

One fragment (ZEB95 ), consisting of a plain chamfered mullion with an integral sill and 

backing, indicates blank tracery. This is likely, on the grounds of the simplicity of the moulding, to 

date to the later medieval period (later fourteenth century onwards). 

Five fragments (ZEB95 ) consist of dressings without glazing grooves. One 

of these (ZEB95 ) is chamfered internally and externally and bears a curvature consistent with 

interpretation as an unglazed oculus; a rebate for shuttering may have been lost. Another (ZEB95 

) contains a jamb and transom with cusping. This and the remaining fragments of the group may 

be provisionally identified as pieces of openwork tracery, possibly for a funerary monument, stone 

screen or other piece of liturgical furniture, likely to date to the fourteenth century or later. 

Seven fragments have been identified as voussoirs for windows or doors on the grounds of curvature. 

Two of these (ZEB95 ) are of simple chamfered form and could not be dated securely 

although the presence of claw tooling on one piece (ZEB95 ) may suggest a date after 1200. 

Another fragment (ZEB95 ) is a hoodmould with an undercut roll with offset fillet, leading into 

a lesser roll with drip course; this has similarities with a moulding type found in the late thirteenth and 

early fourteenth centuries, as for example at St Andrew's Gilbertine Priory, York (Kemp & Graves 

1996, 271). Two other pieces (ZEB95 ) are more fragmentary but may have been parts of 

similar mouldings. 

Two fragments have been provisionally identified as vaulting ribs. One (ZEB95 ) is a plain 

chamfered and rebated form; this, and the presence of striated tooling, suggests an early date, probably 

before the foundation of the friary. The other (ZEB95 ) appears to be part of a miniature rib, 

possibly for the vaulting of a small chapel, sacristy or cloister walkway. No exact affiliation has yet 

been identified, but the fragment has certain similarities with forms of the early fourteenth century. 

17


Volume II 

Sixteen fragments could be identified as other known architectural features. Two (ZEB95 ) 

are interpreted as the coping of buttress offsets; one of these (ZEB95 ) has a dripcourse below its 

projecting lower edge. The remainder of the fragments of this group are colonettes and associated 

mouldings, including a possible late medieval polygonal capital with a beaked moulding (ZEB95 

) and a very fragmentary piece with an undercut keel moulding (ZEB95 ), possibly part of 

a capital of the 'three-unit scroll' type common in the second half of the thirteenth and early fourteenth 

centuries. A third fragment (ZEB95 ) may also represent part of a similar capital, though round 

rather than polygonal. The most interesting of the colonettes (ZEB95 ) is trilobate in form with a 

frontal fillet to each shaft; this feature may suggest a date in the later thirteenth century. 

The assemblage contains eleven fragments from medieval graves, including two stone sarcophagi 

(ZEB95 ), one upright grave marker (ZEB95 ) and eight stone slabs, interpreted as 

grave covers. Three of these (ZEB95 ) are all plain with shallow chamfered borders; a 

fourth (ZEB95 ) is very fragmentary but appears to be slightly coped in form. The remaining 

fragments bear decoration of the 'bracelet head' type and are discussed below. 

Tooling of all the main types was identified, although striated tooling is only present on a single piece 

(ZEB95 ), identified as a vaulting rib. Comparatively few of the fragments appear to have been 

finished with a drag. The basic tooling type, found on the majority of fragments, is claw, carried out 

using instruments with a variety of tooth sizes. This has little implication for the date of the fragments, 

being used throughout the medieval period, particularly from 1200 onwards. 

Only one mason's mark was identified in this assemblage, on a fragment of window mullion with 

cusping on either side (ZEB95 ). 

Evidence for burning was only found on a single piece (ZEB95 ), representing the springing of 

window tracery with a plain chamfered profile, probably of the fourteenth century or later. 

6.0 Discussion 

Though there are some outliers within the assemblage, a high proportion of the stones examined can be 

provenanced with some confidence to one or several ecclesiastical buildings of some architectural 

pretension, dating to the late thirteenth/first half of the fourteenth century. Fragments of cusped 

window tracery, almost certainly from the main friary church, indicate a building of elaborate 

architectural detailing, most probably resulting from generous and well-connected patronage. This 

appears to be characteristic of some of the most successful houses of the mendicant orders, as 

demonstrated by the stone assemblages from recent archaeological excavations {e.g. the Coventry 

Whitefriars, the London Austin Friars). The assemblage also indicates the presence of elaborate 

mouldings for the surrounds of windows and doors and openwork tracery (likely to be from liturgical 

furniture such as screens, or from funerary monuments). Comparatively few fragments of vaulting ribs 

were identified. 

One fragment (ZEB95 ) deserves special mention. This is a very finely-tooled piece of a small 

circular feature with a raised rim of plain chamfered section, running around a sunken bowl apparently 

carved with a geometric floriate pattern. Its external profile suggests that it sat on some form of bell 

capital. The sunken bowl may suggest use as a piscina, either mounted on a miniature column, or 

corbelled out from the wall. The form has affinities with proto-Perpendicular capitals, suggesting a 

date range from 1330 onwards. Such a feature is a rarity in architectural stone assemblages. 

One of the most problematic segments of the assemblage is the series of grave covers and grave 

markers. Several of these (upright marker ZEB95 ; grave covers ZEB95 ) all bear 

variants of the 'bracelet head' type of cross-ornament, common in the East Midlands and found on 

several church sites in Lincoln, including St. Mark's church (sm76). This type of ornament is 

conventionally dated from the later twelfth to the mid-thirteenth century, and should not be expected to 

18


Volume II 

occur widely within the second half of the century. The present examples are simple and are likely to 

be earlier rather than later in the sequence. Their presence on the site of the friary could therefore 

suggest either evidence for previous ecclesiastical occupation of the site, exhumation and reinterment 

of earlier burials, recycling of the grave markers, or an almost anachronistic use of a motif some 30-40 

years earlier in date. In previous discussions, it has been felt that the last-mentioned is not a likely 

explanation. 

7.0 Recommendations for further work 

This assessment has been necessarily brief and its findings must be regarded as provisional only. A 

more thorough examination would certainly permit the firm identification of a number of the 42 

fragments presently classed as 'miscellaneous mouldings'. Moreover, no comparison has been made 

with the assemblage recovered from earlier excavations (z86), nor has a systematic search yet been 

undertaken of the literature of medieval mouldings for comparative material on other sites; both would 

almost certainly be profitable. However, even on the present evidence it is possible to state with 

confidence that the majority of the fragments are of a sophisticated character and belong to a date 

range consistent with the initial construction and early alterations to the friary church of the Carmelites. 

The fragments of window tracery are particularly fine, suggesting strongly that the Carmelite church 

contained features of extremely high quality, possibly with similarities to contemporary features in 

Lincoln Cathedral. Architectural fragments likely also to have originated in the friary church have been 

identified previously in the surviving fabric of St. Mary's Conduit, Lincoln, and in a series of drawings 

in the Willson Collection; no attempt has yet been made to compare the St. Mark's assemblage with 

this other material. Further analysis on these lines will be essential should publication of the 

assemblage become desirable. 

In terms of fiirther recording of the material, a full 1:1 record of every fragment is likely to be 

prohibitively expensive; no detailed breakdown of time has been made, but it is estimated that a drawn 

record of the entire assemblage would take well in excess of 300 hours. The fragments of the greatest 

architectural interest are identified in sections 5 and 6 above. These are by definition the most complex 

fragments. For the purposes of archive, the existing finds record cards, compiled by Ms Yvonne Rose, 

and the accompanying tooling records should suffice as the basic record. 


English Heritage 1993 Management of Archaeological Projects 

Kemp, R L, and Graves, C P, 1996 The Church and Gilbertine Priory of St Andrew, Fishergate, The 

Archaeology of York, 11/2 

5: CERAMIC AND NON-CERAMIC BUILDING MATERIALS 


by Jenny Mann and Rick Kemp' 

A total of 10,109 fragments of ceramic, and 563 fragments of non-ceramic building materials were 

recovered from this site. These were examined and an archive record made (form type by sherd count 

and weight, noting diagnostic subforms), using the standard CLAU classification. A rigorous discard 

policy was employed for stone slates and for all types of flat ceramic tile, keeping samples only of 

19


Volume II 

complete or near-complete tiles with different suspensions and/or fabric types. All examples of roof 

furniture, glazed tile and floor tile were retained. 

The material ranges in date from Roman to modern, although the majority is of medieval date and 

approximately three-quarters (77%) of the ceramic building material comprises undiagnostic fragments 

of plain, flat medieval roofing tile. Relatively small quantities of hip and ridge tile, roof furniture (such 

as louvers) and floor tile were also recovered. Stone slates form the majority of the non-ceramic 

building materials; some plaster and daub also occurred, while a single stone and three ceramic 

tesserae were also found. 

2.0 Dating and Provenance 

Roman 

One hundred and ten fragments of Roman brick and 349 fragments of Roman tile were found, all in 

post-Roman contexts, much (33%) of this material coming from Area 7. Fragments of box tile, used 

for hypocaust flues, and four tesserae almost certainly represent material brought to this site from 

elsewhere in the city. Apart from the plaster noted in situ on the south wall of ST2, only an 

insignificant quantity (0.25 kg) was recovered from the demolition levels of this building. Two 

fragments of Collyweston slate were also recovered; although these also could represent material 

brought onto the site it is possible that stone as well as ceramic roofing material was employed, as on 

the Roman structures found during earlier excavations to the south (z86). 

Late Saxon - Early Medieval 

Very little was recovered from Phase II contexts and the majority of this represents redeposited Roman 

building material, found principally in Area 2. There was little evidence for the construction of the 

timber buildings here, apart from a very small quantity of daub (0.5 kg) with wattle impressions from 

Trench 1 (cg211) and a few fragments from Trench 2 (cg211). It is quite likely that the daub recovered 

from Phase III contexts in this part of the site also represents material disturbed from underlying levels. 

Medieval 

Approximately 10% of the plain, flat medieval ceramic tile (1,021 fragments) was recovered from the 

series of hearths in ST9, the majority covered in mortar from the bedding or bonding material. 

Fragments of hip tile and glazed ridge tiles were also occasionally reused in these hearths and it may 

be significant that all but four of the 47 pieces of hip tile came from ST9, either from the hearths or 

from the backfill of the Phase.IV robbing. 

It may be no coincidence that all but three of the sixteen louver fragments also came from Area 2, nine 

of these (representing at least one, and possibly as many as three louvers) from ST9 or its environs. 

Louvers could be used as ventilators rather than as smoke chimneys but three fragments from the same 

piece, found within the fill of a burial (cg821) at the south end of the west claustral walk, show internal 

sooting suggestive of use as a chimney. 

Several other fragments of roof furniture were recovered, together with parts of two unusual ceramic 

objects which may also represent elaborate roof fittings. Two fragments from the same flat-sided(?) 

piece, copper-glazed (green) on both surfaces and ornamented with a series of incised, intersecting arcs 

or circles on the ?external face, have been tentatively identified as parts of a vent or louver. Twelve 

other fragments, almost certainly from a single piece of roof furniture, were recovered from six 

different contexts, five in Area 7 and the sixth in Area 6. These too are copper-glazed, but on the 

external surface only, while several pieces also bear the remains of elaborate applied ornament; the 

interior shows no sign of sooting. It may be significant that the majority of the roof furniture is from 

areas near the street frontage, i.e. Areas 7, 8 and 8a. 

20


Volume II 

All areas of the site produced fragments of limestone roofing slate, the majority of it identified as 

Collyweston slate, from outcrops near Stamford. Although some of this, particularly that from Area 7, 

could represent redeposited Roman building material, the frequency of its occurrence within Phase III 

and later levels suggests that at least some of the friary buildings were roofed with stone. The use of 

such material, comparatively more costly than the locally produced and thus more readily available 

ceramic tiles, would have been a visible sign of affluence. 

Fragments of an unusually fossiliferous limestone, also used as roofing material, are from an as yet 

unidentified source. It may be significant that all are from the eastern part of the site (Areas 6, 7 and 

8); the majority (fourteen of a total of seventeen fragments) are from the fill of pit cgll, probably 

associated with the robbing of ST1. 

The only other items of note are two fragments of glazed and collared ceramic water pipe and some 

glazed floor tile. One of the two pieces of water pipe was found within the robbing (cg586) of ST9, 

while the other came from the backfill of a Phase III burial (cg889) in ST27. Only four complete 

examples (of a total of thirteen) glazed floor tiles survived; where the glaze remains it is green, or 

yellow slip. All are likely to date from the late 14th century onwards. 

A small quantity of medieval plaster was recovered from levels associated with the demolition and 

robbing of the friary, the majority of it painted with a plain, white wash. Several dozen fragments 

(0.3kg) recovered from the demolition of the north wall of ST12 include a number that show evidence 

of a more decorative treatment, with traces of purple paint, but too little of this survives to suggest the 

nature of the decoration. 

3.0 Further work 

Several items, including the fragments of the two unusual ceramic objects noted above, require further 

work to locate possible parallels and are worth illustration. The source of the fossiliferous limestone 

roof tiles requires identification by specialist and/or petrological examination. It is possible that full 

integration of the stratigraphic record and the building materials with the other finds (particularly the 

architectural stone) may shed further light on the nature of individual buildings and the development of 

the friary. 


6: THE HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS 

by Lynda Isaac and Charlotte Roberts, 

(Calvin Wells Laboratory, University of Bradford) 

Sixty-four burial contexts were discovered at the site of St. Mark's (zeb95), offering an important 

opportunity to add to the knowledge of health and longevity of individuals from Lincoln, with potential 

at a local level and in a wider context. 

Burials were located in three main areas, firstly in Area 7 (Fig 1, A) which was situated to the north of 

the railway station; these lay to the south and east of a substantial friary building in a sparsely 

21

Friary burial ground 

St. Edward's Church burial ground 

footprint of proposed development 

evaluation trenches 

previously recorded burials 

• redeposited human remains 

remains of Church? 

existing structures retained 

impact of new development areas on 

'' / / / burial grounds 

ft 1995-96 burials/ZEB 95 

Fig. 1: Location map. 

Turnhibts. 

/ 

I 

V 

>3 


Volume II 

populated graveyard which extends to the High Street boundary. There was no evidence of friaryrelated 

activity predating or postdating the graves which cut directly into a phase of early medieval 

timber structures. Further burials were located in Area 6 to the south of Kingdom Hall (Fig 1, B), and 

several lay below grave slabs and may have been within a chapter house. To the south of this group, in 

the Combined Services Trench (Fig 1, C), further burials were located at the eastern end of the trench. 

All graves were orientated east-west, which is normal Christian practice. 

Also recovered from this area and related to the Carmelite friary, was a small group of burials 

excavated in 1986-7 (z86), which were excavated from an area between Area 6 and the Combined 

Services Trench, and a femur and tibia (bra95 109) which were recovered from the corner of the 

station portico found during a geotechnical test pit. Although this report mainly concentrates on the 

1995-96 excavations, some comparison was made with this earlier work. 

2.0 Recording Procedure 

A total of 21 boxes containing the human remains from 64 contexts was received for study. One extra 

mandible with no context number was included in the sample and could not be associated with any of 

the remains. All skeletons were bagged and labelled according to bone, side and context. Apart from 

the skulls, all the bone had been washed. The author also received the site context sheets and plans to 

allow for an integrated analysis of the archaeological and osteological evidence. Each skeleton was 

individually recorded on standard forms which document the bones present, age, sex, stature and 

preservation. They also allow for measurement of cranial and post-cranial bones which were taken 

using an osteometric board, sliding or spreading callipers. The dentition was recorded with regard to 

teeth present and evidence of disease. Post-cranial and cranial non-metric traits were scored as present 

or absent where possible and, finally, pathological conditions were recorded using descriptive methods 

and grading. The disarticulated material was recorded as fully as possible and quickly observed for 

pathological changes. The original recording forms comprise part of the Calvin Wells archive in the 

Department of Archaeological Sciences Bradford, and may be consulted for future research. 

3.0 Preservation 

Recording preservation is important as it largely determines the minimum number of individuals and 

the ease with which pathological conditions can be recognised Therefore, preservation of each burial 

was categorised with reference to three factors: the percentage of bone present, the percentage of postmortem 

breakage and the percentage of surface erosion. A combination of these three factors gave a 

grade between one (excellent) and five (very poor). The articulated remains from zeb95 were 

predominantly well-preserved and relatively complete. A total of seven skeletons were recorded as 

being grade one (excellent) and seven as grade two (good). The second category mainly contained 

skeletons which, although complete, had suffered more post-mortem damage. Five were recorded as 

fair (grade 3), five as poor (grade 4) and two as very poor (grade 5). As can be seen from Figure 2, the 

majority of skeletons were in the top two categories. 

Subdivision of preservation by age showed no particular trends with the best preserved skeletons being 

in a variety of age divisions. Subdivision by sex revealed that all but two of the males were grades 1 

and 2 whilst no females were in these categories. However, since there were only three females 

available for study this may be a biased view. It is also worth noting that the females were all in the 

older middle and mature adult categories, and may have suffered from postmenopausal osteoporosis, 

resulting in lower bone mineral content and increased risk of degradation in the soil. Burial and soil 

conditions contribute to preservation and it is worth noting that the majority of skeletons from grades 1 

and 2 were excavated from Area 7. - 

23


Volume II 

Fig. 2: Preservation of articulated skeletons. 

Key 

• Grade 1 - Excellent 

Grade 2 - Good 

• 

r 

• 

Grade 3 - Fair 

Grade 4 - Poor 

Grade 5 - Very Poor 

Grade 1 - Under 25% 

of bone affected 

Grade 2 - 25% to 75% 


Grade 3 - Over 75% 


Fig. 3: Percentage of postmortem damage and surface erosion on commingled and unstratified 

remains. 

24


Volume II 

The incomplete, commingled and unstratified material was graded with reference to the percentage of 

post-mortem damage and surface condition. This was graded from one (under 25% of bone affected) 

to three (over 75% of bone affected). The majority of bone was in the best preservation category, nine 

contexts were grade 2, whilst thirteen contexts were badly preserved (see Fig. 3). 

4.0 Physical Anthropology 

Minimum number of individuals 

A total of 29 inhumations were recognised archaeologically along with 35 contexts which contained 

human remains. Inhumation 7730, a mature adult male with additional skull and mandible was 

recovered from the fill of a pipe trench and was recorded as disarticulated. Five contexts (1000, 1004, 

2000, 8099, 10021) all contained human remains and were unstratified. Inhumation 6464, a mature 

adult male, also contained a subadult skull and mandible. Inhumation 8362, an undetermined adult, 

also contained part of a subadult maxilla. During the osteological analysis skeletal elements, such as 

the ends of the long bones, foot bones, mandible, maxilla and certain landmarks on the pelvis and 

skull, were counted according to side in order to calculate the minimum number of individuals (see 

full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 1). The osteological analysis revealed that 13 males, 3 females, 

8 adults and 7 subadults were recovered during excavation. A total of 31 individuals were recognised 

along with 33 contexts which included unstratified, commingled, and single bones which one could 

not identify as belonging to separate individuals. The most common bone elements to survive were the 

proximal femur, proximal humerus, mandible and acetabulum. These elements are amongst the most 

recognisable and robust so perhaps it is not surprising that they are the most frequently recovered. 

Estimation of sex 

Assessment of sex was based on cranial and pelvic morphology and followed the scoring system 

proposed in Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). Additional information was provided by measuring the 

diameters of the femoral and humeral heads, and femoral condyles (Stewart 1979). Skeletons were 

only placed in definite categories if the majority of cranial and pelvic traits were of one sex. Where 

the evidence was contradictory the individuals were placed in probable male or female categories. This 

also applied to individuals where measurements could be taken but only either the skull or pelvis was 

present. Where preservation was poor and inhibited the assessment of sex, the skeleton was either 

placed in a probable category or the category of adult. The adult category also applies to skeletons 

with no cranium or pelvis but whose long bones were adult (i.e. epiphyses fused) and for skeletons 

which offered only metrical data. Subadults (individuals whose skeleton had not developed to the adult 

state) were not sexed as they have not normally acquired sexual dimorphism; this is in accordance with 

current practices. 

The adults from zeb95 displayed a good level of sexual dimorphism with regard to pelvic traits. The 

male crania were more distinct than those of females, which were often scored as ambiguous. Metrical 

analysis of skeletons from zeb95 was, in many cases, ambiguous, with many of the males having 

measurements which just fell within the male range, and females who fell into the undetermined 

category. The osteological analysis of zeb95 revealed 11 males and 2 probable males, 2 females and 1 

probable female, and 8 of indeterminate sex. This sample is heavily biased towards males and may be 

representative of the population buried at a Carmelite friary. Rates of male to females at other 

medieval monastic burial sites such as Blackfriars in Carlisle (93:52) and Merton Priory in Surrey 

(34:1) suggest similar patterns (Stroud and Kemp 1993). However, earlier excavations in 19S6 at St. 

Mark's Station (z86) revealed 16 burials and a watching brief recovered a further 5 burials. The 

combined information gave 7 males, 2 male?, 3 females, 1 female? and 3 adolescents. The biases in 

the present study may therefore relate to cemetery sampling, as the presence of both sexes is more 

apparent when studied in conjunction with previous excavations. The presence of both sexes is not 

surprising since in 1250 AD the friars obtained permission from Pope Innocent IV to bury lay 

25


Volume II 

members of the community in their cemeteries (Lawrence 1989). It is also possible that female 

benefactresses may be buried in the cemetery. 

Estimation of age 

Standard age categories used in the Calvin Wells Laboratory are as follows: 

YEARS 

Feotal/neonatal < 1 

Infant 1 - 5 

child 5 - 10 

Adolescent 11-17 

Young adult 18-25 

Young middle adult 26-35 

Older middle adult 36-45 

Mature adult 46+ 

Adult > 18 

Adult age assessment was determined by closely examining the changing morphology of the pubic 

symphysis (Katz and Suchey 1986), the auricular surface of the ilium (Lovejoy et al 1985), and the 

sternal end of the 4th rib (Iscan et al 1984, 1985), in addition to observation of the rate of cranial 

suture closure and the dental attrition (Brothwell 1981). Subadult ageing was determined by the 

development of the deciduous and permanent dentition (Hillson 1986), the stage of epiphyseal fusion 

of the bones of the skeleton (Williams and Warwick 1980), and the measurement of long bone shafts 

(Workshop of European Anthropologists 1980). 

The remains from zeb95 constituted 2 infants, 1 child/adolescent, 4 adolescents, 1 young adult, 3 

young middle adults, 5 older middle adults, 7 mature adults and 8 adults, a total of 7 subadults and 24 

adults. In the case of individuals who spanned two age categories, the different results were compared 

and discussed with other laboratory staff. For example burial 7534, which was originally assigned to 

the young adult age category during the assessment stage (Boylston 1996), is now assigned the mature 

adult category; this individual was borderline between the older middle and mature adult categories. 

After discussion and comparison of the available data it was decided that, due to the extent of thyroid 

cartilage calcification and dental attrition, 7534 just fell into the mature category. 

The assemblage from St. Mark's Station does not necessarily represent the normal demography of a 

medieval monastic site, as it is small and perhaps biased. The information from previous excavations 

at St. Mark's Station (Boylston and Roberts 1995) have been combined with those from this study to 

offer a comparison with other late medieval sites from Lincoln. The following table compares the 

monastic site to Pennell Street (sus96), which was a burial ground serving the parish of St. Michael in 

Wigford, in Lincoln (Boghi and Boylston 1997). 

26


Volume II 

Table 1: Numbers of Individuals. 

zeb95 and z86 sus96 

Age Category Number % Number % 

Subadult 13 27.7 12 16.7 

Young Adult 3 6.4 3 4.2 

Young MA 7 14.9 12 16.7 

Older MA 6 12.8 20 27.8 

Mature Adult 10 21.3 17 23.5 

Adult 8 17.0 8 11.1 

Total 47 100 72 100 

The low number of burials from zeb95 leads to unrepresentative and slightly biased results which in 

many ways do not compare with other contemporary sites. The high percentage of adult burials at 

zeb95 is due to incomplete burials which could not be aged accurately. At both sites the younger adult 

categories are not well represented. If they were being buried in a specific area this may not have been 

excavated; however, if it is a true reflection of late medieval populations then there may have been less 

difference in mortality between monastic and non-monastic urban populations than has been assumed. 

At both sites a reasonable percentage of the population was surviving to later life suggesting, again, 

advantageous living conditions at both sites. The combined information on age and sex estimation 

gives the following demographic profile which is presented in Tables 2 and 3 and illustrated in graph 

form in Figure 4. 

Table 2: Demographic profile of zeb95. 

Age Category Male Male? Female Female ? Indeterminate 

Subadult 

Infant (1-5) 

Child (6-10) 1* 

Adolescent (11-17) 4 

Young adult 1 

Young/middle Adult j 

Middle/older Adult 2 1 1 1 

Mature Adult 5 1 1 

Adult 8 

TOTAL 11 2 2 1 15 

* one individual was aged as 10-12 which falls into the child/adolescent category 

Table 3: Demographic profile of z86. 

Age Category Male Male ? Female Female ? Indeterminate 

Subadult 

Infant (1-5) 

Child (6-10) 

Adolescent (11-17) 6 

Young adult 2 

Young/middle Adult 3 1 

Middle/older Adult 1 1 

Mature Adult 1 2 

Adult 

TOTAL 6 2 0 6 

27 

2


Volume II 

£ 

„> a) >- 

••• 

© 


Volume II 

Estimation of stature 

Stature was calculated for individuals with complete limb bones according to the formulae devised by 

Trotter (1970). Where possible, the lower limbs were used in preference to those of the upper 

extremities; this is because the combined formulae for the femur and tibia has the lowest standard 

error. When any degree of post-mortem damage had occurred to the bone which affected its maximum 

length, the stature was not calculated; this is standard practice in the Calvin Wells Laboratory. 

Table 4: Mean stature at zeb95. 

Sex Range (cm) Mean Number 

Male 161.4- 181.5 172.0 12 

Female 143.1 - 162.8 156.2 3 

As an isolated phenomenon stature indicates the height of each individual, but comparison between 

populations in time and space can provide a more detailed analysis. The remains from zeb95 have 

been compared with other late medieval sites revealing that the stature estimates for zeb95 are normal 

for the period; see Table 5. 

Table 5: Differences in mean stature around Britain (cm). 

SITE DATE (AD) MALE FEMALE 

Number Mean Number Mean 

LINCOLN 

zeb95 (this study) 13th- 16th 12 172.0 3 156.2 

sus96 9th- 16th 7 169.7 16 158.6 

St. Mark's Church 

YORK 

10th- 16th 66 171.0 61 156.0 

Jewburv 12th- 13th 135 167.0 116 156.0 

St. Helen-on-the- 

Walls 

10th - 16th 240 169.0 268 157.0 

Fishergate 11th- 12th 45 172.0 30 158.0 

1195 - 16th 160 171.0 42 159.0 

Clementhorpe 

LONDON 

12th- 16th 25 171.0 55 156.0 

St. Nicholas 

Shambles 

ELSEWHERE 

11th- 12th 50 173.0 40 158.0. 

Blackfriars, 

Cumbria 

13th- 16th 54 171.0 20 160.0 

Exeter Cathedral, 

Devon 

Medieval 73 171.0 52 158.0 

Guildford Friary, 

Surrey 

Medieval 50 173.0 9 161.0 

Rothwell Charnel 

House, 

Northants. 

13th- 16th 173 172.0 156 158.0 

Adapted from Boghi and Boylston 1997, 5, Table 8 

29


Volume II 

Cranial measurements 

A number of cranial measurements were taken in order to establish population variability. 

Measurements were taken according to Bass (1987) and Brothwell (1981) and results classified in 

accordance with Bass (1987). Unfortunately, for this site, a large number of skulls were damaged post 

mortem and, in almost all cases, the base was fragmented. The most complete skull was 6552, that of 

an older middle adult male, and for many measurements the results are derived from this individual. 

No female skulls could be measured due to the high degree of fragmentation. In past work, metrical 

analysis of the cranium has been used for ethnic determination and studying changing cranial 

morphology throughout time. Unfortunately, sample size for this site is too small and cannot be 

regarded as being representative of the population, but comparison was made with other late medieval 

cemeteries. 

Calculation of cranial indices, based on more than one individual, reveal that the males and male? had 

a physical type which ranged from narrow or long headed (dolichocrany) to broad or round headed 

(brachychrany). Generally, they consisted of the average skull type, described as mesocrany. The male 

skulls also had average skull breadth, average width and length of palate. 

Other cranial indices are derived solely from 6552 and, although not representative of the group, this 

individual gives the only information available for facial type: broad face, narrow nasal aperture, and 

wide orbits. The cranial vault also has a high length-height and high breadth-height. These are very 

specific to this individual and give no indication of general types for the population as a whole. 

Comparison of zeb95 with other late medieval groups indicates a similarity of physical type. Pennell 

Street, Lincoln (sus96) and St. Helen-on-the-Walls, York also contained males whose mean skull type 

was mesocrany, and whose mean palatal length and breadth was average (Boghi and Boylston 1996). 

In conclusion, from the small amount of available data it would appear that the males from zeb95 had 

similar cranial morphology to males from other late medieval cemeteries, although what these data 

mean in terms of population variation is debatable. 

Post-cranial measurements 

Measurements taken to assist in sex and stature estimation can be used to provide additional 

information about individuals from archaeological groups. In addition, anterio-posterior and mediolateral 

measurements were taken for the femur and tibia in order to establish the platymeric and 

platycnemic indices respectively for males and females. All measurements were taken as outlined in 

Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994); indices were calculated according to Brothwell (1981). (For results, see 

full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 8, illustrating the mean indices relating to males and females at 

zeb95.) 

The platycnemic index expresses the degree of medio-lateral flatness of the tibia (Bass 1987, 223). The 

males and females showed variation from platycnemic to eurycnemic but, on average, both left and 

right tibiae were eurycnemic. These results were consistent with Pennell Street, Lincoln (sus96), 

where mean platycnemic indices for males were 74.9 for right and 73.0 for left, for females the mean 

was 71.2 for the right and 74.5 for the left (Boghi and Boylston 1996). 

The platymeric index expresses the degree of anterio-posterior flattening of the proximal tibia. As with 

platycnemic indices, the male and female femoral measurements exhibit variations from platymeric to 

eurymeric, but on average both left and right in both sexes were eurymeric. Brothwell (1981, 89) 

suggests that for 17th-century English populations the platymeric index has a mean of 85; this is 

consistent with the finding from zeb95. 

30


Volume II 

Non-metric traits 

Non-metric traits can be described as minor discontinuous variants in the skeleton since they cannot 

be measured on an interval scale. They consist mainly of hyperostotic traits (e.g. atlas bridge), 

hypostotic traits (e.g. sternal foramen), minor variants in the foraminae or extra sutural bones 

(Saunders 1989). A total of 30 cranial and 30 post-cranial traits were recorded where possible. 

The post-cranial non-metric traits examined (as shown in the full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 

10) were mainly the traits listed in Finnegan (1978). Boghi and Boylston (1997, 9) suggest that the 

validity of post-cranial non-metric traits as a way of establishing family relationships is debatable. 

Many traits may be the result of biomechanical stress upon ligamentous attachment sites, and on 

articular facets, and may be related to muscular development. At St. Mark's Station there was a high 

prevalence of double anterior calcaneal facets, Allen's fossae and bipartite transverse foraminae. 

Cranial non-metric traits (as shown in the full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 11) examined were 

mainly the traits listed in Berry and Berry (1967). The most common traits include ossicles at 

lambdoid, ossicles in the coronal suture, zygomaticofacial foramen, parietal foramen, bridging of 

supraorbital notch, accessory supraorbital foramen and mastoid foramen extrasutural; other 

occurrences are isolated. The low occurrence of some traits is due to poorer preservation, especially in 

the case of traits potentially present on the base of the skull. Amongst the traits that scored a very low 

frequency, despite the high occurrence of that bone, was metopic suture (1 of 11), palatine torus (1 of 

10) and mandibular torus (0 of 11). Cranial non-metric traits may allow for the study of family 

relationships within sites, and perhaps within a wider context. Unfortunately, due to the relatively low 

number of individuals available for this study, the application of those techniques is somewhat limited. 

5.0 Pathological Conditions 

Human remains form the most important source of primary evidence for disease in the past, although 

only chronic diseases leave their mark on the skeleton. Information on diseases that kill within a matter 

of days, or those that only affect the soft tissues are not available to the biological anthropologist, 

because the skeleton is not affected Therefore, only a fraction of diseases that affected past populations 

will be visible. Fortunately the teeth, which contain a lot of information, often survive very well. 

Dental health and disease 

Teeth are a valuable source of information; they provide evidence of age, diet, physiological adequacy 

of diet, methods of procuring food and oral hygiene, amongst others. Along with joint disease and 

trauma, dental disease and anomalies are the most frequently occurring abnormalities reported for past 

population (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 44). 

Dental health at zeb95 was recorded with regard to teeth present, antemortem tooth loss, tooth wear, 

caries, calculus, enamel hypoplasia, abscesses and dental anomalies. Great care was taken in the postexcavation 

treatment of the mandibles and maxillae; they were not washed or cleaned until they 

reached the laboratory. Teeth were gently brushed to record wear accurately but great care was taken 

not to dislodge any calculus deposits, and not to damage the fragile alveolar bone surrounding the 

teeth. The results of the complete dental analysis are summarised below in Table 6. 

31


Volume II 

Table 6: Dental Health Summary. 

Male / M? Female/ F? Adult Sub Per Sub Decid Total 

Total teeth 310 44 47 147 8 559 

PM loss 33 20 42 6 0 101 

AM loss 44 6 3 0 0 53 

Caries 18 3 1 0 0 22 

Calculus 219 9 35 57 0 320 

Enamel 

Hypoplasia 

26 1 0 15 0 42 

At zeb95 there was a total of 556 permanent teeth (filling 78.3% of tooth sockets present) available for 

observation; 53 teeth (7.5% of sockets) had been lost antemortem and a further 101 teeth (14.2% of 

sockets) had been lost post-mortem; the total number of sockets was 710. Antemortem tooth loss, 

which may be due to destruction of the tooth by caries or periodontal disease, was most commonly 

seen in the male mandible. The most common teeth to be shed antemortem were the molars; this is 

perhaps not that unlikely as they are towards the back of mouth and may accumulate food and bacteria 

which attack them and lead to disease. The least likely teeth to be lost antemortem were equally the 1st 

incisor, canine, and both premolars. The most common teeth to be lost post-mortem were the incisors; 

this is a common finding as these anterior single rooted teeth may easily become dislodged during 

burial and/or excavation (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 45). There was a total of eight deciduous teeth 

available for observation; none had been lost antemortem or post-mortem, as only parts of deciduous 

jaws were available. (See full archive report, Appendix 3, Tables 12-13 for the data from which this 

information was extrapolated.) 

Dental caries 

Dental caries is reported more frequently in archaeological populations than other dental diseases 

(Roberts and Manchester 1995, 45). Caries is caused by the interaction of sugar and bacteria contained 

in the plaque which adheres to the teeth. When the correct combination of plaque bacteria and sugar 

occurs, acids are produced which demineralize the teeth and leave cavities. (Hillson 1986, 287). 

Carious lesions were recorded with regard to the tooth affected and the position and size of the cavity 

(see full archive, report, Appendix 3, Tables 17 and 18). 

At St. Mark's Station, caries rates are relatively low compared with other late medieval sites. Although 

the rates are relatively consistent with St. Giles, Jarrow and St. Helen-on-the-Walls, York, there are 

larger differences with Pennell Street, Lincoln (sus96) which, geographically, is the closest to St. 

Mark's Station. This may be a result of the better oral hygiene and diet within the Carmelite friary, but 

Powell (1985, 317, fig 10.1) suggests there are a number of exogenous factors to take into 

consideration, such as environmental factors (e.g. trace elements in food and water), pathogenic agents 

(the bacteria causing the disease), and endogenous factors (e.g. the shape and structure of the teeth). 

The difference in caries rates at zeb95 may be due to biases in sampling and may not be representative 

of the site as a whole. The most common sites for carious lesions were multiple, mesial and distal (see 

full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 18). 

32


Volume II 

Table 7: Caries rates at different late medieval sites. 

SITE TOTAL TEETH CARIOUS % 

zeb95 (this study) 556 22 4.0 

sus96 (Pennell Street) 733 164 22.4 

Jarrow, Co. Durham 957 42 4.4 

St. Helen-on-the-Walls, 

York 

7806 345 4.4 

Blackfriars, Gloucester 1112 81 7.3 

St. Giles, North Yorkshire 665 57 8.6 

Fishergate, York 1406 61 4.3 

2945 356 12.1 

Blackfriars, Ipswich 461 28 6.1 

Adapted from Roberts and Manchester (1995, 49 ) and Boghi and Boylston (1997, 10) 

Dental abscesses 

No abscesses were recorded on individuals from zeb95, however it is worth noting their relatively low 

frequency in other late medieval populations; see Table 8. 

Table 8: Abscess rates at different late medieval sites. 

SITE NO. TOOTH 

POSITIONS 

NO. ABSCESSES % 

zeb95 (this study) 710 0 0 

z86 313 5 1.6 

sus96 733 7 0.9 

Jarrow, Co. Durham 1128 16 1.1 

St. Helen-on-the- 

Walls 

Blackfriars, 

Gloucester 

St. Giles, North 

Yorks 

9788 113 1.2 

644 14 2.3 

639 15 2.4 

Fishergate, York ? 9 1.9 

0 ? 4.5 

Blackfriars, Ipswich 1589 25 1.6 

Since dental caries can predispose to the development of a dental abscess, it is perhaps no surprise that 

there are no abscesses in this very small sample. That is not to suggest that the population as a whole 

did not suffer; indeed, Boylston and Roberts (1995, 68) found two individuals with abscesses from 

earlier excavations at St. Mark's Station (z86). A combination of the results from both excavations 

gave an abscess rate (5 out of 1023 or 0.5%) which was consistent with Pennell Street, Lincoln 

(sus96), where the abscess rate was recorded as 0.9%. 

Dental calculus 

In societies where dental hygiene is not practised, calculus accumulates on the teeth as a result of 

mineralization of plaque. It tends to localize particularly on the lingual surface of the lower incisors 

and the buccal surface of the upper molars near the salivary glands from which the calcium is derived. 

n i 

JJ


Volume II 

Calculus is much less frequent in children but in the past the condition was very common in adults. 

Calculus was recorded as slight, medium or heavy on each tooth surface in accordance with Brothwell 

(1981), and the colour was noted in cases where the calculus was greenish in appearance; this indicates 

subgingival calculus which is related to the process of periodontal disease (Hillson 1986, 302). 

In the present study 263 of 556 permanent adult teeth (47.3 %) were affected by calculus formation, 

whilst only 57 subadult teeth (38.7%) were involved (see full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 19). 

The most commonly affected teeth overall were the first molars whilst the least commonly affected 

were the third molars. Two hundred and nineteen male teeth (68.9%) were affected, whilst only nine 

female teeth (20.5%) were involved. Unfortunately, the results for the females may be slightly biased 

due to the poorer preservation of female teeth. Inhumation 18620, sexed as female?, only had one 

tooth, a lower second premolar which not commonly affected, whilst the other two females (6539 and 

6614), only have less than half the total number of molars preserved; as these appear to be the most 

commonly affected teeth the results may be slightly biased. 

In two individuals subgingival calculus was recorded. In all other cases calculus was supragingival. 

None of the skeletons had occlusal calculus deposits which would have reflected the lack of attention 

given to dental hygiene; this is consistent with the low occurrence of caries and abscesses. 

Dental enamel hypoplasia 

Goodman (1991, 1280), has described enamel hypoplasia as 'deficiencies in enamel matrix 

composition.' Its aetiology is largely unknown, but they are thought to represent episodes of childhood 

illness, such as fevers or infantile diarrhoea. Conditions such as these cause an interruption in the 

formation of the enamel matrix and result in the appearance of a pit, line or hoizontal groove on the 

tooth. Roberts and Manchester (1995, 58) suggest that it is most commonly viewed on the buccal 

surface of the incisors and canines. Although not applied to this study, some authors have attempted to 

age the time at which the stress occurred since the laying down of enamel is a well documented fact 

(Hillson 1992; Sciulli 1992; Hodges and Wilkinson 1990). 

Only 51 of 556 teeth (9.2%) had defects which were consistent with the description of enamel 

hypoplasia (see full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 20). The author recorded enamel hypoplasia 

according to methods described in Hillson (1986), and was careful only to record true disturbances of 

enamel using oblique lighting and a dental probe to assist the interpretation. Sixteen teeth (31.4%) 

affected with enamel hypoplasia were canines, 23.5% were lateral incisors, 17.6% were central 

incisors, 15.7% were second pre-molars, 7.8% were first premolars, 2% were first and second molars, 

whilst no third molars were affected. Only 2% of hypoplastic teeth were female, whilst 68.6% were 

male; 29.4% of hypoplastic teeth were subadult. 

Periodontal disease 

A major predisposing factor in the development of periodontal disease is the accumulation of calculus 

between the tooth and soft tissue and bone of the jaw. This results in chronic inflammation of the gums 

and results in resorption of the alveolar bone. Hillson (1986, 308) suggests that the disease is more 

prevalent and more serious in older age groups. Periodontal disease was recorded according to 

Brothwell (1981) where jaws were recorded as having slight, medium or severe resorption. At St. 

Mark's Station, the age of individuals affected by periodontal disease was as expected; only older 

middle adults and mature adults were affected. Mandibular periodontal disease affected more 

individuals but was commonly graded as slight, whilst maxillary periodontal disease, which affected 

less individuals, was more commonly medium grade (see full archive report, Appendix 3, Tables 21 

and 22). 

34


Volume II 

Dental anomalies 

An individual was recorded as having dental anomalies when the number, position or eruption pattern 

was different from normal. Four individuals were recorded as having dental anomalies: 7409 had a 

rotated lower left canine, 7511 had dental overcrowding, where the third molars, in particular the 

maxillary molars had erupted at an angle, 1272 had mandibular overcrowding of the incisors, 7506 had 

slight mandibular overcrowding of the lower left lateral incisor and canine. Interestingly, this skeleton 

also had impacted upper canines and retention of the deciduous canines and lateral right incisor 

(lateral left incisor lost post-mortem), see PI. 1. 

Plate 1: Skeleton 7506 - Impacted maxillary canines, retained deciduous dentition removed for 

photography (young middle adult male). 

Congenital and developmental defects 

Congenital malformations are defined as such because they are present at birth. However many skeletal 

abnormalities only become apparent in childhood with growth and development. Ninety percent of 

such conditions have a genetic basis (Barnes 1994, 10), the spinal column is often affected by minor 

structural alterations which may be asymptomatic. 

At zeb95, congenital and developmental abnormalities were limited to one case of unilateral 

spondylolysis (6474), and one skeleton (7414) with bifid neural arches and an anterior cleft of the 

sacrum, a bifurcated rib and a few minor variants of the spine. Spondylolysis involves separation of 

the neural arch from the vertebral body at the pars interarticularis. Explanations for the frequencies of 

separate neural arches are complex. Whilst some evidence shows this to be a genetically influenced 

trait, there is also suggestion that this may be, in part, a result of mechanical stress of the spine (Turkel 

1989, 120). Skeleton 6474, a male mature adult, had unilateral spondylolysis; the neural arch was not 

completely separated and did not therefore result in spondylolisthesis, where one or more vertebrae slip 

35


Volume II 

forward. It is interesting to note that 6474 also has osteoarthritis of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae, 

Bradtmiller (1984, 327) suggests that arthritis patterns may be an important variable in the 

development of this condition. 

Skeleton 7414, a younger adult male had several developmental defects of the ribs and sacrum; defects 

which occur in specific regions of the body reflect disturbances in a particular developmental field 

(Barnes 1994, 11). In 7414 the affected parts of the skeleton arise from the same sclerotomic tissue 

which forms the posterior portion of the vertebral bodies and neural arches and eventually forms the 

ribs along the thoracic spine. This suggests that this individual suffered from defects of the paraxial 

mesodermal field, which begin to segment at twenty-one days in an embryo (Barnes 1994). 7414 had 

incomplete closure or development of the neural arches of the sacrum, an anterior cleft between SI and 

S2 and a bifurcated or bifid rib (see PI. 2-4). This occurs when a single rib divides into two near the 

sternum and is most common in the third or fourth rib, which is consistent with 7414, whose left fourth 

rib had this condition. Barnes (1994) further suggests that approximately one third of the individuals 

affected by developmental disturbances display more than one defect which are likely to develop 

independently of one another, and that developmental defects are population specific. 

Plate 2: Skeleton 7414 - Anterior cleft between first and second sacral segments (young middle adult 

male). 

Infectious disease 

Infective lesions are a common finding in skeletons from archaeological sites and can be divided into 

specific and non-specific infection. The former term is used to describe changes noted in the bone 

which can be ascribed to a particular bacterium whilst non-specific infection of bone may be from any 

number of bacterium which cannot be distinguished (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 125). 

36


Volume II 

Plate 3: Skeleton 7414 - Incomplete closure of sacral neural arches. 

Plate 4: Skeleton 7414- Bifurcated left fourth rib. 

37


Volume II 

Non-specific infection 

Evidence of infection is seen on dry bone where there is formation of new bone in response to an 

incident which may have been traumatic or infectious. Periostitis affects the surface of the bone under 

the periosteum and is often seen on the tibiae; osteitis affects cortical bone and may cause thickening 

of the shaft and narrowing of the marrow cavity; osteomyelitis is transmitted via the bloodstream and 

affects the entire bone causing thickening which results in the formation of a cloaca for drainage of the 

pus produced. 

Table 9 summarises the prevalence of periosteal new bone formation which indicates the age and sex 

of the individual affected, the location of the new bone, and which type of bone is present (e.g. woven, 

lamellar or mixed). 

Table 9: Individuals affected by periostitis. 

Skeleton Sex Age Location Type 

2991 Male ? Adolescent Left tibia Mixture 

7409 Male Young middle Left tibia Lamellar 

Right tibia Lamellar 

1272 Male Older middle Right tibia Lamellar 

Left tibia Lamellar 

Right femur Woven 

6539 Female Older middle Right tibia Lamellar 

Right fibula Lamellar 

6560 Male Mature Adult Right tibia Lamellar 

Left tibia Mixture 

Left fibula Lamellar 

Due to small sample size, the following prevalence rates were derived from males, females and 

subadults combined. Four of nineteen left tibiae (21.1%), and five of twenty-seven right tibiae (18.6%) 

were affected with periostitis. Two of nineteen (10.5%) right fibulae and one of nineteen (5.3%) left 

fibulae had periostitis, and one of twenty-six (3.8%) right femurs had periostitis. Periosteal new bone 

formation was most prevalent on the left tibiae. 

Osteitis occurred in one individual, 6552, an older middle adult male, from Area 6 in the cemetery (see 

PI. 5). Both left tibiae and fibulae were affected by osteitis; radiographically the cortical thickness had 

greatly increased and there is no evidence of a cloaca; the sacrum of this individual also appears 

thickened anteriorly on radiograph. An individual from an earlier watching brief (bra95 109) exhibited 

similar pathological changes of the tibia. 

Specific Infection 

This covers a range of disease such as parasitic infection, leprosy and tuberculosis, which were not 

observed on the remains from zeb95. However, as discussed by Boylston (1996, 3) in the assessment 

of the material from this site, one individual 6552 (discussed above) may have characteristic changes 

of the treponemal diseases (which include syphilis) affecting the tibiae and sacrum; this was confirmed 

by Don Ortner (pers. comm.). However, there is no involvement of the skull which would confirm the 

diagnosis of treponemal disease. 

Trauma 

Trauma has been defined as any bodily injury or wound (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 65). Four 

individuals from zeb95 suffered trauma; all were male mature adults, meaning that 36% (4/11) of


Volume II 

males and 57% (4/7) of mature adults had suffered fractures. None of the females showed evidence of 

trauma; this is not to suggest that females were not predisposed to fractures or trauma, because the 

sample is small and poorly preserved. The evidence for fractures is summarised in Table 10, which 

indicates the age, sex and site of the fracture(s), as well as the state of healing and alignment of the 

bone. 

In total, 4.4% of right and 1.9% of left ribs were fractured. At this site, rib fractures appear to be one of 

the most commonly occurring injuries which can result from a direct fall or blow. In all but one case 

the fractures were well healed; 7322, however, had non-union of fractured ribs with periosteal reaction. 

This is considered to be a case of true non-union and not occurring at the time of death because some 

attempt at healing has been made which is also visible on x-ray (see PI. 6). Judd (1984), who studied 

fractures sustained by individuals from the medieval period in urban and rural environments, found 

that the clavicle was most often subjected to trauma amongst males. At zeb95, 9.1% of male left 

clavicles were fractured and 10% of right fibulae were also fractured; this is also expected because the 

fibula is on the outside of the lower leg and may be subject to greater risk of trauma. All the healed 

fractures were well aligned with the exception of 6560, where the bones are overlapped slightly which 

resulted in shortening of the fibula and bone formation on the medial shaft. This, perhaps, indicates the 

level of aftercare in this community, especially in the case of individuals with well aligned rib 

fractures, as the person affected cannot move around much after the injury and would need someone 

else to care for them. Perhaps it is of no surprise that it was the elderly members of the community who 

were most at risk from these type of injuries and, although one can infer the force that may have 

caused a fracture, one cannot usually presume more unless it is a weapon injury. 

Table 10: Individuals affected by trauma. 

Skeleton Sex Age Site Number Healed ? Alignment 

6464 Male Mature 1 R rib 1/115 Well healed Well aligned 

Male Mature 1 L rib 1/108 Well healed Well aligned 

Male Mature L clavicle 1/11 Well healed Well aligned 

7322 Male? Mature 4 R ribs 4/115 Non-union - 

7730 Male Mature 1 L rib 1/108 Well healed Well aligned 

6560 Male Mature R fibula 1/10 Well healed 60% apposition 

Metabolic disorders 

Certain deficiency disease can leave traces on the skeleton, e.g. rickets, which is caused by a lack of 

vitamin D. Porosity of the orbital roofs, known as cribra orbitalia, is common in British archaeological 

populations (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 167). These lesions are thought to be related to iron 

deficiency anaemia in childhood. Iron deficiency may have had a protective effect against infections 

and parasites in the past by depriving pathogens of a source of iron (Stuart-Macadam 1991), although a 

diet deficient in iron may also be the cause.


Volume II 

Plate 5: Skeleton 6552 - Osteitis of left tibia and fubula in an older middle adult male. 

Plate 6: Skeleton 7322 - Non-union of fractured ribs -with periosteal reaction (mature adult male?). 

40


Volume II 

Cribra orbitalia 

Crania were examined for this condition by the method devised by Stuart-Macadam (1991), where 

each orbit is examined and graded according to position and grade of the lesions; the results of this 

analysis are summarized in Table 11. 

Table 11: Individuals affected by cribra orbitalia. 

Skeleton Sex Age Left Orbit Right Orbit 

7511 Male Young Adult Type 4 Type 3 

7508 Male ? Adolescent Type 2 Type 3/4 

6485 ? Infant Type 2/3 Type 2 

7513 ? Adolescent Type 3 Type 3 

7534 Male Mature Adult Type 2 none 

The more severe types of porosity were found in the right orbit although the left was more commonly 

affected. Grouping the subadults together, three had cribra orbitalia in both orbits, meaning that 50% of 

left orbits and 60% of right subadult orbits were affected. Three adult males were recorded as having 

cribra orbitalia, meaning that 20% of male left orbits and 20% of male right orbits were affected. None 

of the females had cribra orbitalia; however, the crania were poorly preserved and only one right and 

one left orbit were present for this study. 

Endocrine disease 

Endocrine diseases are not very common in archaeological skeletal material. Two contexts of human 

remains from zeb95 were diagnosed as possibly exhibiting the very early stages of hyperostosis 

frontalis interna (H.F.I), a disease which is related to pituitary gland disorders and produces 

characteristic new bone formation on the endocranial surface of the skull. Although it has been 

associated with post-menopausal women it had a male:female ratio of 1:9 (Barber et al 1997, 157). The 

very severe thickening is rarely seen on archaeological bone but this represents the later phases of the 

disease process; the raised projections viewed on skeletons 6464 and 18377 may be an early indication 

of the disease. 

Table 12: Prevalence of Hyperostosis Frontalis Interna. 

SITE PERIOD % 

zeb95 (this study) 13th - 16th 11.8 

Fishergate, York 12th - 16th 1.0 

Home for the Aged, USA Modem 62.0 

Elderly USA citizens Modern 40.0 

Table adapted from Barber et al 1997, 157 

The disease has a low prevalence in the past compared with modern populations. Modern samples 

exhibit a prevalence of up to 70% in women over 40 years of age, compared with an archaeological 

prevalence of between 1% and 4% (Barber et al 1997, 157). Perhaps the low prevalence is due to under 

diagnosis of the earlier stages of the disease as seen on 6464 and 18377, or because life expectancy 

was lower. Although the number of individuals with H.F.I from zeb95 does appear unusually high this 

is due to the overall low number of frontal bones present for analysis. 

41

Joint disease 


Volume II 

This condition has been subdivided into joint disease of the spine and osteoarthritis or erosive 

arthropathies affecting the major synovial joints of the body or the small joints of the hands and feet. 

The topic must not be viewed in isolation since osteoarthritis of the facet joints of the spine is often 

associated with the same condition in the other joints of the body. 

Spinal joint disease 

Vertebrae were examined by the method of Sager (1969) for the presence of osteophytes, porosity, 

Schmorl's nodes and ebumation. Individuals with no spines were 7545, 1197 and 8632. Individuals 

with spines but no pathological changes were 6552, 2991, 7513, 7377, 2928, 6485, 7508 and 7341. 

The majority of these are from the subadult category and one would not expect them to have spinal 

pathology; 6552 does have severe ossification of the ligamentum flavum. (See full archive report, 

Appendix 3, Tables 23-26 for the detailed information regarding spinal pathologies from which these 

results were extrapolated.) 

Spinal osteoarthritis 

Following Rogers and Waldron (1995), osteoarthritis was only diagnosed with the presence of 

eburnation, or at least two of the following: porosity, osteophytes and joint contour change. 

Osteoarthritis represents the "natural reaction of a synovial joint to failure" as a consequence of ageing, 

injury, activity or genetic predisposition (Rogers and Waldron 1995, 33). Table 13 gives a summary of 

each individual with spinal osteoarthritis. 

Table 13: Individuals with spinal osteoarthritis. 

Skeleton Sex Age Affected Vertebrae 

6464 Male Mature C3-C4 

6614 Female Mature C5-T6 

6474 Male Mature C2-C3, T4-T6 

7534 Male Mature C4-T2 

10034 Male Older middle C3-C4, T3-T4 

6560 Male Mature T1,T3,T4 

6195 ? Adult C3,C5,T1 

At zeb95, osteoarthritis of the vertebral column was more commonly found in the upper spine. 

Osteoarthritis is mulitfactorial in aetiology; indeed, Bridges (1994, 91) suggests that neck osteoarthritis 

can be a result of carrying heavy loads, although other causes range from a genetic predisposition, 

activity/lifestyle and environmental factors such as climate. However, the individuals from zeb95 are 

all older and the changes are likely to be related to the natural degeneration of the joints, which would 

no doubt have caused stiffness, neck and backache. One cannot determine if males had a higher 

prevalence of cervical arthritic changes as only four cervical vertebrae belonging to a female were 

recovered, again a reflection of poorer preservation amongst the few females present. 

Intervertebral disc disease 

Degeneration of the intervertebral disc is a common finding in archaeological samples. The distribution 

of degenerative changes to vertebrae, which could not be classified as osteoarthritis, are summarised 

below in Table 14 (and in the full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 25, which indicates the percentage 

of males and females with osteophytes, porosity and Schmorl's nodes at each vertebrae). 

42


Volume II 

Table 14: Distribution of degenerative disc disease at zeb95. 

Osteophytes Porosity Schmorl's Nodes 

Male Female Male Female Male Female 

Cervical 19/77 3/4 24/77 0/4 0/77 0/4 

Thoracic 34/143 16/24 5/143 6/24 48/143 2/24 

Lumbar 24/63 5/13 8/63 3/13 28/63 0/13 

Osteophytes were most common on the lumbar vertebrae in males and thoracic vertebrae in females, 

whilst porosity was most common on cervical vertebrae in males and thoracic in females. The high 

occurrence of cervical osteophytes is interesting in conjunction with the high prevalence of neck 

osteoarthritis; however, it should be noted that osteophytes on their own are likely to be age-related. 

Schmorl's nodes 

Schmori's nodes occur as the result of the prolapse of intervertebral disc material into the vertebral 

body, creating a depression in the superior and/or inferior articular surface of the vertebral body which 

is visible on dry bone. They reflect weakening of the vertebral bodies as a consequence of ageing 

and/or traumatic events associated with an overload of the weight-bearing capacity of the spine. Table 

15 summarises which individuals from zeb95 had Schmorl's nodes. 

Table 15: Individuals with Schmorl's nodes. 

Skeleton Sex Age Affected Vertebrae 

7414 Male Young middle T5-L4 

7409 Male Young middle T7 

6474 Male Mature T8-L4 

7506 Male Young middle T5-T11 L2-L3 

7534 Male Mature T6-L2 

1272 Male Older middle T5-L4 

6539 Female Older middle Tll-Ll 

7322 Male? Mature L2-L5 

10034 Male Older middle T11-L2 

6560 Male Mature T8-T12 

7511 Male Young adult T6-T10 T12-L5 

8361 ? Adult T8-T9 

6560 Male Mature T8-T12 

From Table 15, one can see that Schmorl's nodes affected 76.9% of males, 33.3% of females and 

12.5% of adults; a variety of age classes were involved (the percentages of vertebrae affected can be 

found in the full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 26). No cervical vertebrae from any age category 

were affected, whilst 50% of young adults had thoracic Schmorl's nodes and 100% had lumbar 

Schmorl's nodes (there was only one young adult present in this study). Young middle adults males 

also had a high prevalence of Schmorl's nodes where 47.1% of thoracic vertebrae and 40% of lumbar 

vertebrae were affected. Older middle adults had 31.6% of thoracic vertebrae and 53.8% of lumbar 

vertebrae affected. Twenty one point three percent of mature adults had affected thoracic vertebrae 

whilst 20.7% had affected lumbar vertebrae. Therefore, Schmorl's nodes appear to be more prevalent 

in the younger age categories. This would seem to concur with the ideas of Varin (1996) who suggests 

that carrying heavy loads at a young age when the vertebral end plates are still impressionable can 

43


Volume II 

cause Schmorl's nodes; only one of the three females had Schmorl's nodes and these affected 16.7% of 

the thoracic vertebrae. 

Extra-spinal joint disease 

Distributions and prevalence rates for extra-spinal osteoarthritis are given in Table 16, which illustrates 

the number and percentage of joints affected in males and females. 

Table 16: Extra-spinal osteoarthritis. 

Joint Male % Male % Female % Female % Total 

Right Left Right Left 

Hip 1/13 7.8 0/13 0 0/3 0 0/3 0 1/32 

Foot 1/11 9.1 1/11 9.1 0/2 0 0/2 0 2/26 

Elbow 0/12 0 1/11 9.1 0/2 0 1/3 JJ.J 2/28 

Hand 0/13 1/13 7.7 0/3 0 0/3 0 1/32 

Wrist 1/12 8.3 2/12 16.7 1/3 

-( 

JJJ 0/2 0 3/29 

Knee 0/12 0 0/11 0 1/2 50.0 1/2 50.0 2/27 

Acromioclavicular 

3/12 25.0 4/12 jj.J 0/2 0 0/2 0 7/28 

All of the individuals affected by osteoarthritis were mature adults. The most common site for arthritic 

changes was the acromio-clavicular joint in males. This is a frequent finding amongst older individuals 

and it results in pain during motion of the upper arm (Resnick and Niwayama (eds) 1988, 1427). The 

female sample size is too small to be taken as representative but from this collection one can say that 

knee osteoarthritis was common. Roberts and Manchester (1995, 113) suggest that, along with the hip, 

this is a common finding in archaeological and modern samples as these are the weight-bearing joints 

which undergo most stress. Males had a high prevalence of wrist osteoarthritis; however, one male 

(6474), had arthritic changes to the left wrist which may have been related to underlying infection 

and/or trauma. The distal radius and carpals showed severe ebumation, contour change to joint 

surfaces, and complete destruction of the distal radius (see Pis. 7-8). However, the individual probably 

still used that hand as none of the metacarpals showed signs of atrophy; this must have caused a great 

deal of deal of pain during flexion and extension of the wrist. In males the hip, the hand and the foot, 

and the elbow, are similarly affected. It is difficult to suggest any patterning with such small numbers, 

although all the arthritic changes may be age-related, since osteoarthritis is multifactorial in aetiology 

and causes may include body weight and genetic predisposition. Roberts and Manchester (1995, 106) 

suggest that involvement of hands and feet is common but this varies between populations, and that 

elbow osteoarthritis is relatively rare today. The distribution and prevalence of other joints in changes 

which could not be classified as osteoarthritis, are shown in Table 17. 

44

Plate 7 

Plate 8 


Volume II 

w 

/ 

Skeleton 6474 - Plate 7: Mature adult male showing osteoarthritis of the left wrist with underlying 

infection and/or trauma. The distal radius illustrates the destructive changes and contour change to the 

wrist joint. Plate 8: 'A ' illustrates the degree of change in the lunate, one of the wrist bones. 'B' is a 

normal example. 

45


Volume II 

Table 17: Distribution of degenerative changes to extra-spinal joints. 

Joint Male % Male % Female % Female % Total 

Right Left Right Left 

Medial clavicle 1/11 9.1 1/11 9.1 1/2 50.0 1/1 100.0 4/25 

Proximal 

humerus 

0/12 0 0/13 0 1/3 33.3 0/3 0 1/31 

Ribs 2/115 1.7 3/108 2.8 0/21 0 1/18 0 5/262 

Distal femur 1/12 8.3 1/11 9.1 0/2 0 0/2 0 2/27 

Acetabulum 1/12 8.3 0/12 0 0/2 0 0/3 0 1/29 

Proximal Ulna 1/13 7.7 1/11 9.1 0/2 0 0/3 0 2/29 

Foot 1/11 9.1 0/11 0 0/3 0 0/2 0 1/26 

Erosive arthropathies 

Rogers and Waldron (1995:12), suggest that erosive lesions present much more of a problem 

diagnostically than those that are proliferive. Two individuals, 6560 and 1272, had erosive lesions on 

their feet and special attention is given to 6560, a mature adult male. As well as having osteoarthritis of 

the cervical vertebrae and both acromio-clavicular joints, intervertebral disc degeneration, and 

osteophytosis of the ribs and distal femur, this individual also suffered from severe, multiple erosive 

arthropathies of the metatarsals. The affected areas were the left first head, the lateral shaft of both 

third, fourth and fifth metatarsals, and the medial shaft on the right fifth. All metatarsals were affected 

bilaterally expect for the first. The lesions are characteristic of the changes of gouty arthritis (see Pis. 9- 

10). Skeleton 1272, a male older middle adult also had an erosive arthropathy on the left first 

metatarso-phalangeal joint; this is not bilateral and involves no other porosity or osteophytosis. Due to 

the problems of diagnosing lesions of this type it cannot be classified further than an erosive 

arthropathy. 

Enthesopathies 

These are bony outgrowths which develop at the insertions of tendons and ligaments. Their aetiology is 

largely unknown and likely to be a response to multiple stimuli which may include traumatic, 

degenerative or metabolic events; cortical defects may also be present in areas such as the costoclavicular 

ligament on the inferior clavicle. 

At zeb95 the occurrence of enthesopathies was restricted to the males and their distribution is shown in 

Table 18. This reveals that the most common site was on the patella, and this is a common finding in 

archaeological populations. Mann and Murphy (1990, 120), suggest that this is a common finding in 

most populations and is usually bilateral and symmetrical in appearance. 

Table 18: Distribution and prevalence of enthesopathies. 

Insertion site Right % Left % 

Patellar ligament 3/6 50.0 3/11 27.3 

Soieus 1/13 7.7 2/12 16.7 

Achilles tendon 5/11 45.5 4/11 36.4 

Peroneus brevis 1/10 10.0 0/11 0 

Conoid 0/11 0 1/11 9.1 

Linea aspera 2/13 15.4 1/12 8.3 

46


Volume // 

Plate 9: Skeleton 6560 - Erosive arthropathies of left metatarsals in a mature adult male. 

Plate 10: Skeleton 6560 - Detail of erosive arthropathy on left first metatarsal in a mature adult male. 

47


Volume II 

Seven individuals from zeb95 had cortical defects; one female (18620), five males (6464, 6552, 7414, 

7506, 7534) and one subadult (7513). The subadults had such defects at the biceps insertion on the 

humerus, costo-clavicular ligament and pectoralis major insertions. Mann and Murphy (1990, 139) also 

suggest that such findings are common in subadults and are a normal response to rapidly growing 

bone. The common site for a cortical defect in adults was at the insertion for the costo-clavicular 

ligament on the inferior medial clavicle. This affected two males bilaterally and one asymmetrically on 

the right hand side. 

D.I.S.H. (Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis) 

This disease (also known as Forestier's disease) is characterised by the ossification of the anterior 

longitudinal ligament of the spine, ossification of neck and rib cartilage and extraspinal ligaments. The 

fusion of four contiguous vertebrae is needed to diagnose D.I.S.H., and the osteophytes produced are 

commonly on the right hand side. Males are more commonly affected than females and the age of 

onset is normally over 50 years of age (Resnick and Niwayama (eds) 1988, 1563). Waldron (1985) has 

suggested that a rich diet and lack of exercise predisposed people at Merton Priory to obesity and lateonset 

diabetes. D.I.S.H. has a low prevalence rate in the archaeological record and this may be due to 

confusion with ankylosing spondylitis, a progressive inflammatory disease of unknown aetiology, 

which also involves the spine. However, ankylosing spondylitis has no extraspinal manifestations and 

the hallmark is sacro-iliac fusion which does not usually occur in D.I.S.H. 

One individual from zeb95 had pathological changes which are consistent with D.I.S.H. Skeleton 

7730, a mature male had 6 fused vertebrae; unfortunately the high degree of fragmentation meant that 

it was difficult to decide if these were contiguous. Extraspinal enthesopathies were located along the 

iliac crest, both linea aspera, the right acetabulum, and the left ulna and radius. No ossification of neck 

or rib cartilage was found but it is likely these were lost or not recovered during excavation, bearing in 

mind the poor condition of the burial. 

Miscellaneous 

The pathological condition of both feet of 6552 have been placed in this category as the articulation of 

both calcanei, both talus and naviculars are rather unusual and appear to be displaced medially. It is 

possible that 6552 was walking almost on the ankles. This would certainly have caused some 

discomfort during walking and produced stress on the legs; however, it is not thought to be the cause of 

the osteitis affecting this individual's tibiae and fibulae. 

Skeleton 7409, a younger adult male, had a spinous process which appears to be displaced to the right 

but this is probably not a result of a traumatic episode. This affected the sixth thoracic vertebra and was 

not found in any other individuals. 

5.0 Summary and Conclusions 

Sixty-four contexts of human bone were excavated and recorded by the City of Lincoln Archaeological 

Unit. These included 5 unstratified contexts and 28 disarticulated contexts, which ranged from single 

bones to commingled remains. The remaining 31 individuals were generally very well preserved with a 

high recovery rate of smaller bones which indicates care during excavation. 

The osteological analysis of zeb95 revealed 13 males, 3 females, 7 subadults and 8 adults, of whom 

one was a young adult, 3 were young middle adults, 5 were older middle adults and 7 were mature. 

The demographic profile at this site does not reflect that of a normal population; females are largely 

under-represented which may be due to the nature of the site or sampling. 

A number of metrical and non-metrical criteria were recorded to assess population variability. The 

results showed a usual mean stature for the period. The calculations of cranial indices were somewhat 

48


Volume II 

limited due to poorer preservation of crania; in fact in many instances the mean indices were based on 

one skull alone and no female indices could be calculated. On average, skulls showed a tendency 

towards mesocrany which was also usual for this period. The values for platycnemia were consistent 

with Pennell Street, a contemporary Lincoln site. Non-metric trait analysis revealed a high rate of 

ossicles in the cranial sutures which again is not unusual for the period. Unfortunately spatial analysis 

was not possible with such small numbers. 

Pathological conditions were recorded using descriptive terminology and grading systems. Dental 

health appears to be consistent with many other late medieval sites. It is interesting that the caries rate 

is so much lower than at Pennell Street, Lincoln, which perhaps offers an insight into the difference in 

diet between monastic and lay communities, although it is possible that lay people could also have 

been buried at St. Mark's. 

As with most other palaeopathological investigations, the most common conditions were joint disease, 

non-specific infection, and trauma. Again, the results are heavily biased towards the males due to the 

smaller number of females and their poorer preservation. Joint disease was restricted to the older age 

categories with the exception of Schmorl's nodes which had a high prevalence in young categories. 

However, only one young adult was available for study and this may be a reflection of sampling. 

Trauma was restricted to males, showed evidence of healing and ail but one fracture showed good 

alignment, perhaps reflecting the level of care in that community. Non-specific infection was also more 

common in males and, as one would expect, the highest rates were associated with the tibia. As at 

other late medieval sites, there were high rates of cribra orbitalia which confirms the interpretation of 

high levels of stress undergone by urban societies. 

Other pathological conditions were relatively isolated and included occurrences of hyperostosis 

frontalis interna, minor development defects and congenital abnormalities. The appearance of such 

conditions in the palaeopathological record is somewhat limited and this may be a reflection of disease 

in the past, but it may also be that these conditions are not being recognised or diagnosed correctly. 

The findings from zeb95 to an extent reflect those expected for a late medieval skeletal assemblage, 

with the under representation of certain age classes and of certain pathological conditions. In many 

cases it is difficult to propose a precise diagnosis for conditions and almost impossible to give an exact 

cause, especially since many conditions were multifactorial in origin. It should also be remembered 

that one individual may suffer from numerous conditions which, although treated in isolation for the 

purpose of this report, should not be viewed in that way as disease in the past must not be regarded as a 

static and isolated event. 

In conclusion, the analysis of the human remains from the former St. Mark's railway station offered a 

good opportunity to compare the inhabitants of the Carmelite friary with previous excavations in the 

same area and with other sites in Lincoln. Hopefully this will help lead to a better understanding of the 

life of past populations of the city. Unfortunately, the small sample did somewhat limit the 

demographic profile reconstruction and interpretation of health. However, in the event of future 

excavations this report may be used in conjunction with other investigations. 

6.0 Acknowledgements 

We would like to thank Mr. Russell Trimble for his helpful suggestions and comments on the 

archaeological background of the site, Ms. Anthea Boylston for her help with the skeletal analysis and 

write-up, Ms. Jean Brown for carrying out the photography, Mr. John Rigby for producing Figures 1-4, 

and Mr. Jason Maher for his help in demonstrating the X-ray equipment. 

49

7.0 Glossary 


Volume II 

Abscess - a pus-forming inflammation of the tissues around the root of a tooth. 

Aetiology - the cause of the disease. 

Alveolar bone - the part of the mandible and/or the maxilla which surrounds and supports the teeth. 

Ankylosis - complete immobility of a joint. 

Antemortem - occurring before death. 

Articular - the point of contact between adjacent bones, i.e. joints. 

Atrophy - the wasting, or decrease in size of the normal bone or tissue. 

Bifurcated - divided into two segments. 

Buccal - used to describe the cheek surface of the teeth. 

Caries - decay of the teeth resulting in the production of a cavity. 

Cloaca - a passage between a pus-containing cavity within a bone and the surface of the bone, 

through which the pus is discharged. 

Commingled - bone assemblages which contain the remains of more than one individual. 

Condyle - a rounded articular surface. 

Congenital - existing at birth. 

Deciduous dentition - commonly referred to as the 'milk teeth' or 'baby teeth'; refers to the 20 teeth 

present before the permanent dentition. 

Dental calculus - tartar, a hard substance which forms on the teeth through the calcification of dental 

plaque. 

Diaphysis - the shaft of a long bone. 

Distal - opposite of proximal; situated away from the centre of the body, remote from the attachment 

or origin, e.g. hand is distal to forearm. 

Eburnation - smooth, polished appearance of exposed subchondral bone caused by bone to bone 

contact. 

Enamel hypoplasia - deficient or defective enamel matrix composition, resultsing in horizontal lines 

pits or grooves visible to the naked eye on the surface of the teeth. 

Endocranial - the internal surface of the flat cranial bones. 

Enthesophytes - projections or spicules of bone at sites of tendinous or ligamentous attachment. 

Epicondyle - a projection from a long bone located above or upon the condyles. 

Epiphysis - a secondary bone-forming centre attached to a bone and separated by cartilage. 

Erosion - any superficial destructive process that wears away the external bone surface. 

Exostosis - a benign new growth protruding from the surface of a bone and characteristically capped 

by cartilage; usually forms in response to chronic irritation, trauma or osteoarthritis. 

Extension - the act of straightening. 

Flexion - the act of bending. 

Fracture - structural failure (breaking) of bone or cartilage. 

Impacted - with reference to the dentition; used to describe the position of a tooth which could not 

erupt in the normal position due to lack of available space in the jaw. 

Inferior - opposite from superior; situated lower down in relation to a specific structure or reference 

point. 

Lateral - towards the sides of the body. 

Lamellar bone - refers to older woven bone which can be striated or smooth in appearance; it 

organised in appearance and is a similar colour to the rest of the bone. 

Lesion - a broad term referring to a wide range of erosive/destructive pathological changes. 

Lingual - used to describe the surface of the tooth which is next to the tongue. 

Medial - mesial; nearer the mid-line of the body. 

MNI - minimum number of individuals. 

Non-metric trait - minor non-pathological variations of bone. 

Occlusal - relating to the chewing surfaces of the teeth. 

Ossicle - a small bone. 

Ossification - conversion of soft tissue to bone. 

Osteitis - inflammation of the cortical bone which may result in thickening of the shaft and narrowing 

of the marrow cavity. 

50


Volume II 

Osteomyelitis - an infection which is transmitted via the bloodstream to the bone. 

Osteophyte - a small abnormal bony outgrowth, normally located in areas where ligaments attach to 

bone. 

Pars interarticularis - the area between the superior and inferior articular processses of the vertebrae. 

Pathognomic - a characteristic sign which allows diagnosis of a pathological condition to be made. 

Perimortem - around the time of death. 

Periostitis - inflammation of the periosteal layer of a bone. 

Permanent dentition - adult teeth (32 teeth). 

Porosity - condition which is used to describe bone which has small pathological openings. 

Posterior - opposite of anterior; used to indicate the surface towards the back. 

Post-mortem - occurring at some point after death. 

Proximal - opposite of distal; used to describe a structure which is nearer the trunk. 

Prevalence - percentage of bones affected by a pathological change. 

Resorption - the process of destruction of bone by osteoclasts. 

Sclerotomic - ventromedial part of the embryonic somite that develops into the vertebrae and ribs. 

Subgingival - with reference to the dentition; describes an area of tooth which is beiow the cementoenamel 

junction. 

Supragingival - with reference to the dentition; describes an area of tooth which is above the 

cemento-enamel junction. 

Superior - opposite to inferior; refers to a structure which is directed to the top or upwards. 

Synovial joint - mobile joint containing synovial fluid. 

Woven bone - primary bone, fibrous or non-lamellar; usually consists of a network of intermingled 

trabeculae, greyish in colour, porous and disorganised in appearance 

8 Bibliography 

Barber, G, Watt, I, and Rogers, J, 1997 A Comparison of Radiological and Palaeopathological 

Diagnosis Criteria for Hyperostosis Frontalis Interna, Int J Osteoarchaeol, 7, 157-64 

Barnes, E, 1994 Developmental defects of the axial skeleton in paleopathology 

Bass, W M, 1987 Human Osteology: a laboratory and field manual 

Berry, A C, and Berry, R J, 1967 Epigenetic variants in the human cranium, JAnat, 101, 361-79 

Boghi, F, and Boylston, A, 1997 The Medieval cemetery of Pennell Street, Lincoln, Lincolnshire, 

Unpublished archive report, CLAU 

Boylston, A, 1996 Proposal for the analysis of human skeletal remains from the former St. Mark's 

railway station. Unpublished archive report, CLAU 

Boylston, A, and Roberts, C A, 1995 Lincoln excavations 1972-87: report on the human skeletal 

remains, Ancient Monuments Laboratory Rep, 13/97 

Bradtmiller, B, 1984 Congenital anomalies of the lower spine in two Arikara skeletal series, Plains 

Anthropol, 29, 327-33 

Bridges, P S, 1994 Vertebral Arthritis and Physical Activities in the Prehistoric Southeastern United 

States, Amer J Physical Anthropol, 93, 83-93. 

Brothwell, D R, 1981 Digging up bones, 3rd edn 

Buikstra, J E, and Ubelaker, D H (eds), 1994 Standards for data collection from human skeletal 

remains, Arkansas Archaeol Survey Res Ser, 44 

Finnegan, M, 1978 Non-metric variation of the infra-cranial skeleton, J Anat, 125, 23-37 

Gilmour, B J J, and Stacker, D A, 1986 St. Mark's Church and Cemetery, The Archaeology of 

Lincoln, 13/1 

Goodman, AH, 1991 Stress, adaptation and enamel developmental defects, in Ortner, D, and 

Auferheide, A (eds), Human paleopathology: current syntheses and future options, 280-7 

51


Volume II 

Hamilton, B, 1986 Religion in the West 

Hillson, S, 1986 Teeth 

, 1992 Impression replica methods for studying hypoplasia and perikymata in human tooth 

crown surfaces from archaeological sites, Int J Osteoarchaeol, 2, 65-78 

Hodges, D C, and Wilkinson, R G, 1990 Effect of tooth size on the ageing and chronological 

distribution of enamel hypoplasia defects, Amer J Human Biol, 2, 553-60 

Iscan, M Y, and Kennedy, KAR (eds), 1989 Reconstruction of Life from the Skeleton 

Iscan, M Y, Loth, S R, and Wright, R K, 1984 Age estimation from the rib by phase analysis:white: 

males, J Forensic Sci, 29, 1094-1104 

853-63 

, 1985 Age estimation from the rib by phase analysis:white: females. J Forensic Sci, 30, 

Judd, M, 1984 Fracture patterns from two Medieval populations in Britain, Unpublished MSc. thesis, 

Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford 

Katz, D, and Suchey, J M, 1986 Age determination of the male os pubis, Amer J Physical Anthropol, 

8, 65-79. 

Lawrence, C H, 1989 Medieval monasticism: forms of religious life in Western Europe in the Middle 

Ages, 2nd edn 

Lovejoy, C O, Meindl, S, Przybeck, T R, and Mensforth, B P, 1985 Chronological metamorphosis of 

the auricular surface of the ilium. A new method for the determination of adult skeletal age at death, 

Amer J Physical Anthropol, 68, 15-28 

Mann, R W, and Murphy, S P, 1990 Regional atlas of bone disease: a guide to pathological and 

normal variation in the human skeleton 

Powell, M L, 1985 The Analysis of Dental Wear and Caries for Dietary Reconstruction, in Gilbert, R 

I, and Mielke, J H (eds), The Analysis of Prehistoric Diets, 306-38 

Resnick, D, and Niwayama, G (eds), 1988 Diagnosis of bone andjoint disorders, 2nd edn 

Roberts, C A, and Manchester, K, 1995 The archaeology of disease, 2nd edn 

Rogers, J, and Waldron, T, 1995 A Field Guide to Joint Disease in Archaeology 

Sager, P, 1969 Spondylosis cervicalis 

Saunders, S, 1989 Non metric skeletal variation, in Iscan and Kennedy (eds), 95-108 

Sciulli, P W, 1992 Estimating age occurrence of enamel defects in deciduous teeth, J Paleopathol, 2, 

31-9 

Stewart, T D, 1979 Essentials of forensic anthropology 

Stroud, G, and Kemp, R L, 1993 Cemeteries of the Church and Priory of St. Andrew, Fishergate, The 

Archaeology of York: the Medieval Cemeteries, 12/2 

Stuart-Macadam, P, 1991 Anemia in Roman Britain: Poundbury Camp, in Bush, H, and Zvelebil, M 

(eds), Health in past societies. Biocultural interpretations of human skeletal remains in archaeological 

contexts, BAR Int Ser, 567, 101-13 

Trotter, M, 1970 Estimation of stature from intact long limb bones, in Stewart, T D (ed), Personal 

Identification in Mass Disasters, 71 -4 

Turkel, S J, 1989 Congenital Abnormalities in Skeletal Populations, in Iscan and Kennedy (eds), 109- 

27 

Varin, J, 1996 The aetiology of Schmorl's nodes and marginal osteophytes in the human spine and 

their prevalence in a British Medieval population, Unpublished MSc. thesis, Department of 

Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford 

Waldron, T, 1985 DISH at Merton Priory: evidence for a 'new' occupational disease, Brit Medical J, 

291, 1762-3 

52


Volume II 

Williams, P L, and Warwick, R 1980 Grays Anatomy, 36th edn 

Workshop of European Anthropologists, 1980 Recommendations for age and sex diagnosis of 

skeletons, J Human Evolution, 9, 517-49 


7: ANIMAL BONE ASSESSMENT 

by James Rackham 

(Environmental Archaeology Consultancy) 

A collection of hand excavated animal bone and a small sample of bone deriving from sieved soil 

samples from the excavations at the former St. Mark's Station, Lincoln, were submitted for assessment. 

These samples comprised a total of 10,291 fragments and one dog skeleton of hand excavated 

material, weighing 144.7 kg, and 578 grammes of bone recovered from 23 samples. 

The brief required an archive catalogue so a full post-excavation catalogue of the bone was produced 

(see the full archive report, Appendices 1, 2 and 3), while only a very short summary report of this 

material and its potential has been written. No further data would require collection for the full postexcavation 

analysis to be produced but a longer period of analysis and report writing would be 

necessary to complete the final text. 

53

2.0 Methods 


Volume II 

At the time of cataloguing no phasing was available so the whole collection was recorded. In the event 

a number of contexts could not be phased and a proportion of the collection (5.3%) was catalogued 

but unassigned to phase. 

The recording followed the system used by the Environmental Archaeology Consultancy (summarised 

in the Appendices of the full archive report). This is a bone by bone record, except where fragments 

are sufficiently similar to warrant an identical entry. Each record (see full archive report, Appendices) 

includes context, species, bone, number, part, age (visual assessment-entries usually made only for 

juvenile or immature animals), sex (anatomically recognisable), weight (in grammes), zones 

(diagnostic zones - see Watson 1979; Rackham 1986), fusion (state of fusion of the epiphyses), 

butchery (physical evidence of cuts, chops and sawing), burning, gnawing, tooth wear (recorded after 

Grant 1982), measurements (after von den Driesch 1979), pathology (present or absent) and a 

comments field, which normally contains a brief description of the fragment, any butchery or 

pathology, etc. Non-metrical features were not consistently recorded, although absence of the last 

column on the mandibular molar 3 of cattle was noted, and no detailed location and angle data for 

butchery marks was collected. All these data were entered directly into an ACCESS database on 

computer after perusal of each bone fragment. 

The individual identification of the mammal and domestic bird bones was by comparison to reference 

material in the authors collection, while the wild bird bones were compared with specimens in the bird 

osteological collection of the Natural History Museum, Tring. The fish bones were identified by Mrs 

Alison Locker using her own fish reference collection. 

The data submitted with the collection noted a fragment total of 11,480 pieces of bone. During 

recording it was noted that many fragments included modern breaks and all pieces that could be 

assigned to a single original fragment were recorded as one record, and the number of pieces noted in 

the comments field. The dog skeleton, comprising 323 fragments, was entered as a single entry in the 

database. The discrepancy between this figure and the total catalogued material therefore results from 

the occurrence of numerous modem breaks and skeletons being entered as a single record. 

The recording of the material from the soil samples was limited to the presence of all categories of 

animal except the fish bones. The number of fragments of each identified species of fish bone was 

recorded (see Table 5). 

3.0 Results 

General Summary 

A phasing framework for all the contexts was supplied and the animal bone collection has been 

assessed with this framework. Table 1 summarises the number of bone fragments from each area of 

excavation within these phases. These phases are as follows: 

Phase I - Early environment and Roman 

Phase II - Late Saxon and early medieval 

Phase III - Construction and use of the Carmelite friary 

Phase IV - Dissolution and Post-medieval 

Phase V - Victorian and modern, 19th/20th century (disturbed) levels 

Roman material was only recovered from Area 7, and the bulk of this derived from a single context, 

7445 (see Table 2), which is in fact an early lOth-century context with a large residual Roman pottery 

component. 11th- to mid-13th-century levels produced bone in areas Areas 2, 7 and the Remediation 

Trench. The largest assemblages from across the site derive from the Carmelite friary and post- 

54


Volume II 

Dissolution phases of occupation. 7.5% of the collection derived from disturbed 19th-century and 

modern levels across the site. 

Owing to problems of residuality and phasing this table is slightly misleading. We have already noted 

that context 7445, assigned to Phase I, has an early lOth-century ceramic group. It is clear that a 

number of contexts assigned to Phase IV contain material from the friary phase, and in Area 7 the 

pottery suggests that most of the contexts assigned to Phase III could predate the friary. Area 2 

includes bone assemblages from grave cuts that are likely to derive from the earlier occupation 

deposits through which the graves are cut and levels of residual pottery are quite high in a number of 

contexts. The presence of human bones (Table 3) among a number of the contexts in Phases III-V, 

particularly III, testify to redeposition probably through grave-cutting and subsequent activity over the 

graveyard. 

In Table 2 are listed the archaeological contexts that produced over 50 individual bone fragments. It 

can be seen that these are concentrated in the post-Dissolution levels of Area 2 with a few friary 

contexts in Areas 2, 7 and the Remediation Trench. The relatively small number of larger bone 

samples (over 150 or 200 fragments) means that little information can be expected on the spatial 

distribution of activities across the site, since this tends to rely on specific contexts producing 

assemblages illustrative of butchery, craft activities, skinning, kitchen waste, etc. It may be that the 

gross analysis of the individual areas, within phase, may permit the recognition of broad differences 

across the whole site, for instance the Area 2 friary levels may reflect the possible location of the 

kitchen. The post-Dissolution levels in Area 2 particularly offer the best opportunity for considering 

spatial patterns, although individual contexts elsewhere on the site may prove to contain specifically 

interpretable assemblages. 

Bone condition 

The condition of the bones is variable but in general good, with only a few bones showing evidence of 

having been rolled, and none with evidence of solution or corrosion. The most serious factor in the 

condition of the material is the level of recent (excavation and post-excavation) fragmentation. 

Allowing for the discrepancy between the number of fragments recorded during washing and marking, 

11,480, and those recorded during identification and cataloguing, 10,291 (+ one dog skeleton), one can 

see that approximately 900 fragments must have been generated by modern breaks that occurred prior, 

and subsequent, to marking and boxing. 

Considering factors that affected the bone before burial, 7.2 percent of the phased material is recorded 

as having shown physical evidence of butchery, 1.7% of the fragments were burnt and 2.4% had been 

gnawed, mainly by dogs, but with rare cat and rodent gnawing also recorded. The latter suggests that 

dog scavenging was not extensive and although some juveniles and pig bones are likely to have been 

destroyed by gnawing the damage to the whole assemblage may not have been severe. 

Table 1: Total number offragments by phase from each excavation area. 

Phase I II III Ilia* IV V unphased N/A 

Area 

2 157 528 1618 285 238 

3 124 34 11 

6 254 185 39 144 

7 318 463 580 43 37 

8 134 52 105 83 90 

8a 15 333 86 7 17 

CST 12 352 264 298 56 

REM 553 569 90 4 

55


Volume II 

Table 2: Contexts with more than 50 bone fragments. 

Area Context I II III Ilia* IV V unphased 

2 7038 127 

2 2485 102 

2 2691 67 

2 2844 52 

2 2025 51 

2 2209 111 

2 2361 90 

2 2369 65 

2 2389 187 

2 2427 216 

2 2441 134 

2 2448 61 

2 2458 159 

2 2646 67 

2 2000 253 

6 6471 70 

6 6060 82 

7 7445 276 

7 7428 65 

7 7593 51 

7 7306 53 

7 7308 71 

8 18334 68 

8 18300 90 

8a 18483 173 

CST 1390 56 

CST 1270 59 

CST 1225 101 

CST 1000 80 

REM 150 147 

REM 156 77 

REM 120 175 

REM 129 61 

REM 140 65 

The level of fragmentation in the collection has been briefly assessed by counting the number of bones 

carrying zones and those with no zones. 6,798 (66% of the whole sample) fragments carried no 

diagnostic zones (see full archive report, Appendix - bone recording keys), while 34% did. Among the 

individual species 32% of the identified cattle bones carried no zones, 34% of the pig bones, and 26% 

of the sheep (and goat) bones. This suggests that the level of fragmentation is similar among the main 

domestic species, although the sheep appear a little less broken up than the cattle and pig. A 

fragmentation index (total no. zones/total no. fragments) was calculated for the pig bones, apparently 

the most fragmented of the domestic farm species. This gave an average of 1.05 zones per identified 

pig fragment. This indicates that the collected assemblage is not severely fragmented, since figures of 

0.5 for a fragmentation index are common. 

Burnt and calcined bone was present in most of the sample residues and with numerous fragments, in 

these samples, much too small to have been collected during hand excavation it is clear that a very 

56


Volume II 

high proportion of the small bone fragments were not recovered. This recovery clearly impacts upon 

figures such as the fragmentation index noted above but whether it significantly affects the analysis 

and interpretation of the identified component of the main dietary species is a perennial problem. 

Payne (1975) has drawn attention to the impact on the frequency of sheep bones in a collection of wet 

sieving the archaeological deposits, and it is clear from Table 5 that sheep bones were identified from a 

greater number of samples than cattle, despite the latter's overall dominance among the hand collected 

fragments. In quantifying the different species at this site it will be necessary to take such factors into 

account. 

Species present and relative abundance of the main domesticates 

In Table 3 are listed the number of bone fragments of each identified category arranged within the 

phasing framework supplied, but with no account taken of the problems of residuality or discrepancies 

in phase assignment. Fragments of cattle are the most frequent throughout the deposits, followed by 

sheep and goat, and then pig. There is some indication that cattle are more frequent in Phases I and II, 

with sheep increasing in the friary and post-Dissolution levels. This is apparent using both the 

fragments and the weights (Table 4). This change appears to begin in the 1 Oth/11th century since in 

context 7445, the early lOth-century deposit, sheep are only 21% of the cattle/sheep/pig assemblage, 

although it cannot be ruled out that this group includes a high proportion of residual Roman bone 

debris. The proportion of pigs drops in Phases Ilia* and IV, but then reaches its highest in the 19thcentury 

and modern contexts. 

Table 3: Species and fragments count of the hand excavated bone from St. Mark's, Lincoln. 

Phase I II lit Ilia * IV V unphased N/A 

Species 1 

Human 1 75 2 14 38 21 3 

Horse 1 15 3 8 3 1 

Cattle 114 257 507 80 415 171 70 25 

Cattle size 93 393 714 106 855 184 145 25 

Sheep or goat 40 171 417 68 350 136 78 25 

Sheep 3 12 19 3 26 4 

Goat 1 1 

Pig 25 70 149 16 85 63 17 10 

Sheep size 25 165 323 53 326 91 63 8 

Dog 1 5 5 2 2 6 1 1 

Cat 1 22 2 1 

Red deer 1 1 

Fallow deer 

1 

Roe deer 2 2 

Deer sp. 

1 

Cetacean, dolphin size 1 

Brown hare 1 3 1 1 

Rabbit 1 9 

Field Vole 

1 

Water vole 

1 

Rat sp. 

1 

Common shrew 

1 

Small mammal 4 10 1 

Unidentified mammal 8 54 108 37 90 27 10 6 

Chicken 4 20 72 2 85 18 12 

Chicken size 1 

Goose, domestic 2 19 43 3 47 7 12 1 

Goose size 2 3 

Duck,domes tic 2 j 3 

.Mallard/domestic duck 2 1 1 

Mallard 1 j 

57


Volume II 

Table 3: Species andfragments count of the hand excavated bone from St. Mark's, Lincoln. 

Swan, cf mute 2 

Crane 1 

Grey Heron 1 

Greylag/Bean goose 2 2 1 

Whitefronted goose 1 1 1 2 

cf Lesser Whitefronted goose 1 

Anas sp. 2 

Teal 1 

Aythya sp. (cf pochard/scaup) 1 1 

Aythya sp. (small) 1 

Wild duck, indet. 1 

Wild duck, not id. 1 1 

Curlew 1 

Woodcock 1 

Wader, not identified 2 

Jackdaw 2 6 

Goshawk 1 

Kite 1 

Little owl 1 

cf Rock dove 2 2 

Passerine 1 

Frog or toad 5 

Unidentified bird 6 20 2 38 4 2 

Cod 1 3 4 3 I 

Cod ? 2 4 

Ling 3 2 

Pollack ? 1 

Haddock 2 1 1 

Gadid 2 17 2 1 

Gadid ? 1 

cfPlaice 1 

Flatfish 1 

Herring 1 

Pike 1 

Unidentified fish 2 1 2 

These figures do not agree with those recorded by Dobney et al (1996) from a number of sites in 

Lincoln which show much higher proportions of sheep in the Saxo-Norman deposits and lower 

percentages in the medieval and post-medieval phases, but is not dissimilar to the figures obtained by 

O'Connor (1979) from the Flaxengate assemblages. It may be that the higher sheep numbers at St. 

Mark's are related to the activities of the friary. 

Table 4: Proportions of cattle, sheep (and goat) and pig in each phase by fragments and weight. 

fragment Nos % weight 

1 II III Ilia* IV V I II III Ilia* IV V 

Cattle 62.6 50.4 46.4 47.9 47.4 45.7 88 75.6 73.5 71.1 74.5 73.1 

Sheep 23.6 35.9 40 42.5 42.9 37.4 7.8 16.7 18.4 27.3 20.4 16.7 

Pig 13.7 13.7 13.6 9.6 9.7 16.8 4.1 7.7 8.2 6.6 5.1 10.2 

N= 182 510 1093 167 876 374 6644g 12644 22762 2904 23207 10231 

Chicken and domestic goose are present throughout the deposits. Dog and cat finds also occur 

throughout and a dog skeleton was recovered from context 18420 in Phase V. Wild game include red, 

fallow and roe deer and hare, although only one of the red deer fragments derives from a carcass, the 

other fragment is antler. Rabbit bones first appear during the friary phase. A number of wild bird 

58

Table 5: Bone finds from the soil sample residues. 

zea95 

Sample 1 2 8 10 2 4 10 16 17 21 24 25 26 27 28 30 39 40 42 45 48 49 63 

Coulext 172 176 142 2527 2708 2727 3058 3055 3144 3120 8123 7434 3136 3137 1102 7690 7678 7691 9506 7679 7682 7416 

bone wl. 53 92 2 11 14 5 1 5 1 24 3 2 6 37 9 7 9 12 3 74 180 3 25 

bin ill IXIIIC I I + + + + * I- 

+ H + 1 + -I + + + + + 

cattle + + + + 

sheep H- + + + + + + + + + 

I'ig + + 

hare 

+ 

house mouse 

+ 

vole sp. 

+ 

cattle size + + + + + 

sheep size + + + + + + + + + 

mammal,in (let + + + + + + + + + + + I + f + + + + + + + 

chicken + + 

goose + + 

bird, indet. + + + + + 

frog/loail + + + + + + 

herring 2 2 2 1 2 

cod 1 

cod family 

mackerel 1 

flounder 

cf flatfish 1 

eel 1 1 1 1 

pike 

cyprinid 1 

iudet fish 6 4 3 II 1 4 1 8 2 4 43 1 

zcl)95 

1 

1 

2 

CJ 

So 

O 

g 

Uj 

U) 

Co 

Co 

k 

ft 

s 

to" 

3 

o 

R- £? 

3 

re 

fes 

Er 

S' 

re 

O 

S" 

>( 


Volume II 

species were recovered mainly from Phases III and IV. The majority of these were food species and 

included crane, swan, wild goose, grey heron, a number of wild duck species, curlew and woodcock. 

Finds of Jackdaw and Rock Dove suggest birds roosting and living around the towers and roofs of the 

friary, possibly also the Little Owl. The occurrence of goshawk suggests a bird from the mews but the 

kite will have been a scavenger of late and post-medieval Lincoln. A number of bird bones were not 

matched during the assessment but could be expected to be identified with further work. 

Although a number of fish bones were recovered during excavation (Table 3), and were dominated by 

the bones of gadids (cod family), this sample is probably heavily biased against the smaller species. 

The fish bones recovered from the samples that were processed (Table 5) show both a greater variety 

of species and a larger number of bones. Herring and eel occurred with the greatest frequency in the 

samples and, although one herring operculum was recovered during hand excavation, these species are 

so small that they are generally not recovered by hand excavation. Fish must have made a very much 

higher contribution to the dietary economy of the site than these few bones suggest. Their frequency in 

these few small soil samples indicates that they must have been present in the soil matrix of the 

excavated site in their tens of thousands. 

Apart from chasing a few of the unidentified bird bones no additional identification work is required 

on the collection. But for a full discussion of the relative importance of the different species during the 

occupation of the site further consideration of the fragmentation and the use of different relative 

quantification techniques would be needed. 

Patterns of bone distribution 

The representation of the different parts of the skeleton of the main domestic species was briefly 

considered within phase groupings. However these are very broad and as has been noted above the 

interest in this aspect of the study is primarily concerned with the recognition of different activities 

taking place across the site. Consideration of the frequency of different parts of the skeleton is 

therefore best addressed at the level of large contexts, stratigraphic context groups and individual 

areas, such as the supposed kitchen structure in Area 2. This has not been attempted during the 

assessment and is clearly only feasible for Phases III and IV, and one or two of the largest contexts and 

context groups. Areas 2, 7 and the Remediation Trench offer the best site areas for consideration of 

patterns that might relate to butchery, skinning, craft use or purely domestic discard after consumption. 

It will be necessary to conduct a fragmentation analysis before considering this aspect of the study in 

detail since it is clear from Table 6, which shows the frequency of measured bones, that humeri and 

tibiae of sheep occur in a measurable state with much greater frequency than the other bones. The 

distal ends of these bones are relatively robust and their frequency in the deposits may be related to 

post-depositional taphonomic processes rather than the specific actions of the human occupants of the 

site. 

Animal husbandry 

The data relating to the age at death, size and sex ratio of the animals making up these assemblages has 

been collected but has not been analysed. While the sizes of the sample clearly indicate that good 

estimates of the age structure of the cattle, sheep and pig should be possible for the friary and post- 

Dissolution phases at the site this is more problematic for the earlier phases. Little time depth can 

therefore be expected although it would be interesting to consider whether the economics of the 

animals supplying the friary and, presumably, those supplying the urban population that followed are 

different. Juvenile cattle and adult and elderly beasts are present in the assemblages. For the sheep, 

initial study of the mandibular dentition suggests that there may be a change between the friary and 

post-Dissolution phases. Lambs and elderly sheep are present in the early phases, but a higher 

percentage of the mandibles in the later phases are adult. The majority of the pig jaws indicate that, as 

usual in urban deposits, the animals were largely juvenile and immature, only one mandibular molar 3 

indicating an adult animal. 

60


Volume II 

During the identification and cataloguing of the bone, measurements were recorded on all bone 

fragments (see full archive report, Appendix 3) where two or more of the measurements listed by von 

den Driesch (1976) could be taken. These measurements enable the consideration of the frequency of 

the different sexes in the samples and any changes in stock type and size during the history of the site. 

Table 6 shows the frequency of measured bones of the main domestic species. Sufficient bones of 

cattle and sheep were measured for these data to contribute to the analysis and interpretation of the 

collection. These data can be compared with that published by Dobney et al (1996) and any changes in 

stock size across the history of the site may be recognisable. For the other species the data sets are too 

small although analysis of the chicken and goose measurements may illustrate changes in animal size. 

Table 6: Number of measured bones of each of the major species in the whole collection. 

name horse cattle sheep/ sheep P'g chicken goose duck mallard 

goat 

horn core 1 

skull 1 

mandible 3 10 

coracoid 8 3 

scapula 13 31 5 1 

humerus 1 17 93 8 18 6 

radius 1 12 57 12 2 1 1 

ulna 1 17 14 4 2 1 

matacarpus 42 8 26 5 10 2 2 

matacarpus 3 2 

metacarpus 4 4 

metacarpus 5 1 

phalanx 1 2 

1st wing 

3 

phalanx 

femur 11 4 17 5 

patella 3 

tibia 17 71 3 20 10 

lateral 

1 

malleolus 

astragalus 1 21 9 

calcaneum 7 12 

centroquartal 11 1 

metatarsus 36 11 32 27 1 

metatarsus 4 1 

4.0 Recommendations 

The archive catalogue as it stands is sufficient for a full post-excavation analysis of the animal bone 

assemblages from the site. Apart from the possible identification a few bird bird bones that were not 

taken to species during this assessment no further identification is needed. 

A number of areas need further analysis, but prior to this a slightly tighter phasing framework and 

more detailed assessment of the level of residual pottery in the contexts is required. Apart from one or 

two earlier features the only phases at the site that warrant any detailed further work are Phases III and 

IV. The data should allow us to consider general patterns of disposal across the site in Phases III and 

IV, and permit an analysis of the slaughter pattern of the main domesticates in these two phases. The 

61


Volume II 

pattern of the friary assemblages in comparison with those of the post-Dissolution phases and previous 

contemporary faunal samples from Lincoln (Dobney etal 1996; O'Connor 1979) needs study. 

5.0 Acknowledgements 

I should like to thank Alison Locker for identifying the fish bones from the site. I am grateful to the 

Bird Section, Natural History Museum for access to the bird osteological reference collection at Tring. 

* Contexts assigned to sub-phase Ilia at the time of writing this report are now allocated to Phase III. 


Dobney, K, Jacques, D, and Irving, B, 1996 Of Butchers and Breeds 

Grant, A, 1982 The use of tooth wear as a guide to the age of domestic ungulates, in Wilson, B, 

Grigson, C, and Payne, S (eds), Ageing and Sexing animal bones from archaeological sites, BAR Brit 

Ser, 109, 91-107 

O'Connor, T P, 1982 Animal Bones from Flaxengate, Lincoln c 870-1500, The Archaeology Of 

Lincoln, 18/1 

, 1991 The Animal Bone, in Stacker, D, St Mary's Guildhall, Lincoln, The 

Archaeology of Lincoln, 12/1, 88-91 

Payne, S, 1975 Partial recovery and sample bias, in Clason, A T (edj, Archaeozoological Stud, 7-17 

Rackham, D J, 1986 Assessing the relative frequencies of species by the application of a stochastic 

model to a zooarchaeological database, in Wijngaarden-Bakker, L H (edj, Database Management and 

Zooarchaeology, PACT, 14, 185-192 

von den Driesch, A, 1976 A Guide to the measurement of animal bones from archaeological sites, 

Peabody Mus Bull, 1 

Watson, J P N, 1979 The estimation of the relative frequency of mammalian species: Khirokitia 1972, 

J Archaeol Sci, 6, 127-137 

62


Volume II 


by Val Fryer and Peter Murphy 

(Centre of East Anglian Studies, University of East Anglia, Norwich) 

Twenty-five samples were submitted for assessment: four from zea95 (samples 1, 2, 8 and 10) and 

twenty-one from zeb95. The contexts sampled were all from Phases II (ZEA95 samples 1, 2, 8 and 10 

plus ZEB95 samples 21, 23, 25, 26, 36, 39, 40, 42 ,45, 48, 49 and 63), III (ZEB95 2 ,4, 10, 16, 17, 24 

and 30) and IV (ZEB95 27 and 28), that is from the Late Saxon to Post-Dissolution periods. They 

included layers and other occupation deposits, possible 'dark earth' deposits, an ash layer and possible 

hearth, and the fills of ditches, pits (including stone lined pits), culverts and garderobes. 

The following report is based on dating supplied, although some dating may be subject to alteration 

after a review of the pottery. 

2.0 Methods 

The samples were processed by manual water flotation/washover, collecting the flots in a 500 micron 

mesh sieve. The dried flots were scanned under a binocular microscope at low power and the 

macrofossils and other remains noted are listed in Tables 1 - 7. Sample ZEB95 36 proved to be of 

particular significance both to the site and to a wider understanding of malting in the Late Saxon 

period. This sample was therefore fully analysed to better enable comparison with existing data. The 

results of this analysis appear in Table 8. In the tables, the samples from possible 'dark earth' deposits 

of Late Roman to Late Saxon date have been placed with the Phase II material although these samples 

were not phased at the time of writing. Plant macrofossils were predominantly preserved by charring 

but mineral-replaced and possible waterlogged specimens were also noted. Modern contaminants were 

rare and included fibrous roots, seeds/fruits, arthropods, fungal sclerotia and cereal chaff. The nonfloating 

residues were collected in a 2mm mesh sieve and dried. 

3.0 Plant Macrofossils 

Cereals and other food plants 

Cereal grains and/or chaff were present at varying densities in all but sample ZEB95 16. Preservation 

was moderate to good. Seeds of Pisum sativum (pea), Vicia faba (field bean), Linum usitatissimum 

(flax) and rare fruitstone fragments were also noted. Cereals and other food plants were particularly 

abundant in Phase II samples. Avena sp. (oat), including A. sativa (cultivated oat) and A. fatua (wild 

oat), and Hordeum sp. (barley), including asymmetrical lateral grains of H. vulgare (six rowed barley), 

were predominant, but grains and/or chaff of Secale cereale (rye) and Triticum aestivum/compactum 

(bread wheat) type were also present. Germinated oat and barley grains were common. A single glume 

base of T. spelta (spelt wheat) is perhaps residual from nearby Roman deposits. Cereals, pulses and 

flax were still present in Phase III deposits but at a greatly reduced density. The Phase IV samples 

contained no oats, pulses or flax, but did have an increased density of rye. 

Wild flora 

Seeds/fruits of common weed species were present at varying densities in all but sample ZEB95 16. 

The assemblages from Phase II samples were particularly rich and included Agrostemma githago (corn 

cockle), Anthemis cotula (stinking mayweed), Anthriscus sylvestris (cow parsley), Atriplex sp (orache), 

63


Volume II 

Brassica sp. (cabbage/turnip/swede), Bromus sp. (brome), Chenopodium album (fat-hen), Conium 

maculatum (hemlock), Fallopia convolvulus (black bindweed), Galium aparine (goosegrass), 

Hyoscyamus niger (henbane), Lapsana communis (nipple wort), Lamium sp. (dead-nettle), Malva sp. 

(mallow), Papaver sp. (poppy), Persicaria maculosa/lapathifolia (persicaria/pale persicaria), Plantago 

lanceolata (ribwort plantain), Polygonum aviculare (knotgrass), indeterminate grasses, Ranunculus 

acris /repens /bulbosus (meadow /creeping/bulbous buttercup), Raphanus raphanistrum (wild radish), 

Rumex sp. (dock), Spergula arvensis (corn spurrey), Silene sp. (campion), Urtica sp (nettle), 

Vicia/Lathyrus sp. (vetch/vetchling) and Viola sp. (pansy). Wetland /aquatic species were also noted 

from the ditch deposits and included Alisma plantago-aquatica (water-plantain), Carex sp. (sedge), 

Cladium mariscus (saw-sedge), Eleocharis sp. (spike-rush), Lemna sp. (duckweed), Menyanthes 

trifoliata (bog bean) and Montia fontana (blinks). Nutshell fragments of Corylus avellana (hazel) and 

seeds of Rub us sp. (bramble) and Sambucus nigra (elderberry) were also present. 

The assemblages from the Phase III deposits were less species rich but still contained weed species, 

wetland/aquatic species and tree/shrub species. Additional taxa included Chelidonium majus (greater 

celandine), Euphorbia helioscopia (sun-spurge), Medicago/Trifolium/Lotus sp. (medick/clover/trefoil), 

Ranunculus flammula (lesser spearwort) and Solanum nigrum (black nightshade). The Phase IV 

assemblages were sparse. Seeds of Anisantha sterilis (barren brome) were noted in sample ZEB95 27. 

Other plant macrofossils 

Charcoal fragments were noted at varying densities in all samples. Charred, mineral-replaced and 

waterlogged root/rhizome/stem fragments were also present. Stem, floret/capsule and leaf fragments of 

an indeterminate Ericaceae (heath) and pinnule fragments of Pteridium aquilinum (bracken) were 

common and were probably imported on to the site as litter, bedding or fuel. Fragments of 

indeterminate buds, culm nodes, inflorescence, seeds and thorns were also recovered. 

4.0 Other materials 

Mollusc shells 

Mollusc shells, including rare burnt specimens, were noted in sixteen samples at varying densities. 

Land and freshwater species were both present. Freshwater species were only present in the Phase II 

ditch deposits and included Anisus leucostoma, Armiger crista, Bathyomphalus contortus, Bithynia 

sp., Pisidium sp., Planorbis sp. and Valvata cristata. The land snails present fell into three of Evans' 

(1972) classes, that is woodland/shade loving species (Discus rotundatus, Vitrea sp. and Zonitidae 

indet.), open country species (Helicella itala, Pupilla muscorum, Vallonia costata, V. excentrica, V. 

pulchella) and catholic/synanthropic species ( Cochlicopa sp., Helix sp. and Trichia hispida group). 

Shells of Cecilioides acicula were noted in Phase III deposits but as this is a burrowing species they 

may be modern contaminants. 

Other animal macrofossils 

Bone fragments, fish and small mammal/amphibian bones, eggshell, mineral replaced arthropods and 

mineralised/faecal concretions were present throughout. 

Protist microfossils 

These samples were not processed with retrieval of microfossils in mind, but large foraminifers (>500 

microns) were noted in a few Phase II contexts. These tests suggest some marine influence at the site, 

though not necessarily more than exceptional storm surges. 

64


Volume II 

Other material 

Other materials were noted at varying densities throughout and included black porous 'cokey' material, 

black tarry material and siliceous globules, (which are all possibly the residues of the combustion of 

organic materials at very high temperatures), burnt or fired clay, burnt stone, glass fragments, metallic 

globules, slag and small coal fragments. 

5.0 Discussion 

The Phase II assemblages appear to indicate that a major activity on, or adjacent to, the site in this 

period was the processing of cereals and particularly the malting of oats and barley. Sample ZEB95 36 

contained a high density of oat and barley grains, including clearly germinated examples, and detached 

'sprouts' (see Table 8 where only complete grains or embryo ends are quantified). The sample 

included grains with characteristic rounded broken surfaces showing that the material had become 

charred after 'gristing' or rough grinding of grains. Samples ZEB95 39, 40, 48 and 49 had similar 

assemblages with a high grain to chaff/weed seed ratio and evidence of sprouted grains although 

gristed grains were not apparent during scanning. 

Similar assemblages composed of charred barley and oat malt grist have come from a late 1 lth-century 

cellared building at the Buttermarket, Ipswich (Murphy 1991), and charred batches of malted barley 

and oat grains have also been recovered from pre-Conquest contexts at Castle Mall, Norwich (Murphy, 

in prep.). Evidently, both cereals were used for malting in Eastern England during the Late Saxon 

period, but malting kilns of 14th-century and later date have produced only barley malt (Murphy 1985, 

1995). The reasons for this apparent change are not at present clear. 

The Phase II ditch samples (ZEA95 1, 2, 8 and 10), particularly samples 8 and 10, produced 

assemblages which contained both wetland/aquatic plant macrofossils and shells of freshwater obligate 

molluscs. The ditches were probably permanently wet, though some of the mollusc shells could be 

allochthonous, relating to river flooding. Foraminifera imply some marine influence. 

The low density of material in the remaining Phase II samples precludes the identification of further 

activities on the site during this period and, with the exception of sample ZEB95 26 which appears to 

contain possible sewage residues, the assemblages are probably derived from a low density scatter of 

domestic, dietary and other refuse. 

The Phase III samples contained low densities of plant macrofossils and appear to give little insight 

into activities contemporary with the use of the friary with the possible exception of industrial 

activities, the residues of which (burnt/fired clay, metallic globules, possible slag and small coal 

fragments) are notably more common in Phase III deposits. Sample ZEB95 2 from the fill of a stone 

drain/culvert included a very low density of charred cereals. Sample ZEB95 30 and possibly samples 

ZEB95 4 and 17, appeared to contain dietary residues (bone fragments, eggshell and fish bone as well 

as cereals, peas, flax seeds and possible fruit stone fragments), possibly derived from sewage deposits. 

The molluscan remains indicate that the features on site at this period were largely open with some 

shaded elements. 

The Phase IV samples both came from the fill of stone-lined pit cg463 (3027). The assemblages 

indicate that this was probably a refuse or cesspit, faecal concretions being abundant in sample ZEB95 

28. The mollusc assemblages were too small to add further to this interpretation. 

6.0 Conclusion 

One activity represented in the Late Saxon pre-friary deposits was the processing and malting of 

cereals, principally oats and barley. No samples predominantly composed of charred chaff or weed 

65


Volume II 

seeds were noted, and the high grain to chaff/weed seed ratio suggests that cleaned prime grain (with 

some residual contaminants) was being imported to the site for malting. At Alms Lane, Norwich, the 

archaeobotanical evidence for malting provided a basis for interpreting structural features (ovens, clay 

floors, pits etc.) in terms of the malting and brewing process (Atkin 1985, 256), and it would be worth 

considering the structural evidence from St. Mark's in this light. 

The presence of seeds of Anthemis cotula suggests that heavy clay soils were being used for cereal 

production and the abundance of heather and bracken fragments indicates that heathland habitats were 

also being utilised. 

Cereals were much less common in samples relating to friary and post-friary periods although this may 

be a result of the limited number of contexts sampled rather than an accurate reflection of the site. 

Residues of probable industrial activities similar to those seen at, for example, Greyfriars, Norwich 

(Emery, forthcoming) were noted at a low density in the Phase III deposits. As only one context of 

post-friary date was sampled, little can be said about this period of the site. 


Atkin, M, 1985 Excavations on Alms Lane (Site 302N), in Atkin, M, Carter, A, and Evans, D H, 

Excavations in Norwich 1971-1978, Part II, East Anglian Archaeol, 26, 144-257. 

Emery, P (forthcoming), Excavations at Greyfriars, Norwich, East Anglian Archaeol 

Evans, J G, 1972 Land Snails in Archaeology 

Murphy, P, 1985 The plant remains, in Atkin 1985, 228-34 

, 1991 Ipswich, Suffolk: plant macrofossils from sites IAS 3104 (Buttermarket), IAS 3201 

(ABC Cinema) and IAS 5203 (Greyfriars Road), Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report, 33/91 

, 1995 Plant macrofossils, in Andrews, P, Excavations at Redcastle Furze, Thetford, 1988- 

89, East Anglian Archaeol, 72, 131-5. 

Kev to Tables 1-8 

X = 0-10 specimens 

XX = 10 - 100 specimens 

XXX = 100+ specimens 

b = burnt 

coty = cotyledons 

fgs = fragments 

m = mineral replaced 

P = present 

sil = siliqua fragment 

ss = sub-sample 

tf = testa fragment 

w = waterlogged 

66


Volume II 

Table 1: Macrobotanical and other remains from Phase II contexts. 

Sample No. 1 2 8 10 

Context No. 175 172 176 142 

Cereals and other food plants 

Avena sp. (grains) XX X X 

(awn) X 

Cereal indet. (grains) XX X 

Large Fabaceae indet. X 

Hordeum sp. (grains) X X 

(rachis nodes) xcf 

Triticum sp. (grains) X X 

T. spelta L. (glume base) X 

: 

Herbs 

. : 

Anthemis cotuia L. XX 

¥ - V; - 

Anthriscus sylvestris (L.)Hoffm. xcf 

Apiaceae indet. X 

Asteraceae indet. x xm 

Atrip lex sp. xcf 

Brassicaceae indet. X 

Bromus sp. X X 

Chenopodium album L. X 

Chenopodiaceae indet. X 

Fabaceae inet. xcoty m 

Galium sp. X 

Lamium sp. xm 

Papaver sp. xcf 

Poaceae indet. xcf 

Large Poaceae indet. X x 

Polygonum aviculare L. X 

Polygonaceae indet. xw X 

Ranunculaceae indet. xcf 

Vicia/Lathyrus sp. X xcoty 

Wetland/aquatic plants lllllltev^ : . 

Alisma plantago-aquatica L. xw 

Carex sp. X X XX 

Cladium mariscus (L.)Pohl XX 

Eleocharis sp. X XX 

Lemna sp. xm xxm 

Menyanthes trifoliata L. xcf 

Montia fontana L. X 

Trees/shrubs jfllillfeilj|lsls " 'l • 

Corylus avellana L. X 

Rubus sp. X 

~ - - - t 

* , x ^ '• -i" X , ~ 

Sambucus nigra L. xm xm 

67


Volume II 

Table I: Macrobotanical and other remains from Phase II contexts. 

Other plantmacrofossils 

Charcoal 2mm 

Charred root/rhizome/stem 

Mineral replaced root/rhizome/stem 

XXX 

XXX 

XX 

XXX 

XX 

XXX 

X 

XXX 

X 

XX 

X 

XX 

X 

XX 

. 

* 

- 

. 

Waterlogged root/rhizome/stem X 

Characeae indet. 

Ericaceae indet. (stem) 

(floret) 

X 

X 

XX 

XX 

X 

XX X 

(leaves) X 

Mineral replaced root channels X 

Pteridium aquilinum (L.)Kuhn 

Indet. buds 

Indet. culm nodes 

xcf 

x 

x 

X 

XX 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Indet. inflorescence frags. X X 

Indet. seeds 

Animal macro fossils 

x 

Bone x bx x bx X 

Eggshell X 

Fish bone 

Mineralised/faecal concretions 

X XX X 

X 

X 

Mineral replaced arthropods X 

Waterlogged arthropods X 

Small mammal/amphibian bones X X X 

Protist microfossils 

Foraminifera 


X X 

. : ~ ~ ~ „ ~I •> V" - 

Black porous 'cokey' material X X X X 

Black tarry material X 

Burnt/fired clay X X 

Siliceous globules X X X 

Soil concretions XXX 

Vitreous material 

Sample volume (lit.) 

Volume of flot (lit.) 

% flot sorted 

X 

7 

0.3 

50% 

7ss 

0.6 

12.50% 

5.5 

0.2 

100% 

6 

0.7 

12.50% 

68

im 

CT\ 


Sample No. 21 23 25 26 36 39 40 42 45 48 49 63 

Context No. 

Ct-ii-als ami oilier food plants ;S' 

3144 8119 8123 7434 7420 7690 7678 7691 9506 7679 7682 7416 

A vena sp. (grains) X XX XXX XXX XXX XX X XXX XX X 

(sprouted grains) X 

(awn) X X X X X 

A. falua L. (floret bases) X 

A. saliva L. (floret bases) XX X X xcf 

Cereal indet. (grains) XX X X X XX XX X X X X XX X 

(sprout frags.) X XX X X X XX 

(detached embryos) X X X X 

(basal racliis nodes) X 

Large Fabaeeae indet. xcfcoty 

Hordeum sp. (grains) X X X XXX XX xcf X X XX XX xcf 

(sprouted grains) X X XX 

(racliis nodes) X xcf 

II. vulgarc L. (grains) xxcf X X X 

Linum Lisitatissimuin L. X X 

Pisum sativum L. xcf xcf 

Secale ccrealc L. (grains) xcf 

Secale cerale/IIordeum sp. (raeliis nodes) X x 

Triticum sp. (grains) X X X X X X X X 

T. aeslivum/compaetum (racliis nodes) X X X 

Vicia faba L. 

lie) !>>> 

xcf coty 

Agrosteinma gilliago L. xcf xm 

Antlicinis cotula L. X XX X X X xcf 

Apiaceae indet. X 

Asteraceae indet. X 

Atriplex sp. X X 

Urassiea sp. 

X 

a 

cs 

o 

I 

a 

o 

re 

5" 

OQ 

s 

a 

< 

oq 

R


lironius sp. X xcf XX X X X x 

Clienopodiuiii album L. X X X X 

Chenopodiaccae indct. X X X X X X 

Caryophyllaccae indct. X 

Conium macuiatuin L. xcf 

Fallopia convolvulus( L) A. Love. X xcf 

Galium sp. X 

G. apai inc L. X X X 

Hyoscyamus niger L. xcf 

Lapsana communis L. X 

Malva sp. X 

IMantago lanceolata L. X 

Poaceae indcl. xcf 

Large Poaccae indct. X X X 

Pcrsicaria maculosa/lapathifolia xcf 

Polygonum aviculare L. X 

Polygonaceae indct. X X 

Ranunculus sp. X 

It. acris/repens/bulbosus X 

Kanunculaccac indet. X 

Raphanus raplianistrum L. xsil 

Rumcv sp. X X x xcf xcf 

Ruincx/Carex sp. X 

Silcne sp. X 

Spcrgula arvensis L. X X 

Solanum nigrum L. X 

llrtica sp. xcfm 

Vicia/Latliyrus sp. xcf xcoty xcoty 

Viola sp. 

Wcllaud/iiqualic (lUinls 

Carex sp. X X X 

xcf 

II 

C! 

>3 

O 

£ 

Uj 

Oo 

a- 

as 

o 

I 

CXs 

o 

£ 

8 

as 

OQ 

R ^ 

5' 

a 

to

Table 2 : Macrobolanical and other remains from Phase II contexts. 

Oliiilium mariscus (L.) l'olil X X X 

Elcocharis sp. X 

Montia lonlana L. X 

Tri-tsMirulisi 

Corylus avcllana L. X X X 

Olht r plant tmHrolosMLs 

Charcoal 2min XX XX XX X XX X XX 

Charred root/rhizome/stem XX X X XX X XXX XX X XX XX X XX 

Mineral replaced rool/rhizoinc/stcni X 

Ericaceae indel. (stem) X X XXX X xcf X X XX XX 

(lloret) X X X X 

(leaves) X 

Indet. buds X X X 

lndel. culm nodes X X X X X 

Indct. inflorescence frags. X XXX XX X X X 

Indel. seeds X X X 

Indet. thorns X X 

Animal matrulo-SMK 

Bone X X x bx X X X X 

Eggshell X 

Fish hone X X X XX X X X X XX 

Mineralised/faecal concretions XX 

Mineral replaced arthropods X X 

Small mammal/amphibian bones X X 

IVtilitt muTolWsils 

Foraminifera X 


Black porous 'cokey material X X XX X x X X X 

Black tarry material X X X 

Burnt organic concretions 

X 

D 

>3 

© 

& 

Co 

s? 

I 

3- 

^ r 

3 3 

re re 

S 

o 

0 

5" 

1 

| 5 

re 

o 

C§ 

8 

a 

< 

a. 

I 

©

Table 2: Macrobotanica! and other remains from Phase II contexts. 

liurnt slunc 

Glass 

Metallic globules X X 

Siliceous globules X X XX XXX XXX XXX XXX XX XXX XX X 

Small coal frags. X 

Vitreous material X X 

Sample volume (lit.) 5.5 2 2.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 3.5 6 6.5 4 7ss 

Volume of Hot (lit.) 0.2


Volume II 

Table 3: Macrobotanical and other remains from Phase III contexts. 

Avena sp. (grains) 

Cereal indet. (grains) 

(sprout frags.) 

Hordeum sp.(grains) 

Large Fabaceae indet. xcoty 

Linum usitatissimum L. 

Pisum sativum L. 

Prunus sp. (fruit stone frag.) 

Triticum sp. (grains) 

Bromus sp. 

Chelidonium majus L. 

Chenopodium album L. 

Chenopodiaceae indet. 

Euphorbia helioscopia L. 

Fabaceae indet. 

Galium sp. 

Lamiaceae indet. 

Medicago/Trifolium/Lotus sp. 

Poaceae indet. 

Large Poaceae indet. 

Polvgonaceae indet. 

Ranunculus acris/repens/bulbosus 

Rumex sp. 

Rumex/Carex sp. 

Solanum sp. 

S. nigrum L. 

Urtica sp. 

Vicia/Lathyrus sp. 

Wetland/aquatic plants 

Alisma plantago-aquatica L. 

Carex sp. 

Cladium mariscus (L.)Pohl 

Ranunculus flammula L. 

Trees/shrubs t® 

Corylus avellana L. 

Rubus sect. Glandulosus 

x xm 

xm 

xm 

xcf 

xm 

xcf 

Ifi 

xm 

xcftn 

xm 

xm 

xm 

xm 

RIP 

xm 

xcoty 

xcf 

£ yS'x'k * - ; 

Wimmer&Grab 

Sambucus nisra L. xm 

Other plant macrofossils 1 mmm f mm 

Charcoal 2mm xx 

Charred root/rhizome/stem 

Ericaceae indet (stem) 

Indet. buds 

Indet. culm nodes 

73

- 


Volume 11 

Table 3: Macrobotanical and other remains from Phase III contexts. 

Indet. inflorescence frags. X 

Indet. seeds xm X 

Bone X X X xb X x bx X 

Eggshell X X X X 

Fish bone X XXX X X X X XX 

Mineral replaced arthropods X X X 

Mineralised/faecal concretions X X XX 

Small mammal/amphibian bone X X X X 

N • ' 

• 

Black porous 'cokey' material XX XXX XX XX XX XXX X 

Black tarry droplets X X X XX 

Burnt/fired clay XXX XXX XX 

Metallic globules X X X X 

Siliceous globules X 

Slag xcf xcf xcf xcf xcf 

Small coal fraas. XX XXX XX XXX xx XX X 

Vitrified material X 

Sample voiume (lit.) 6.5 4ss 5ss 2 3.5 2.5 5 

Volume of flot (lit.) 0.1


Volume II 

Table 4: Macrobotanical and other remains from Phase IV contexts. 

Ericaceae indet. (stem) X XX 

(floret) X 

Indet. buds X X 

Indet. culm nodes X X 

Indet. seeds x mx 

Animal macrofossils 

Bone xx bx X 

Eggshell X X 

Fish bone XX XX 

iMineral replaced arthropods X X 

Mineralised/faecal concretions X XXX 

Small mammal/amphibian bone X XX 

Other material T 'r ' ."*•" - - ' 

Black porous 'cokey' material X X 

Small coal frags. X X 

Sample volume (lit.) 4 4 

Volume of flot (lit.) 0.2 0.2 

% flot sorted 50% 100% 

Table 5: Molluscan remains from Phase II contexts. 

Sample No. 1 2 8 10 39 49 63 

Context No. 175 172 176 142 7690 7682 7416 

"Woodland/shade loving species - 

Zonitidae indet. X 

Open country species 

- 

Helicidae indet. X 

Vallonia sp. X 

Catholic species 

Trichia hispida group X 

Freshwater species : . 

Anisus leucostoma X X 

Armiger crista xb xcf X 

Bathyomphalus contortus x X 

Bithynia sp. XX x xb 

Bithynia sp. (opercula) XX 

Planorbis sp. xb XX X 

Pisidium sp. X XX 

Valvata sp. X X 

V. cristata X 

Sample volume (lit.) 7 7ss 5.5 6 5 4 7ss 

Volume of flot (lit.) 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.2 

% flot sorted 50% 12.50 

% 

100% 12.50% 50% 50% 50% 

75


Volume II 

Table 6: Molluscan remains from Phase III contexts. 

Sample No. 2 4 10 16 17 24 30 

Context No. 2527 2708 2727 3058 3055 3120 1102 

Woodland/shade loving species . ^ §|jjj|j|jjjl|| ^iSllilllii^ 

Discus rotundatus X X X XX X 

Vitrea sp. X 

Zonitidae indet. X X X X X 

Open country species ilSiPiitSiiiite 

Helicella itala X X X 

Helicidae indet. X 

Pupilla muscorum X X 

Vallonia sp. X X XX 

V. costata X X X 

V. excentrica xcf X 

V. pulchella X 

Catholic species 

Cochlicopa sp. X X X 

Helix sp. X 

Trichia hispida group X X X XX X 

Other 

Cecilioides acicula p p P p p p 

Sample volume (lit.) 6.5 4ss 5ss 2 3.5 2.5 5 

Volume of flot (lit.) 0.1


Volume II 

Table 8: Quantitative analysis of sample 36, Phase II. 

Sample No. 36 

Context No. 7420 

. : . , : 

A vena sp. (grains) 455 

(grains with embryo ends missing) XXX 

(possible 'gristed' grains) 12 

(awn) 2 

(floret bases) 13 +2cf 

A. fatua L. (floret bases) 2cf 

A. sativa L. (floret bases) 65 

Cereal indet. (grains) 34 

(sprout frags.) 46 

(detached embryos) 13 

(rachis node) 1 

Hordeum sp. (grains) 131 

(grains with embryo ends missing) XX 

(possible 'gristed' grains) 13 

H. vulgare L. (grains) 13 

Linum usitatissimum L. lcf 

Secale cereale L. (grains) lcf 

Triticum sp. (grains) 9 

Her os !i|!jl!!f!jBi|llll|«SiSSi : 

Agrostemma githago L. 1 

Anthemis cotula L. 16 

Atrip lex sp. 2cf 

Brassica sp. 1 

Bromus sp. 40+14fgs 

Chenopodium album L. 1 

Chenopodiaceae indet. j 

Fallopia convolvulus (L.)A.Love 1+ltf 

Plantago lanceolata L. 2 

Small Poaceae indet. 1 

Scrophulariaceae indet. 1 

Spergula arvensis L. 1+lcf 

Vicia/Lathyrus sp. lcoty 

Other plant macrofossils 

Charcoal


Volume II 

9: SOILS MICROMORPEK 

by Richard I Macphail, BSc., MSc., PhD., (Institute of Archaeology, UCL) 

and 

Gill M Cruise, BSc., PhD., (Dept. of Geography, London Guildhall University) 


A field visit was made to St. Mark's, Lincoln, on the 12th of February 1996. The site was examined 

and sampled in the company of Russell Trimble (site director, City of Lincoln Archaeology Unit). 

Previously the site had been discussed by telephone with James Rackham, who considered that he had 

recognised floor levels at the site. He believed that previous interpretations of such stratigraphy could 

be improved upon by a specialist soil micromorphological approach (Courty et al 1989). 

2.0 Methods 

Three areas were examined and described in the field and seven monolith samples were collected 

(Table 1). In addition, 50cm long monoliths previously sampled from the South Platform Trench 

(SPT1 and SPT2) by Russell Trimble were also collected after discussions with him and the Unit (M. 

Jones, Unit Director, J. Hockley, and A. Vince). 

Monoliths were unwrapped in the laboratory, and small samples were scanned in water under the 

microscope to check and further detail the field evaluation. This procedure, for example, enabled the 

clear identification of ashes (using polarising microscopy) and allowed the noting of the presence of 

microfossils such as phytoliths, diatoms and pollen-like material. 

3.0 Results 

Introduction 

It is apparent that a remarkable sequence spanning the Roman to medieval periods has been preserved 

in the two areas (at least some 50 metres apart) being evaluated at St. Mark's. It appears that a possibly 

extensive series of Late Saxon floors and occupation levels are exceptionally well-preserved at the site. 

These appear to overlay post-Roman 'dark earth' and underlay Late Saxon 'dark earth' deposits. The 

remarkable preservation here suggests enormous potential not only for detailed study of the Late 

Saxon occupation but also for elucidating the periods covered by the 'dark earth' deposits. Such 

seemingly undisturbed and well stratified sequences spanning these periods are only very rarely 

excavated because they were all too often subject to digging, cellaring, etc. in antiquity. Two examples 

of possibly similarly well preserved deposits have been found at Flaxengate, Lincoln (Perring 1981) 

and Guildhall Yard, London (Bateman 1994). Detailed study of the new findings at St. Mark's will 

enable comparison with those sites. 

Post-Roman "dark earth" 

All too often the top of the dark earth is not available for study due to it having been lost in antiquity or 

because it has been removed by machine excavation. The presence here of dark earth beneath a Saxon 

floor suggests that it has been well sealed and thus worthy of further study. 

At other sites where soil micromorphology of the dark earth has been studied from rare well sealed 

contexts (e.g. Pevensey Castle; Deansway, Worcester; Guildhall, London) there are distinct horizons 

that relate to dumping episodes, whereas others have become weathered during periods of probable 

78


Volume II 

zero accretion. It has also been suggested that Middle Saxon occupation stratigraphy also became 

biologically transformed into dark earth and was possibly used as agricultural land at some sites (e.g. 

Bruce House, London; Macphail and Cruise 1994). In addition soil micromorphology has been used to 

identify the parent materials of dark earth, such as the in situ weathered construction materials of 

decayed buildings (Courages, Southwark), midden dumps and sweepings (28 Park St., Southwark), 

cereal processing dumps (Scole, Norfolk) and burned residues from animal stabling (Deansway, 

Worcester; Macphail and Courty 1984; Macphail 1994). Spatial variations in dark earth at the small 

towns of Scole and Heybridge are under current investigation by the authors and their colleagues, and 

combine linked chemical analyses. 

Late Saxon floors and occupation levels 

These appear to comprise very well stratified layers of clay floors, humic materials, probable ashes, 

charcoal etc. and these underlay (SPT2) a sandy silt, humic soil. Microscopic examination of small 

amounts of soil placed on a glass slide, with distilled water and a cover slip placed over the top, has 

indicated that microfossils are likely to be recovered if chemical preparation procedures are undertaken 

in the future. Pollen-like material may be present in thin, between-floor humic layers and other humic 

deposits, while phytoiiths and diatoms are also present. The presence of diatoms might suggest that 

soil/plant materials from wet environments could have been imported onto the site as building 

materials, floor coverings, etc. 

A probable similar series of floors were exposed at Flaxengate, Lincoln, where they were broadly 

interpreted as being a series of burnt grassy floors sealed by layers of sand (Perring 1981). The last, it 

was assumed, may have been introduced to the site for the purpose of controlling fires. It was further 

suggested that loam dumps were laid, serving to level the site in advance of redevelopment. This 

seems, from the detailed evaluation of the St. Mark's stratigraphy and current knowledge, to be 

possibly an over-simplified understanding of what may have been rather complicated and interesting 

occupation levels. 

More recently, occupation surfaces of European caves and Middle Eastern tell sites have been 

subjected to detailed scrutiny through soil micromorphology Ge et al 1993) and these studies have 

enabled the authors to identify a number of specific features associated with the occupation of floors. 

Matthew's and Postgate's (1994) exhaustive investigation of floors in an early Mesopotamian city has 

revealed a plethora of information on building materials and technology, floor coverings, use of space 

within the urban area, dumps, etc. In the U.K. an ongoing combined soil micromorphological and 

palynological study of well stratified Norman occupation deposits at Guildhall, London, is making a 

major contribution to discussions on use of space, building materials, floor coverings and animal diet 

(Macphail and Cruise 1995). This work, for example, is linked to experimental research 

(micromorphology, palynology and chemistry) into house and stabling floors at Butser Ancient Farm 

(Macphail and Goldberg in press/1996) and turf roof weathering in Sweden (Cruise et al, in prep). 

The unique preservation of Late Saxon floor levels across the site at St. Mark's may provide a rich 

ground for the study of a number of important topics and questions: 

1) Constructional materials. What were the constructional materials and methods? Were they levelled 

or prepared surfaces? Were wet/fen resources used (e.g. fen carr silts, peat, reeds and rushes)? 

2) Stratigraphy. Is it possible to identify outside and inside surfaces and the possible uses of these 

spaces? 

3) Ashes. Do they relate to cereal waste processing/wood burning/industrial activity/building 

debris/burned dung? 

4) Between-floor humic bands and other humic soils. Do these contain microfossil evidence of the 

types of materials being used? Can these data contribute to discussions on the use of space/buildings? 

79


Volume II 

5) Hygiene. The presence/absence of phosphatic incrustations of floors may be looked for along with 

the occurrence of nematode eggs. 

4.0 Recommendations 

Because of the importance of the site and the preservation of the materials, it is recommended that the 

likely variation in materials can only be adequately studied by a detailed examination of sediments 

covering a reasonable sample of the wide range of contexts and materials on the site. It is 

recommended that 8 thin sections are made for soil micromorphological analysis and 16 samples 

should be examined for pollen content. The last will be subsampled from exactly the same locations as 

are to be studied in thin section, and potential results will, therefore, relate exactly to the materials and 

levels to be investigated using soil micromorphology. This is the best approach when dealing with 

stratified occupation deposits, because it may not only allow the identification of specific microsites 

where pollen is likely to be preserved, but also provide information on the pollen content of specific 

occupation deposits. A generalised understanding of the site from its pollen content, would be less 

useful in this context. Similarly, small buik samples will be taken for specific chemical tests to 

complement the soil micromorphology. 


Bateman, N, 1994 The London Amphitheatre, Current Archaeol, 12, 59-70 

Courty, M A, Goldberg, P, and Macphail, R I, 1989 Soils and Micromorphology in Archaeology 

Cruise, G M, Engelmark, R, and Linderholm, J (in prep.) An experimental turf roof: palynology, soil 

micromorphology and chemistry 

Ge, T, Courty, M A, Matthews, W, and Wattez, J, 1993 Sedimentary formation processes of 

occupation surfaces, in Goldberg, P, Nash, D T, & Petraglia, M D (eds), Formation Processes in 

Archaeological Context, Monog in World Archaeol, 17, 149-63 

Macphail, R I, 1994 The reworking of urban stratigraphy by human and natural processes, in Hall, R 

A, & Kenward, H K (eds), Urban-Rural Connexions: Perspectives from Environmental Archaeology, 

13-43 

Macphail, R I, and Courty, M A, 1984 Interpretation and significance of urban deposits, in Edgren, T 

& Junger, H (eds), Proceedings of the 3rd Nordic Conference on the Application of Scientific methods 

to Archaeology, 71-84 

Macphail, R I, and Cruise, G M, 1994 Assessment of the soils at Bruce House, Kemble St., London 

(BRU92), Unpublished report to MOLAS 

1995 Guildhall Yard East (GYE92): Brief Assessment of 

Microstratigraphy (Soil Micromorphology and Pollen), Unpublished report to MOLAS 

Macphail, R I, and Goldberg, P, 1996 (in press) Recent advances in micromorphological 

interpretations of soils and sediments from archaeological sites, in Barham, A J, & Macphail, R I, 

Archaeological Sediments and Soils: Analysis, Interpretation and Management 

Matthew, W, and Postgate, J N, 1994 The imprint of living in an early Mesopotamian city: questions 

and answers, in Luff, R& Rowly-Conwy, P (eds), Whither Environmental Archaeology?, 171-212 

Perring, D, 1981 "Early Medieval Occupation at Flaxengate Lincoln, Archaeology of Lincoln, 9/1 

80


Volume II 

Table I: St. Mark's, Lincoln - sample list. 

Sample No. Area & Stratigraphy Local Depth 

(cm) 

1 column sample Area A. 

0-15 0-2cm Brown (7.5YR5/4) 

Saxon floors above 

mixed post-Roman 

clay floor 

occupation deposits. 

2-7cm Finely layered 

reddish floors and humic 

brown layers. 

2 Area B. 

Saxon floors and ash 

layers. 

Field Description Comments 

7-11cm Dark erevish 

brown (10YR4/2) mixed 

ashes and charcoal layers. 

11-15cm Pale brown 

(10YR6/3) ashy deposits. 

34-42 34-37cm Verv dark arevish 

brown (10YR3/2) floors 

and humic layers. 

3 ii 24-33 

37-42cm Possiblv 

microlayered ashy deposits. 

Yellowish brown 

(10YR5/4) ash and stone 

layer. 

4 it 15-23 Very dark greyish brown 

(10YR3/2) faintly stratified 

ashes, charcoal and humic 

materials. 

5 column sample it 11-51 As for 2, 3 and 4. 

6 Area C. 

Beneath clay floor. 

7 Area C. 

Dark earth beneath clay 

floor 

SPT2 8143 Post-Saxon dark 

earth. 

8134 ?dump. 

8146-8154 late Saxon 

layers. 

8160? 

SPTI 8156 Medieval 

graveyard. 

8161 ? 

8143 Post-Saxon dark 

earth. 

8134 enigmatic. 

25-33 Very pale brown 

(10YR8/3) clay floor above 

reddish layer with charcoal. 

36-44 Black (10YR2/1) soil. 

0.52m- 

1.02m 

0.42m- 

0.92m 

81 

0.52-0.75m Verv dark 

greyish brown (2.5Y3/2 to 

10YR3/2) sandy, humic 

mixed soil. 

0.75-0.81m 10YR3/2") 

sandy, silty humic soil. 

0.81-0.85m Dark vellowish 

brown (10YR3/4) to dark 

greyish brown (10YR3/2) 

floors and humic layers. 


greyish brown (2.5YR3/2) 

sandy silty dump?. 


greyish brown (10YR3/2) 

humic sandy soil. 

0.56-0.73m Mixed deposit 

with charcoal, ashes, burnt 

building debris. 

0.73-0.92m Verv dark grey 

(10YR3/1) humic soil with 

bone layer at 0.80m. 

Colour and reaction to 

HC1 in the field and 

birefringence under 

the polarising 

microscope suggest 

presence of ashes. 

Possible fragments of 

Equisetum-like 

material. 

Diatoms and ashes 

present. 

Phytoliths, ashes and 

diatoms present. 

Diatoms and 

phytoliths present. 

Pollen-like material 

present. 

Possible pollen-like 

material and ashes 

present.

St.Mark's Station, High Street, Lincoln - Archaeology Data Service

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?