St.Mark's Station, High Street, Lincoln - Archaeology Data Service
St.Mark's Station, High Street, Lincoln - Archaeology Data Service
St.Mark's Station, High Street, Lincoln - Archaeology Data Service
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A Report to Simons Estates Ltd<br />
May 1998<br />
<strong>St</strong>.<strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong><br />
Archaeological Investigation<br />
Volume Two - Specialist Reports<br />
CLAU Archaeological<br />
Report No.: 338<br />
LINCOLN<br />
archaeology
I £ SM \Sfc7 ^<br />
Contents<br />
CLAU Report No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
ST. MARK'S STATION, HIGH STREET, LINCOLN<br />
1: Roman Pottery - Barbara Precious<br />
2: Post-Roman Pottery - Jane Young<br />
ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS<br />
VOLUME TWO: SPECIALIST REPORTS ... ...... - ., •<br />
3: Registered and Bulk Finds - Jenny Mann<br />
4: Architectural <strong>St</strong>one - Jeremy Ashbee<br />
5: Ceramic and Non-Ceramic Building Materials - Jenny Mann<br />
6: The Human Skeletal Remains - Lynda Isaac and Charlotte Roberts<br />
7: Animal Bone Assessment - James Rackham<br />
8: Plant Macro fossils and other Remains: An Assessment - Val Fryer and Peter Murphy<br />
9: Soils Micromorphology: Field Visit and Evaluation - Richard Macphail and Gill Cruise<br />
List of Figures (accompanying report on human skeletal remains)<br />
Fig. 1: Location map<br />
Fig. 2: Preservation of articulated skeletons<br />
Fig. 3: Percentage of postmortem damage and surface erosion<br />
Fig. 4: Demography of adult burials<br />
List of Plates (accompanying report on human skeletal remains)<br />
Plate 1 Skeleton 7506 - impacted maxillary canines 35<br />
Plate 2 Skeleton 7414 - sacral segments 36<br />
Plate 3 Skeleton 7414 - sacral neural arches 37<br />
Plate 4 Skeleton 7414 - bifurcated rib 37<br />
Plate 5 Skeleton 6552 - osteitis of the left tibia and fibula 40<br />
Plate 6 Skeleton 7322 - fractured ribs 40<br />
Plate 7 Skeleton 6474 - osteoarthritis of the left wrist 45<br />
Plate 8 Skeleton 6474 - osteoarthritis of the left wrist 45<br />
Plate 9 Skeleton 6560 - erosive arthropathies 47<br />
Plate 10: Skeleton 6560 - erosive arthropathy, detail<br />
47<br />
Page<br />
1<br />
6<br />
9<br />
15<br />
19<br />
21<br />
53<br />
63<br />
78<br />
22<br />
24<br />
24<br />
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CLAU Report No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
1.0 Introduction<br />
by Barbara Precious<br />
The Roman pottery has been recorded to basic archive standard according to the guidelines of the<br />
<strong>St</strong>udy Group for Roman pottery, and using the existing CLAU database system.<br />
Site zeb95 produced a large assemblage of Roman pottery: 2,569 sherds, of which 2,351 sherds have<br />
been phased, leaving 218 sherds unphased. Table 1 (below) shows that the majority of the assemblage<br />
came from Area 7, where two Roman buildings were located, and a further 665 sherds were extracted<br />
from site zea95 located in the western part of the excavated area. The areas adjacent to Area 7, Area 6<br />
and the Combined <strong>Service</strong>s Trench (CST), produced similar amounts of pottery, and the distribution is<br />
marginally less in Areas 8 and 8a. In Areas 2 and 3, located further west, and closer to the evaluation<br />
(zea95), the amount of pottery has clearly diminished. Overall, this may be an indication of the spread<br />
of Roman occupation, but could equally be a reflection of the extent and depth of the excavation<br />
trenches.<br />
Table 1: zeb95 - Distribution of Roman Pottery by Area as a Percentage of Sherd Count.<br />
2.0 Condition<br />
SHS % AGE AREA<br />
145 6.17% 2<br />
45 1.91% j<br />
243 10.34% 6<br />
1293 55.00% 7<br />
187 7.95% 8<br />
182 7.74% 8a<br />
256 10.89% CST<br />
2351 100.00% TOTAL<br />
665 100.00% zea95<br />
Contexts with fresh or quite fresh pottery are in the minority from site zea95. Most consisted of pottery<br />
with evidence of some abrasion and, to a lesser extent, heavy abrasion. Several contexts contained<br />
pottery with clearly visible root encrustation. An almost equal amount produced pottery with evidence<br />
of burning, some quite heavily burnt (context 212). Only one possible sherd-link was apparent at<br />
zea95, between contexts 101 and 104 which contained similar grey ware sherds.<br />
In contrast, zeb95 produced a higher proportion of contexts containing fresh or quite fresh sherds than<br />
with abraded pottery. Few contexts had pottery with root encrustation, but there were three with<br />
evidence of mortar attached to the pottery (7577, 18334 and 18523). Several contexts produced pottery<br />
that had been burnt, but fewer than zea95. Those that contained heavily burnt pottery were: 1004,<br />
6465, 7431, 18481 and 18552. Two contexts stand out from the rest of the assemblages: 7445, in Area<br />
7, Phase I - the post-Roman horizon, a very large group with several profiles and generally<br />
homogeneous in date, with late to very late 4th-century pottery; 9000, a medium sized group, with<br />
minimum abrasion and sherds of early black-burnished ware 1 (BB1) pottery, but unstratified and of<br />
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CLAU Report No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
the same date as that from 7445. Twenty-four contexts were either directly linked by joining sherds or<br />
contained similar sherds (see archive database for the joins and comments).<br />
Table 2: zeb95 - Distribution of Roman Pottery by Area Phase as a Percentage of Sherd Count.<br />
SHS % AGE AREA PHASE<br />
25 1.06% 2 -<br />
13 0.55% 2 II<br />
54 2.30% 2 III<br />
28 1.19% 2 IV<br />
25 1.06% 2 V<br />
2 0.08% j II<br />
30 1.28% 3 III<br />
12 0.51% 3 IV<br />
1 0.04% 3 V<br />
16 0.68% 6 -<br />
117 4.98% 6 Ill<br />
89 3.78% 6 IV<br />
21 0.89% 6 V<br />
1 0.04% 7 -<br />
791 33.64% 7 I<br />
284 12.08% 7 II<br />
192 8.17% 7 III<br />
8 0.34% 7 IV<br />
17 0.72% 7 V<br />
27 1.15% 8 III<br />
13 0.55% 8 Ilia*<br />
103 4.38% 8 IV<br />
32 1.36% 8 V<br />
12 0.51% 8 N/A<br />
7 0.30% 8a III<br />
106 4.51% 8a Ilia*<br />
55 2.34% 8a IV<br />
5 0.21% 8a V<br />
9 0.38% 8a N/A<br />
15 0.64% CST -<br />
J 0.13% CST II<br />
99 4.21% CST III<br />
42 1.79% CST IV<br />
97 4.12% CST V<br />
2351 100.00% TOTAL<br />
2
3.0 Dating<br />
CLAU Report No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
Only a third of the total Roman assemblage appears to have been stratified in Phase I Roman or<br />
immediate post-Roman abandonment deposits in Area 7 (see below, Table 2). Although clearly<br />
diminishing, there were moderate amounts of pottery from Area 7, Phases II and III. Apart from<br />
medium-sized assemblages in Area 6 - Phase III, Area 8 - Phase IV, Area 8a - Phase Ilia*, and the<br />
Combined <strong>Service</strong>s Trench - Phases III and V, the Roman pottery groups are negligible. In most areas<br />
the amounts appear to have diminished in the later deposits.<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
si a<br />
Fig. 1: Plotdate of the Roman Pottery from zea95 (percentage of sherds).<br />
Fig. 2: Plotdate of the Roman Pottery from zeb95 (percentage of sherds)<br />
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Volume II<br />
The Plotdate (Fig. 1) for the overall dating of the pottery assemblage for site zea95 shows that the site<br />
was probably first occupied during the 2nd century, but may not have been fully developed until the<br />
mid- to late 3rd century (although it is worth noting that earlier deposits were not excavated).<br />
Thereafter, wares dating from the mid- to late, and very late 4th century increase in proportion. A<br />
similar pattern is shown by the Plotdate for zeb95 (Fig 2). There is evidence from zeb95 of occupation<br />
by the mid-2nd century and, in common with zea95, an increase in pottery dating to the later 3rd<br />
century. The bulk of the material, however, consists of wares dating to the very late 4th century.<br />
These later assemblages, although dated by the latest sherds to the very late Roman period, include<br />
earlier wares, in some cases moderate amounts. The presence of Central Gaulish, fine samian tableware<br />
in some quantity together with black-burnished ware 1 (BB1) cooking pots suggests that the site was<br />
first occupied in the Antonine period and, although the samian could have continued in use beyond the<br />
date of production, the black-burnished ware is more likely to have been contemporary.<br />
Examination of the pottery from Area 7, the main area of Roman occupation, Phases I-III, reveals a<br />
pattern similar to the overall chronology (see below, Tables 3-5). The bulk of the material from Phase I<br />
is dated by the pottery to the very late 4th century. Phase II differs in that there appears to be more<br />
pottery dating to the 3rd century, but still including a substantial amount of late Roman wares. The date<br />
of the pottery from Phase III is very similar to that of Phase II, but it consists of smaller quantities. It is<br />
possible that the earlier pottery from Phases II and III may have been redeposited or was the result of<br />
external dumping, although as the groups are small they may simply lack wares more diagnostic of a<br />
later Roman date.<br />
Table 3: zeb95 - Area 7, Phase I, Date-range by sherd count.<br />
DATE-RANGE SHS<br />
L3+/POSTRO 12<br />
4C 51<br />
M4 27<br />
L-VL4 26<br />
L-VL4/POSTRO 675<br />
Table 4: zeb95 - Area 7, Phase II, Date-range by sherd count<br />
DATE-RANGE SHS<br />
ML2/POSTRO 1<br />
3+/POSTRO 4<br />
M3+/POSTRO 13<br />
L3+/POSTRO 29<br />
L3-4 17<br />
L3-4/POSTRO 56<br />
4C 18<br />
4/POSTRO 48<br />
L4/POSTRO 12<br />
L-VL4/POSTRO 86<br />
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CLAU Report No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
Table 5: zeb95 - Area 7, Phase III, Date-range by sherd count.<br />
DATE-RANGE SHS<br />
3/POSTRO 1<br />
3+/POSTRO 4<br />
M3+/POSTRO 7<br />
ML3+/POSTRO 3<br />
L3/POSTRO 13<br />
L3-4/POSTRO 30<br />
4/POSTRO 23<br />
L-VL4/POSTRO 108<br />
RO/POSTRO 3<br />
4.0 Function<br />
A preliminary analysis of the functional elements of the Roman pottery from zea95 and zeb95 shows<br />
that the two areas have almost identical functional components. Concentrating on the larger site, zeb95,<br />
Fig 3 (below) suggests that the principal function of the pottery was to serve as cookware (kitchen)<br />
and, primarily, to be used for cooking and then brought to be served at the table (Table/Kitch). Most of<br />
these wares are cooking pots, bowls and dishes which were made in a grey, sandy fabric and<br />
manufactured locally, but also shell-tempered wares which were probably produced in simple bonfire<br />
kilns situated in the North <strong>Lincoln</strong>shire area. Mortaria, used for grinding ingredients, are also included<br />
in this category, the majority being supplied by the local Swanpool kilns.<br />
Fig. 3: zeb95 functions (sherd count).<br />
1<br />
1 S }r<br />
£ —.<br />
Drinking vessels also appear to be well-represented, but this is due to the quantification method used<br />
(sherd count) as these finer vessels tend to break into smaller pieces (hence a larger sherd count), than<br />
heavier containers such as amphorae. The majority of the drinking vessels are beakers that were<br />
produced at the Nene Valley kilns. These are often highly decorated with barbotine, trailed slips<br />
frequently featuring decoration based on vegetation but also on animals and the human figure. Other<br />
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CLAU Report No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
decoration includes applied scales and zones of rouletting. Apart from beakers and cups, pottery used<br />
solely as fine table vessels (Table) largely consists of red-gloss samian ware, often mould-decorated<br />
and manufactured at kilns in Central and East Gaul.<br />
Containers for liquids (Liq Holder) are mainly represented by greyware flagons and narrow-necked<br />
jars, and occasionally fineware flagons also from the Nene Valley kilns. Large jars used for storage are<br />
rare, as are amphorae, mainly imported from Spain and South Gaul, which contained olive oil and<br />
wine.<br />
5.0 Potential and Further Work<br />
The <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> area of <strong>Lincoln</strong> has been the subject of a number of excavations, most notably the large<br />
area at <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation excavated in 1986 (z86), and at <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation East (ze87). These sites,<br />
together with zea95 and zeb95, have the potential to form the basis of a concentrated study of the entire<br />
area in order to ascertain the status and function of the vicinity, and to relate it to the Roman city of<br />
<strong>Lincoln</strong> as a whole by analysis of the late and very late Roman groups in particular, of which there are<br />
substantial assemblages from z86, zea95 and zeb95. In addition, there is a relatively high proportion of<br />
pottery identified as having been manufactured at the Swanpool kilns which warrants further<br />
comparison with the kiln material itself.<br />
Twenty-six vessels have been selected for drawing; some of these are unique and are not represented<br />
within the current corpus of Roman pottery from <strong>Lincoln</strong> (in prep.), while a number illustrate the<br />
chronology of the site. Specialist examination of the samian is also recommended in order to conform<br />
to and enhance the existing database, and to clarify the dating of the site.<br />
* Contexts assigned to sub-phase Ilia at the time of writing this report are now allocated to Phase III.<br />
1.0 Introduction<br />
2= POST-ROMAN POTTERY<br />
by Jane Young<br />
A large and significant assemblage of post-Roman pottery was recovered from the site, ranging in date<br />
from the Late Saxon to the early modern period. The pottery has been examined and recorded at basic<br />
CLAU archive level (ware type by sherd count with note of diagnostic vessel form) using the standard<br />
CLAU classification.<br />
Vessels are mostly represented by medium to large sherds in good preservation, showing little sign of<br />
continual post-deposition movement. Most of the medieval and later sherds have at least one freshly<br />
broken edge, but no joining sherds were recovered. It is probable that a large number of vessels<br />
originally were discarded as complete, or near-complete pots, as evidenced by a few restorable<br />
examples. Several of the near-complete vessels merit full restoration, including four jugs of<br />
Dissolution date, one of which has immense significance for the understanding of the end of the<br />
pottery industry in the city. This jug has two monogrammed 'IHS' seals on its shoulder, linking it with<br />
a 15th-century lobed fineware cup bearing a similar seal and known to have been made in <strong>Lincoln</strong>, and<br />
thus providing the first positive evidence for a late 15th-/16th-century industry surviving in the city.<br />
Some of the vessel forms occurring on the site are unique finds in the city, the most notable being a<br />
10th- or 1 lth-century funnel made at Torksey. One of the most important assemblages from the site is<br />
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CLAUReport No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
an uncontaminated group of pottery dating to the early part of the 10th century. Although pottery of<br />
this date has been found elsewhere in this area of the Wigford, it is always mixed with later 10th- and<br />
11 th-century material. This group, containing a wide range of forms and fabrics, shows definite<br />
evidence for occupation of the area and corroborates the suggested date of reoccupation of the Wigford<br />
suburb.<br />
2.0 Late Saxon and Saxo-Norman (lOth-llth centuries)<br />
A similar range of ware types was recovered to that found on other sites in <strong>Lincoln</strong>. Most of the<br />
material was produced in the city with a smaller amount coming from local centres such as Torksey.<br />
The forms of the vessels, together with the sooting patterns and residues found on them, show that<br />
most of this local material was intended for domestic use. Jars, bowls, pitchers and lamps were used for<br />
everyday purposes such as lighting, cooking, dry and liquid storage, serving at the table and dairy<br />
production. A few groups of lOth-century material contain an abnormally high number of vessels with<br />
internal iron-rich coatings, intended to help 'waterproof them; their decalcified interiors also show that<br />
they were used to contain an acid liquid, possibly alcoholic. This concentration, taken together with the<br />
presence on the site of the only locally known ceramic funnel, may indicate specialist production of ale<br />
at this period.<br />
A few regional imports from East Anglia and <strong>St</strong>amford indicate long-distance trade. The large storage<br />
jars from East Anglia were probably bought for their contents, whereas the glazed and sometimes<br />
decorated jars, bowls and pitchers from <strong>St</strong>amford would have been purchased specifically for use in<br />
the kitchen or more probably at the table. Two sherds from the Andenne region, and one from the<br />
Pingsdorf area in the middle Rhineland, probably pitchers for containing wine, attest to the occupants<br />
being wealthy enough to afford imported vessels.<br />
3.0 Early Medieval (12th century)<br />
This is a period that is rarely represented ceramically on other sites in Wigford. Material from the site<br />
shows good preservation, with several key groups. An unknown centre in <strong>Lincoln</strong>shire, producing a<br />
handmade shell-tempered ware, provided almost all the vessels for everyday cooking, lighting and the<br />
dairy. Most of the glazed pottery forms (jugs and jars) were imported from <strong>St</strong>amford and Nottingham,<br />
with only a small amount coming from <strong>Lincoln</strong> itself. A small number of jugs come from unidentified<br />
sources outside the local area and may have been brought into the city by their owners. Several of the<br />
vessels are of good quality and they generally indicate reasonably high status ownership.<br />
4.0 <strong>High</strong> Medieval (13th-14th centuries)<br />
This period is well represented ceramically, especially the earlier part, before the foundation of the<br />
friary. A large number of high quality, well decorated jugs was recovered. A number of these jugs had<br />
been burnt, perhaps in a fire, or they may possibly represent 'seconds' from a nearby kiln. Decoration<br />
on the jugs includes examples of elaborate modelled motifs - possibly knights - and these, together<br />
with at least one aquamanile (a vessel used for washing hands at the table) modelled as a ram and two<br />
imported French jugs, again indicate high status occupation. Quite a large number of the plainer jugs<br />
contain a thick, white internal deposit. This could have been caused by using them for heating liquids,<br />
causing a furring-up of the internal surface rather like a modern kettle, or for storing urine. Although a<br />
number of smaller 'pipkins' were found, few large cooking pots were recovered, perhaps indicating<br />
that cooking was taking place over a spit and in metal rather than ceramic vessels.<br />
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Volume II<br />
5.0 Later Medieval (14th-15th centuries)<br />
This period is represented mainly by a wide range of forms produced at the kiln found on the east side<br />
of the <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet (ze87), opposite the friary site. A small number of these vessel can be identified at<br />
least as rejects, if not complete wasters, and were possibly introduced on to the site as hardcore during<br />
building episodes. Little material can be directly dated to any particular part of the period, with the<br />
exception of some of the imported German stoneware drinking jugs, which belong to the later 15th<br />
century. Most of the vessels are jugs; again, a number contain internal deposits. A range of other vessel<br />
forms - plain bowls, jars, cooking pots and dripping pans - indicate the preparation, cooking and<br />
storage of food while a number of more elaborate decorated vessels were used for serving food at<br />
table.<br />
6.0 Early post-medieval (16th century)<br />
This period covers the Dissolution of the monasteries and is well represented on the site by several<br />
groups of near-complete vessels. Groups are quite diverse and include: large jugs, jars and bowls from<br />
<strong>Lincoln</strong>, Toynton All Saints, Bourne, Derbyshire and Yorkshire; cisterns or ale pots from Toynton All<br />
Saints and Derbyshire; cups from <strong>Lincoln</strong>, Surrey, Derbyshire and Yorkshire; drinking jugs from the<br />
Rhineland; flasks from France; cooking vessels from the Low Countries, and a number of elaborate<br />
vessels of unknown function.<br />
7.0 Late post-medieval<br />
A high number of imported German drinking vessels indicates that high status occupancy continued in<br />
the area during the 17 th and 18th centuries. Perhaps the most interesting vessel is a lustre ware cup,<br />
produced in the late 1890's in Bohemia and decorated with a transfer print of <strong>Lincoln</strong> Cathedral - an<br />
early tourist souvenir.<br />
8.0 Further work<br />
i) Integration of the pottery and stratigraphic information is essential to the understanding of site<br />
formation and use. This involves both interpretation and synthesis of the pottery in conjunction with<br />
site and other finds information.<br />
ii) The only groups with suitable pottery to quantify by eves and weight are those from the possible<br />
Dissolution groups. This material can be counted as a key group in the dating of both the <strong>Lincoln</strong> and<br />
local medieval pottery sequences.<br />
iii) Little illustration is viewed as absolutely essential, apart from some of the vessels from the possible<br />
Dissolution groups and a small number of unique forms, rim types or decorative elements. There are,<br />
however, a number of vessels that it would be desirable to draw (in pencil only) for future reference.<br />
Drawings are essential to any restoration work.<br />
iv) Restoration of eight vessels for future exhibition is recommended.<br />
8
• u III<br />
CLAU Report No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
1.0 Introduction<br />
by Jenny Mann<br />
More than 800 registered finds were recovered from the evaluation (zea95) and subsequent excavations<br />
(zeb95) at this site, together with a quantity of bulk materials such as slag, bottle glass, iron nails and<br />
clay tobacco pipes.<br />
The greater proportion (61.9%) of the registered finds comprises metalwork, principally of iron<br />
(forming some 32.6% of the total assemblage) and copper alloy (22.6%), with some lead (6.0%) and<br />
four silver coins. Forty-one other coins and five jetons, all of copper alloy, were also recovered.<br />
<strong>St</strong>onework formed an unusually high proportion (23.6%) of the finds but this is due largely to the<br />
number of architectural mouldings (See Architectural <strong>St</strong>one, this vol.); eight grave markers or covers<br />
and two stone coffins were also found. There is some glass, both vessel and window (forming 8.9% of<br />
the total assemblage), while other materials such as worked bone, antler or ivory and ceramic or fired<br />
clay objects are relatively poorly represented. There is a single instance each of jet and amber, but<br />
conditions were not conducive to the preservation of organic materials.<br />
The metalwork in general is heavily corroded, while some of the less stable items such as the bone or<br />
ivory seal matrix (see below) and the medieval glass required immediate remedial treatment and<br />
stabilisation by the <strong>Lincoln</strong> City and County Museum Conservation Laboratory.<br />
The nature of the excavation, as outlined in Volume I, directly affected both the recovery and the<br />
interpretation of the finds; although much of the material came from Phase III contexts associated with<br />
the use of the friary or from the Phase IV demolition and robbing, few items are of use in interpreting<br />
the nature of specific buildings (but see 4, below). In part, this reflects the piecemeal nature of<br />
excavation, as well as the extent to which these levels were disturbed by later activity. An unusually<br />
large proportion of the material came from unstratified or unphased contexts.<br />
2.0 Archive<br />
All registered finds and bulk materials were recorded to basic CLAU archive level and all data entered<br />
onto the database using the CLAU thesaurus of finds and bulk material codes (see archive). All metal<br />
objects (excluding lead) were X-rayed, and all urgent remedial treatment undertaken by the <strong>Lincoln</strong><br />
City and County Museum Conservation Laboratory.<br />
None of the metalwork has been cleaned and identification has therefore been made from the X-rays in<br />
conjunction with visual examination.<br />
3.0 The Finds<br />
Dating and provenance of the finds<br />
A very small proportion (4.6%) of the registered finds was recovered from Phase I contexts, all within<br />
Area^, although few were stratified in Roman levels. The majority are from the destruction levels of<br />
the Roman buildings and from the overlying deposits. A number of Roman finds were also redeposited<br />
in later levels, e.g. within the fills of Phase II burials that had cut through the underlying deposits. A<br />
similarly small quantity (approx. 5%) of material came from Late Saxon to medieval Phase II contexts;<br />
unfortunately, the most interesting Late Saxon pieces occurred residually in later deposits.<br />
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Volume 11<br />
Almost half (41.9%) of the finds are from Phase III contexts and although these are associated with the<br />
use of the friary, most of the material is intrinsically undatable or of types that can only be broadly<br />
dated to the medieval period. Among the very few pieces that are of use in establishing relative dates<br />
of construction for different parts of the friary complex are some of the architectural fragments (see<br />
Architectural <strong>St</strong>one, this vol.) but, as noted above, few items shed any light on the nature of use of<br />
particular structures and there appear to be little or no meaningful concentrations of material (but see 4,<br />
below).<br />
Phase IV contexts postdating the friary, and particularly those levels that represent the robbing and<br />
destruction of the buildings, contained residual finds almost certainly derived from the structures<br />
themselves, together with some contemporary material, but again shed little light on specific structures.<br />
A large proportion (32.8%) of the finds came from modern (Phase V: 13.8%) or unphased contexts<br />
(19%).<br />
Roman<br />
Vlost of the Roman finds were recovered from Area 7, the only part of the site where Roman levels<br />
were reached, although none was associated directly with the occupation of either of the two buildings,<br />
ST2 and ST3. A very small assemblage recovered from cg319 (accumulation postdating the<br />
abandonment of ST2) includes a copper alloy finger-ring of 3rd-century type (ZEB95 ) while<br />
the latest of two coins is a Constantinopolis issue of 330-5 (this may be an irregular issue, in which<br />
case the production date would extend to between 330 and 345).<br />
The post-Roman soil horizon cg310 that sealed both of the Roman buildings contained a modest<br />
assemblage of material comprised mainly of 3rd- and 4th-century coins, a feature displayed by post-<br />
Roman accumulation elsewhere in this area of the city (e.g. <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> church: sm76, <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong><br />
<strong>St</strong>ation: z86). In common with the pottery (see Roman Pottery, this vol.), none of the datable material<br />
appears to be any earlier than the late 2nd century.<br />
Apart from the finger-ring noted above, the only other items of potential significance are several very<br />
small fragments of colourless glass (ZEB95 ), almost certainly from a single vessel with what<br />
appears to be mould-blown decoration, from Trench 3 in Area 7 (eg 177). Positive identification will<br />
only be made by specialist examination; meanwhile, the possibility that this is an intrusive modern<br />
fragment cannot be entirely ruled out. If it is Roman, however, it represents one of very few such<br />
vessels known from <strong>Lincoln</strong>.<br />
Late Saxon-Early Medieval<br />
The majority of the Late Saxon finds are again from Area 7, suggesting that occupation was<br />
concentrated largely against the Ermine <strong>St</strong>reet frontage. Although there is nothing among the finds that<br />
provides definite confirmation of, or supporting evidence for the 'industrial' activity suggested by the<br />
stratigraphic (see Vol. I), ceramic (see report on Post-Roman pottery, this vol.), or environmental<br />
evidence (see Plant Macrofossils, this vol.), a scatter of material provides slight evidence of craft<br />
activity here.<br />
A limestone spindle whorl with incised ornament (ZEA95 ), of Late Saxon type, was recovered<br />
from a Phase III context (cg353) in the Remediation Trench while another (ZEB95 ), of late<br />
llth-century or later date, was redeposited in the fill of a modern feature in Area 8a. (Two bone<br />
spindle whorls from Phase III contexts in Area 7 (eg 194, 282) were both associated with redeposited<br />
material and may also be of Late Saxon or early medieval date) Part of a single-pointed bone pinbeater<br />
(ZEB95
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Two other tools, socketed bone points of distinctive Late Saxon type (ZEA95 & ZEB95 ),<br />
were also found; similar objects are known from late 9th- to 1 lth-century contexts at Flaxengate,<br />
<strong>Lincoln</strong> (Mann 1982, fig 32) and from Anglo-Scandinavian contexts elsewhere, as at York<br />
(MacGregor 1982, fig 51, 518-21). MacGregor suggests (1985, 174-5) that the occurrence of several in<br />
a leather-working shop at York may be indicative of their use as craft tools.<br />
Another possible indication of craft or industrial activity here may be the number of hones<br />
(whetstones) recovered from the site. These form an unusually high proportion of the stone artefacts,<br />
and although none occurred in levels predating Phase III, given the generally high degree of<br />
redeposition here it is likely that at least some are residual. One hone in particular is almost certainly<br />
of Late Saxon date; this (ZEB95 ) is made of a fine-grained rock, almost certainly imported<br />
phyllite. On each face at one end is a small drilled pit, probably representing unfinished perforations;<br />
Late Saxon and medieval hones were commonly worn on the person, attached by means of a ring (or<br />
perhaps a thong) passed through a hole or around a groove (c/Mann 1982, 29-30). Each face of this<br />
hone also bears a series of fine scored lines with, on one face, an incised motif or 'doodle'. The hone<br />
bears all the hallmarks of an unfinished hone, used also as a trial-piece.<br />
A number of the finds from Area 7 are of particular interest in view of the unusual early lOth-century<br />
pottery assemblage from this part of the site (see Post-Roman Pottery, this vol.), because these are of<br />
distinctive Viking type or display decorative features strongly influenced by Viking styles. One such<br />
piece is a copper alloy disc brooch (ZEA95 ), which the X-ray suggests to be ornamented with<br />
Borre-style relief decoration (precise details are unclear) and thus datable to the late 9th or 10th<br />
century; this came from a Phase II context (cg288) in Trench 1. From the fill of a Phase II cut feature<br />
(cg308) in the same trench was recovered part of a small rectangular amber pendant (ZEB95 ),<br />
almost certainly of similar date (c/Mann 1982, fig 8, 82) while a possible destruction horizon (cg213)<br />
in Trench 2 contained a copper alloy buckle with attached buckle plate (ZEB95 ). The front of<br />
the buckle frame is ornamented in a style suggestive of Viking influence.<br />
Two other pieces are worth noting here; one (ZEA95 ) is a small fragment from a double-sided<br />
composite comb ornamented with panels of incised ornament. Both the form of decoration and, in<br />
particular, the angular profile of its connecting plates, suggest that this too may be a Viking piece.<br />
Perhaps the most interesting find is an ?ivory gaming piece (ZEB95 , redeposited within the fill<br />
of a Phase III burial (cg282) in Trench 1; the burial had truncated the upper levels of a linear feature,<br />
cg287, from which the gaming piece may have originated. It is lathe-turned and onion-shaped, with a<br />
small pit in its flat base (probably originally made by the lathe-centre) for housing a small peg. This is<br />
a distinctive Viking type of playing piece, almost certainly used for the board-game hnefatafl (Murray<br />
1952, 56); although a similar, albeit larger playing piece is known from excavations at Goltho<br />
(Beresford 1987, fig 162, 17) none other is known from the city.<br />
Medieval<br />
There is little evidence for the construction or internal fittings of the friary buildings, apart from the<br />
architectural fragments which are discussed separately (see Architectural <strong>St</strong>one, this vol.). Although<br />
little medieval window glass survived, the presence of paint on seventeen fragments (out of a total of<br />
48) suggests that at least some of the windows were glazed with decorated rather than plain panels.<br />
While specialist examination may enable the identification of particular decorative elements and thus<br />
provide closer dating of individual fragments among this small assemblage of painted window glass,<br />
preliminary examination suggests that at least some of the pieces may be of 13th- to 14th-century date,<br />
representing the glazing of some of the earliest friary structures.<br />
Most of this glass, as expected, was recovered from post-Dissolution levels but some fragments were<br />
found in Phase III contexts, providing evidence of alterations to the structural layout during the<br />
lifetime of the friary. Almost half of the window glass was recovered from Area 2 while Area 6 was<br />
the only part of the site not to produce any; this, however, is less likely to reflect the original pattern of<br />
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glazing than the comparative extent of the areas investigated and the overall distribution of the material<br />
recovered. A small quantity (1.8kg) of molten and resolidified glass and lead, from the Phase IV fill<br />
(eg 1403) of a stone-iined pit or garderobe (cg390) associated with ST5/6, almost certainly represents<br />
the remains of windows.<br />
Only eighteen pieces of lead window came were recovered, two of these being small sections of<br />
window light with the glass still in place, while several fragments of crumpled or twisted lead strip are<br />
almost certainly the remains of similar cames. A few other scraps of waste lead were found, but only<br />
one - a small rectangular sheet with parts of two iron nails still in situ - is recognisable as a structural<br />
item; this is almost certainly a piece of sheet roofing lead. The relative absence of leadwork, which<br />
could have been used for plumbing as well as structural fittings, is almost certainly a reflection of the<br />
fact that, after the Dissolution, ecclesiastical buildings in general provided a valuable source of<br />
materials for reuse (<strong>St</strong>acker 1990, esp. table 1).<br />
A small group of structural ironwork includes a number of locks and keys, although most of these can<br />
only be broadly dated as of Late Saxon-medieval type, and some are almost certainly redeposited from<br />
earlier levels. It is just possible, however, that these represent some of the products of the smithing<br />
activity associated with the early use of the friary, of which evidence was found during earlier<br />
excavations to the south (z86). Other fittings include an unusually complete iron candleholder (ZEB95<br />
) of'pricket' type, where the candle was impaled on a central spike.<br />
A very small quantity of medieval vessel glass was recovered and the only other non-ceramic vessels<br />
worth noting are parts of two limestone mortars, both from Area 2. One is a fragment of rim and spout<br />
(ZEA95 ), possibly from a lugged mortar of common medieval type, but the outer part of the<br />
vessel wall is missing. The provenance of this mortar - the fill (cg652) of a Phase IV pit(?) between<br />
ST9 and 10 - is of interest in view of the identification of ST9 as a kitchen. The second mortar is a<br />
small fragment from the base and lower part of the vessel wall; the degree of wear shown by its<br />
internal surface evidences much use. This fragment came from the robbing (cg529) of the east-west<br />
wall of ST5.<br />
A small but noticeable number of both iron knives and stone hones (see Late Saxon-Early Medieval,<br />
above) came from this site and although there is no apparent concentration in any one area it is perhaps<br />
curious that three of the seven certainly identified knives came from the fill (cgll44) of the same<br />
?garderobe, ST19. None of the knives is complete, but four are clearly of later 14th- or 15th-centurv<br />
type because the X-rays clearly reveal the presence of non-ferrous shoulder plates at the junction of<br />
scale tang and blade. One of these (ZEB95 ) is of particular interest in that the X-ray also reveals<br />
what appears to be a non-ferrous maker's mark close to the shoulder and back of the blade, almost<br />
certainly inlaid into the blade.<br />
Another blade (ZEB95 ) is ornamented with non-ferrous metal but this is in the form of a partial<br />
inscription, reading 'MARIA'; the blade itself is broken, and the full inscription almost certainly read<br />
'AVE MARIA'. (A similar inscription, reading 'AVE MARIE', appears as part of the ornament on the<br />
handle of a late 14th-century knife from Swan Lane, London: Cowgill et al 1987, pi. 4e & fig 65, 138)<br />
Without conservation, the precise technique employed to ornament this blade, i.e. whether it is inlaid,<br />
overlaid, or even stamped, remains conjectural.<br />
Personal items recovered from the site include a single annular copper alloy brooch (ZEB95 ) of<br />
13th- or 14th-century date, together with the usual range of costume fittings such as buckles, strap-ends<br />
and lace tags. A more unusual item is a complete copper alloy mirror-case (
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harness, while a more unusual find is a complete, decorated copper alloy stirrup (ZEB95 ) of late<br />
14th- or 15th-century type, from the robbing (cgl 141) of ST19.<br />
A small group of fmds, all from Areas 2 and 3, is virtually the only material that may be associated<br />
with ecclesiastical use, although such finds are not unknown from secular contexts. Two complete<br />
bone 'parchment-prickers' were recovered, one (ZEB95 ) from the Phase IV robbing (cg567) of<br />
ST7, the other (ZEB95 ) from an unphased context. Within the demolition debris (cg791) of<br />
ST12 was another very similar piece (ZEB95 , but lacking the metal point characteristic of such<br />
items (c/Biddle 1990, fig 211, 2286-7); its shaft tapers very suddenly to a sharp point, and may have<br />
been trimmed for reuse after its original point had broken off. From the robbing (cg586) of ST9 was<br />
recovered a lead stylus-shaped object (ZEB95 which could have served as a writing lead; one<br />
end is pointed but the other is flattened and could have served for marking out or ruling lines on<br />
parchment; similar items are known from Winchester and elsewhere (ibid, fig 212, 2306-7).<br />
A very small copper alloy hinge (ZEB95 ) from a Phase III layer (cg434) predating ST 16 is<br />
almost certainly a book fitting, while part of a copper alloy book clasp (ZEB95 ) with a scrap of<br />
leather still in place came from the fill (cg463) of the stone-lined pit cg466, ST14. Another very small<br />
copper alloy hinge from Area 2 (cg653) may also be a book fitting or, like a thin copper alloy strip<br />
(ZEA95 ) from the Remediation Trench (Phase III, cg348), is perhaps from the binding of a chest<br />
or even a reliquary.<br />
Music certainly played a part in the life of the friary, as evidenced by part of a bone tuning peg<br />
(ZEB95 ), from the same context (cg653) in Area 2 as the possible book hinge noted above. The<br />
position of the perforation (to house a string), through the rectangular-sectioned head of the tuning peg,<br />
suggests that this is from an instrument such as a psaltery, rather than from a harp or lyre (cf Lawson<br />
1990, 713, Type B).<br />
One surprising find is a very small bone gaming die (ZEB95 ) which was found attached to the<br />
corrosion surrounding an iron object, recovered from a layer of demolition debris (cg587) between<br />
ST8 and 9. The die is cube-shaped, each face measuring no more than 5 mm across; the numbers are<br />
represented by small drilled pits but do not display the 'regular' arrangement whereby those on<br />
opposing faces total seven. Instead, opposing faces show six and one, three and five, two and four.<br />
Although dice are suggested to have been used in a religious context, in order to decide what course of<br />
action to take (Biddle 1990, 698), it is tempting to conclude that this die was deliberately made so<br />
small for the express purpose of concealment, suggesting illicit gaming by the Carmelite friars!<br />
Possible evidence of commercial activity is provided by the balance fork (ZEA95 ) from a set of<br />
scales, found in a Phase III context (cg348) in the Remediation Trench; unfortunately, this cannot be<br />
more closely dated than Late Saxon or medieval. A lead cloth seal (ZEB95 ) was found in the<br />
demolition debris (cg791) of ST12, together with a copper alloy French jeton, almost certainly of mid-<br />
14th to 15th-century date. Jetons, occasionally called 'abbey tokens' in the past because of the<br />
frequency with which they occurred on such sites, were used in conjunction with a squared cloth or<br />
board in order to reckon up accounts. A total of five certainly identifiable jetons, together with one<br />
other possible piece, was found here. Such items are frequently recovered from secular as well as<br />
ecclesiastical sites and in <strong>Lincoln</strong> they occur in areas which other evidence suggests to have been<br />
involved in commercial activity; it, may be coincidence, or due to other factors (such as the<br />
redeposition of material from elsewhere) that the largest concentrations are from two church sites.<br />
The Seal Matrix (see cover illustration)-<br />
The most unusual yet enigmatic find from this site is the bone or ivory seal matrix (ZEB95 )<br />
from burial cgl016. The seal itself is of pointed oval ('vesica') shape; three apparently interconnecting<br />
perforations, two drilled through the reverse and one from the adjacent end of the seal, may have<br />
served for attachment or suspension. During remedial treatment by the <strong>Lincoln</strong> City and County<br />
Museum Conservation Laboratory, an impression of the seal was taken; photographs of both seal and<br />
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impression were submitted to Mr John Cherry of the Department of Medieval and Later Antiquities at<br />
the British Museum. His suggested reading of the inscription is: '+ S EMCINE DE MORTEINE',<br />
interpreted as a personal name with 'Emcine' representing the forename and 'Morteine' representing the<br />
surname, while the central device is a pelican feeding her young. Mr Cherry suggests a later 13 thcentury<br />
date for the seal, based partly on the style of lettering, while the pelican feeding her young is a<br />
device more commonly used in the later middle ages. The forename is unusual, its 'ine' ending possibly<br />
suggesting a French-influenced woman's name at this date.<br />
The burial with which the seal was associated was that of an adult female but this may be sheer<br />
coincidence, while the suggested date of the seal may conflict slightly with that of the associated grave<br />
cover, which is ornamented in a style conventionally dated to the later 12th to mid-13th century (see<br />
Architectural <strong>St</strong>one, this vol.). The burial itself may have been disturbed, as indicated by the displaced<br />
grave cover and the damage to the skull; the precise location of the seal, within the soil filling the<br />
damaged skull, indicates that it, too, may have been disturbed from its original location. If the seal was<br />
originally buried with the body it may have been disturbed at the same time as the burial; the possible<br />
discrepancy in date between the grave cover and the seal may suggest the former to be reused. It is<br />
equally possible, however, that the seal originally had no association with the burial and that it simply<br />
represents a casual loss that, by pure chance, was reaeposited here.<br />
Late Medieval and Post-Medieval<br />
There is little of significance among the post-Dissolution and later levels and, apart from a few clay<br />
tobacco pipes and glass bottle fragments, little that is closely datable. The only items worth noting are<br />
substantial proportions of two glass vessels, perhaps suggesting that these were complete when<br />
originally deposited.<br />
The first vessel, represented by rim, neck and base fragments, appears to be a bottle or flask with<br />
'wrythen' decoration on its long neck (ZEB95 ); this is probably of 16th-century date, and was<br />
recovered from the Phase IV demolition/backfill (eg 1144) of ST 19 (garderobe?), together with a small<br />
group of pottery probably dating to the Dissolution period. The second vessel (ZEB95 ), of<br />
which a large part survives but in fragmentary condition, is almost certainly an urinal; this came from<br />
the Phase IV infill (cg6) of a stone recess/alcove (cg!3) on the north side of ST1, together with an<br />
interesting assemblage of ceramic vessels (see Vol. I).<br />
4.0 Further Work<br />
The finds from <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation are of potential use in furthering our understanding of the history and<br />
development of this area of the city, particularly the small but important group of Viking and Late<br />
Saxon material. Without conservation, however, there is little more that can be said at present of the<br />
metalwork, such as the ?Borre-style brooch, while certain items or groups of finds require specialist<br />
examination in order that they may be more certainly identified (for example, the possible Roman<br />
mould-blown glass vessel fragments) or more closely dated (such as the decorated window glass).<br />
Largely owing to the piecemeal nature of excavation here, those finds that were stratified in levels<br />
associated with the friary or in contexts related to its demolition and robbing appear to contribute little<br />
towards our understanding of its use or development. It is entirely probable, however, that further work<br />
on this material, and in particular on associated assemblages of ceramic and non-ceramic finds,<br />
together with a more comprehensive examination of the stratigraphy both here and in the area to the<br />
south that was previously investigated (z86), would prove fruitful.<br />
Some finds are sufficiently unusual, or of intrinsic importance, to merit further work in their own right<br />
and publication as a short note in an appropriate journal; the most significant of these is the seal matrix.<br />
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5.0 Bibliography<br />
Beresford, G, 1987 Goltho: The development of an early medieval manor c.850-1150, Engl Heritage<br />
Archaeol Rep, 4<br />
Biddle, M, 1990 Object and Economy in Medieval Winchester, Winchester <strong>St</strong>udies 7. ii, Artefacts from<br />
Medieval Winchester<br />
Cowgill, J, de Neergaard, M, & Griffiths, N, 1987 Knives and Scabbards, Medieval finds from<br />
Excavations in London, 1<br />
Lawson, G, 1990 Pieces from <strong>St</strong>ringed Instruments, in Biddle 1990, 711-8<br />
MacGregor, A, 1982 Anglo-Scandinavian Finds from Lloyds Bank, Pavement, and Other Sites,<br />
<strong>Archaeology</strong> of York, 17/3<br />
MacGregor, A, 1985 Bone, Antler, Ivory and Horn: the Technology of Skeletal Materials since the<br />
Early Roman Period<br />
Mann, J E, 1982 Medieval Finds from Flaxengate I: objects of antler, bone, stone, horn, ivory, amber<br />
and jet. The <strong>Archaeology</strong> of <strong>Lincoln</strong>, 14/1<br />
Murray, H J R, 1952 A History of Board-games other than Chess<br />
<strong>St</strong>ocker, D A, 1990 The <strong>Archaeology</strong> of the Reformation in <strong>Lincoln</strong>, a Case <strong>St</strong>udy in the<br />
Redistribution of Building Materials in the Mid Sixteenth Century, Lines Hist & Archaeol, 25, 18-32<br />
1.0 Introduction<br />
4: ARCHITECTURAL STONE<br />
by Jeremy Ashbee<br />
(Historic Royal Palaces)<br />
The writer was requested to undertake an assessment of potential for the assemblage of architectural<br />
fragments from the excavations on the site of <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation, <strong>Lincoln</strong> (zea95/zeb95). In view of the<br />
size of this assemblage, much of the recording of the individual stones was carried out by Ms. Yvonne<br />
Rose at <strong>Lincoln</strong>, to a specification agreed with the writer: characteristics noted included context data<br />
and stone type, function, approximate date of fabrication (where possible), tooling (presence/absence<br />
and tooling type as appropriate). Where it was felt appropriate, the tooling was recorded by rubbing.<br />
This information has provided the basis of the assessment report which follows. Those parts of the<br />
assemblage which appear to provide the most potential for further analysis are identified, and a<br />
provisional method statement for further work is proposed.<br />
Using Ms Rose's existing notes as a basis, the assessment was carried out by Jeremy Ashbee during<br />
1995 and 1996 on the site, at the <strong>Lincoln</strong> City and County Museum and on the premises of the City of<br />
<strong>Lincoln</strong> <strong>Archaeology</strong> Unit.<br />
This assessment report has been written in accordance with the specification laid down in MAP2<br />
Appendix 4.1 (English Heritage 1993, 32).<br />
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2.0 The Quantity of Material<br />
The total number of fragments within the assemblage examined is 157: 2 from zea95 and 155 from<br />
zeb95. In addition, zea95 produced 16 fragments bearing one or more worked surfaces but no<br />
moulding. It was recommended that a tooling record be made of these fragments but that they should<br />
be discarded.<br />
Every fragment was examined by Jeremy Ashbee at the time of the assessment and points of interest<br />
were noted. A brief textual record, together with annotated and scaled sketch drawing, was provided by<br />
Yvonne Rose in advance of the assessment.<br />
3.0 The Condition of the Material<br />
At the time of examination, the assemblage was stored in a variety of locations including the <strong>Lincoln</strong><br />
City and County Museum stores, the premises of the City of <strong>Lincoln</strong> <strong>Archaeology</strong> Unit and its stores at<br />
Cuthbert's Yard, <strong>Lincoln</strong>. The condition of the assemblage appeared to be good: moulding profiles<br />
remained sharp and there was no clear evidence of mechanical damage (abrasion) through<br />
manhandling the fragments. In view of their size, some of them were kept on the floor of the store,<br />
rather than on pallets. The store was also filled to its capacity; in such circumstances, examination of<br />
the stones itself entailed a certain amount of manhandling to take the stones to a more suitable space<br />
for examination. In such circumstances, it is possible that the movement of the fragments in such a<br />
constricted space might unavoidably result in further damage.<br />
Care has been taken at all stages of the project to examine the stones and identify those which could be<br />
subjected to the most basic record and then discarded. It is a measure of the unusually high quality of<br />
the assemblage that 157 fragments bore mouldings in sufficiently good condition to preclude their<br />
abandonment. It is acknowledged that the retention and storage of stone assemblages of this size poses<br />
a problem in the long term.<br />
4.0 The Provenance of the Material<br />
Virtually all of the fragments examined could be provenanced to stratified archaeological contexts.<br />
With regard to the implications of the architectural material for the dating of contexts, few comments<br />
are possible at this stage. However, it will be noted from the comments in section 5 below that the<br />
assemblage appeared on the evidence of this brief examination to contain overwhelmingly medieval<br />
fragments, with very little material from the later medieval and post-medieval periods. Other finds<br />
evidence and the site sequence will necessarily provide more information on this matter. However, the<br />
homogeneity of the architectural material is such that many of the more productive contexts may be<br />
dumps associated with the alterations to or demolition of buildings during the life of the Carmelite<br />
friary, or with the final demolition in 1539.<br />
5.0 The Range and Variety of Material<br />
The assemblage was studied with the preliminary intention of identifying the structural elements<br />
represented and making a provisional assessment of their date range. Other features noted at the time<br />
of assessment include evidence of burning, reuse, mason's marks and the nature and extent of coursing.<br />
With two exceptions (ZEB95 : sandstone and ZEB95 : Purbeck Marble), all of the<br />
fragments examined are fashioned from a type of Jurassic limestone, probably from the local area of<br />
the city; some fragments (e.g. ZEB95 ) are executed in coarser material than the majority. No<br />
petrological analysis has been undertaken, but prima facie examination suggests that in terms of the<br />
material, the assemblage is basically homogeneous in character.<br />
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Forty-one of the fragments could not be identified as particular structural elements for several reasons,<br />
including the fragmentary nature of individual pieces or, more usually, the absence of mouldings<br />
beyond simple chamfers.<br />
Forty-two fragments contain clear evidence for mouldings, but could not be identified as particular<br />
structural elements on account of their fragmentary nature. This group is likely to contain fragments of<br />
jambs of windows and doors, window mullions and possibly vaulting ribs. Little generalisation is<br />
possible within the group, beyond the fact that almost all appear to be of medieval date, with a<br />
preponderance of forms likely to date to the later thirteenth and early fourteenth century, as suggested<br />
by filleted rolls and ogees.<br />
With these exceptions, by far the largest category represented by the assemblage is window tracery,<br />
elements of which consist of window mullions (eighteen fragments), and other traceried elements<br />
(fourteen fragments). Fragments of several periods are represented, but there is a particularly strong<br />
representation of a form consisting of a filleted ogee flanked by quirked hollow chamfers (e.g. ZEB95<br />
). Several fragments with this profile (e.g. ZEB95 ) are clearly from elaborate traceried<br />
windows with cusping; the ogee curve on one piece (ZEB95 ), again cusped, suggests a<br />
Curvilinear Decorated, or Reticulated form. The profile can be provisionally dated to the first half of<br />
the fourteenth century; it appears, for instance, in the 'Bishop's Eye' rose window in the south transept<br />
of <strong>Lincoln</strong> Cathedral, dated to c. 1320: it therefore seems likely that the fenestration of the friary church<br />
may have received alteration in the early fourteenth century. Of particular interest among the fragments<br />
of this type is party of a mullion (ZEB95 ) with a glazing groove to one side and a plain rebate<br />
or masonry return on the other. A possible interpretation of this anomaly is to see the fragment as part<br />
of a complex window in which only one section was glazed (the remainder being blank): an unusual<br />
phenomenon, more commonly associated with the later medieval period (e.g. London Guildhall of the<br />
early fifteenth century). Another group of window dressings is likely to date to the later medieval or<br />
early post-medieval period; these are characterised by plain hollow chamfers running to central fillets<br />
both internally and externally (e.g. ZEB95 ).<br />
One fragment (ZEB95 ), consisting of a plain chamfered mullion with an integral sill and<br />
backing, indicates blank tracery. This is likely, on the grounds of the simplicity of the moulding, to<br />
date to the later medieval period (later fourteenth century onwards).<br />
Five fragments (ZEB95 ) consist of dressings without glazing grooves. One<br />
of these (ZEB95 ) is chamfered internally and externally and bears a curvature consistent with<br />
interpretation as an unglazed oculus; a rebate for shuttering may have been lost. Another (ZEB95<br />
) contains a jamb and transom with cusping. This and the remaining fragments of the group may<br />
be provisionally identified as pieces of openwork tracery, possibly for a funerary monument, stone<br />
screen or other piece of liturgical furniture, likely to date to the fourteenth century or later.<br />
Seven fragments have been identified as voussoirs for windows or doors on the grounds of curvature.<br />
Two of these (ZEB95 ) are of simple chamfered form and could not be dated securely<br />
although the presence of claw tooling on one piece (ZEB95 ) may suggest a date after 1200.<br />
Another fragment (ZEB95 ) is a hoodmould with an undercut roll with offset fillet, leading into<br />
a lesser roll with drip course; this has similarities with a moulding type found in the late thirteenth and<br />
early fourteenth centuries, as for example at <strong>St</strong> Andrew's Gilbertine Priory, York (Kemp & Graves<br />
1996, 271). Two other pieces (ZEB95 ) are more fragmentary but may have been parts of<br />
similar mouldings.<br />
Two fragments have been provisionally identified as vaulting ribs. One (ZEB95 ) is a plain<br />
chamfered and rebated form; this, and the presence of striated tooling, suggests an early date, probably<br />
before the foundation of the friary. The other (ZEB95 ) appears to be part of a miniature rib,<br />
possibly for the vaulting of a small chapel, sacristy or cloister walkway. No exact affiliation has yet<br />
been identified, but the fragment has certain similarities with forms of the early fourteenth century.<br />
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Sixteen fragments could be identified as other known architectural features. Two (ZEB95 )<br />
are interpreted as the coping of buttress offsets; one of these (ZEB95 ) has a dripcourse below its<br />
projecting lower edge. The remainder of the fragments of this group are colonettes and associated<br />
mouldings, including a possible late medieval polygonal capital with a beaked moulding (ZEB95<br />
) and a very fragmentary piece with an undercut keel moulding (ZEB95 ), possibly part of<br />
a capital of the 'three-unit scroll' type common in the second half of the thirteenth and early fourteenth<br />
centuries. A third fragment (ZEB95 ) may also represent part of a similar capital, though round<br />
rather than polygonal. The most interesting of the colonettes (ZEB95 ) is trilobate in form with a<br />
frontal fillet to each shaft; this feature may suggest a date in the later thirteenth century.<br />
The assemblage contains eleven fragments from medieval graves, including two stone sarcophagi<br />
(ZEB95 ), one upright grave marker (ZEB95 ) and eight stone slabs, interpreted as<br />
grave covers. Three of these (ZEB95 ) are all plain with shallow chamfered borders; a<br />
fourth (ZEB95 ) is very fragmentary but appears to be slightly coped in form. The remaining<br />
fragments bear decoration of the 'bracelet head' type and are discussed below.<br />
Tooling of all the main types was identified, although striated tooling is only present on a single piece<br />
(ZEB95 ), identified as a vaulting rib. Comparatively few of the fragments appear to have been<br />
finished with a drag. The basic tooling type, found on the majority of fragments, is claw, carried out<br />
using instruments with a variety of tooth sizes. This has little implication for the date of the fragments,<br />
being used throughout the medieval period, particularly from 1200 onwards.<br />
Only one mason's mark was identified in this assemblage, on a fragment of window mullion with<br />
cusping on either side (ZEB95 ).<br />
Evidence for burning was only found on a single piece (ZEB95 ), representing the springing of<br />
window tracery with a plain chamfered profile, probably of the fourteenth century or later.<br />
6.0 Discussion<br />
Though there are some outliers within the assemblage, a high proportion of the stones examined can be<br />
provenanced with some confidence to one or several ecclesiastical buildings of some architectural<br />
pretension, dating to the late thirteenth/first half of the fourteenth century. Fragments of cusped<br />
window tracery, almost certainly from the main friary church, indicate a building of elaborate<br />
architectural detailing, most probably resulting from generous and well-connected patronage. This<br />
appears to be characteristic of some of the most successful houses of the mendicant orders, as<br />
demonstrated by the stone assemblages from recent archaeological excavations {e.g. the Coventry<br />
Whitefriars, the London Austin Friars). The assemblage also indicates the presence of elaborate<br />
mouldings for the surrounds of windows and doors and openwork tracery (likely to be from liturgical<br />
furniture such as screens, or from funerary monuments). Comparatively few fragments of vaulting ribs<br />
were identified.<br />
One fragment (ZEB95 ) deserves special mention. This is a very finely-tooled piece of a small<br />
circular feature with a raised rim of plain chamfered section, running around a sunken bowl apparently<br />
carved with a geometric floriate pattern. Its external profile suggests that it sat on some form of bell<br />
capital. The sunken bowl may suggest use as a piscina, either mounted on a miniature column, or<br />
corbelled out from the wall. The form has affinities with proto-Perpendicular capitals, suggesting a<br />
date range from 1330 onwards. Such a feature is a rarity in architectural stone assemblages.<br />
One of the most problematic segments of the assemblage is the series of grave covers and grave<br />
markers. Several of these (upright marker ZEB95 ; grave covers ZEB95 ) all bear<br />
variants of the 'bracelet head' type of cross-ornament, common in the East Midlands and found on<br />
several church sites in <strong>Lincoln</strong>, including <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> church (sm76). This type of ornament is<br />
conventionally dated from the later twelfth to the mid-thirteenth century, and should not be expected to<br />
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occur widely within the second half of the century. The present examples are simple and are likely to<br />
be earlier rather than later in the sequence. Their presence on the site of the friary could therefore<br />
suggest either evidence for previous ecclesiastical occupation of the site, exhumation and reinterment<br />
of earlier burials, recycling of the grave markers, or an almost anachronistic use of a motif some 30-40<br />
years earlier in date. In previous discussions, it has been felt that the last-mentioned is not a likely<br />
explanation.<br />
7.0 Recommendations for further work<br />
This assessment has been necessarily brief and its findings must be regarded as provisional only. A<br />
more thorough examination would certainly permit the firm identification of a number of the 42<br />
fragments presently classed as 'miscellaneous mouldings'. Moreover, no comparison has been made<br />
with the assemblage recovered from earlier excavations (z86), nor has a systematic search yet been<br />
undertaken of the literature of medieval mouldings for comparative material on other sites; both would<br />
almost certainly be profitable. However, even on the present evidence it is possible to state with<br />
confidence that the majority of the fragments are of a sophisticated character and belong to a date<br />
range consistent with the initial construction and early alterations to the friary church of the Carmelites.<br />
The fragments of window tracery are particularly fine, suggesting strongly that the Carmelite church<br />
contained features of extremely high quality, possibly with similarities to contemporary features in<br />
<strong>Lincoln</strong> Cathedral. Architectural fragments likely also to have originated in the friary church have been<br />
identified previously in the surviving fabric of <strong>St</strong>. Mary's Conduit, <strong>Lincoln</strong>, and in a series of drawings<br />
in the Willson Collection; no attempt has yet been made to compare the <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> assemblage with<br />
this other material. Further analysis on these lines will be essential should publication of the<br />
assemblage become desirable.<br />
In terms of fiirther recording of the material, a full 1:1 record of every fragment is likely to be<br />
prohibitively expensive; no detailed breakdown of time has been made, but it is estimated that a drawn<br />
record of the entire assemblage would take well in excess of 300 hours. The fragments of the greatest<br />
architectural interest are identified in sections 5 and 6 above. These are by definition the most complex<br />
fragments. For the purposes of archive, the existing finds record cards, compiled by Ms Yvonne Rose,<br />
and the accompanying tooling records should suffice as the basic record.<br />
8.0 Bibliography<br />
English Heritage 1993 Management of Archaeological Projects<br />
Kemp, R L, and Graves, C P, 1996 The Church and Gilbertine Priory of <strong>St</strong> Andrew, Fishergate, The<br />
<strong>Archaeology</strong> of York, 11/2<br />
5: CERAMIC AND NON-CERAMIC BUILDING MATERIALS<br />
1.0 Introduction<br />
by Jenny Mann and Rick Kemp'<br />
A total of 10,109 fragments of ceramic, and 563 fragments of non-ceramic building materials were<br />
recovered from this site. These were examined and an archive record made (form type by sherd count<br />
and weight, noting diagnostic subforms), using the standard CLAU classification. A rigorous discard<br />
policy was employed for stone slates and for all types of flat ceramic tile, keeping samples only of<br />
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complete or near-complete tiles with different suspensions and/or fabric types. All examples of roof<br />
furniture, glazed tile and floor tile were retained.<br />
The material ranges in date from Roman to modern, although the majority is of medieval date and<br />
approximately three-quarters (77%) of the ceramic building material comprises undiagnostic fragments<br />
of plain, flat medieval roofing tile. Relatively small quantities of hip and ridge tile, roof furniture (such<br />
as louvers) and floor tile were also recovered. <strong>St</strong>one slates form the majority of the non-ceramic<br />
building materials; some plaster and daub also occurred, while a single stone and three ceramic<br />
tesserae were also found.<br />
2.0 Dating and Provenance<br />
Roman<br />
One hundred and ten fragments of Roman brick and 349 fragments of Roman tile were found, all in<br />
post-Roman contexts, much (33%) of this material coming from Area 7. Fragments of box tile, used<br />
for hypocaust flues, and four tesserae almost certainly represent material brought to this site from<br />
elsewhere in the city. Apart from the plaster noted in situ on the south wall of ST2, only an<br />
insignificant quantity (0.25 kg) was recovered from the demolition levels of this building. Two<br />
fragments of Collyweston slate were also recovered; although these also could represent material<br />
brought onto the site it is possible that stone as well as ceramic roofing material was employed, as on<br />
the Roman structures found during earlier excavations to the south (z86).<br />
Late Saxon - Early Medieval<br />
Very little was recovered from Phase II contexts and the majority of this represents redeposited Roman<br />
building material, found principally in Area 2. There was little evidence for the construction of the<br />
timber buildings here, apart from a very small quantity of daub (0.5 kg) with wattle impressions from<br />
Trench 1 (cg211) and a few fragments from Trench 2 (cg211). It is quite likely that the daub recovered<br />
from Phase III contexts in this part of the site also represents material disturbed from underlying levels.<br />
Medieval<br />
Approximately 10% of the plain, flat medieval ceramic tile (1,021 fragments) was recovered from the<br />
series of hearths in ST9, the majority covered in mortar from the bedding or bonding material.<br />
Fragments of hip tile and glazed ridge tiles were also occasionally reused in these hearths and it may<br />
be significant that all but four of the 47 pieces of hip tile came from ST9, either from the hearths or<br />
from the backfill of the Phase.IV robbing.<br />
It may be no coincidence that all but three of the sixteen louver fragments also came from Area 2, nine<br />
of these (representing at least one, and possibly as many as three louvers) from ST9 or its environs.<br />
Louvers could be used as ventilators rather than as smoke chimneys but three fragments from the same<br />
piece, found within the fill of a burial (cg821) at the south end of the west claustral walk, show internal<br />
sooting suggestive of use as a chimney.<br />
Several other fragments of roof furniture were recovered, together with parts of two unusual ceramic<br />
objects which may also represent elaborate roof fittings. Two fragments from the same flat-sided(?)<br />
piece, copper-glazed (green) on both surfaces and ornamented with a series of incised, intersecting arcs<br />
or circles on the ?external face, have been tentatively identified as parts of a vent or louver. Twelve<br />
other fragments, almost certainly from a single piece of roof furniture, were recovered from six<br />
different contexts, five in Area 7 and the sixth in Area 6. These too are copper-glazed, but on the<br />
external surface only, while several pieces also bear the remains of elaborate applied ornament; the<br />
interior shows no sign of sooting. It may be significant that the majority of the roof furniture is from<br />
areas near the street frontage, i.e. Areas 7, 8 and 8a.<br />
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All areas of the site produced fragments of limestone roofing slate, the majority of it identified as<br />
Collyweston slate, from outcrops near <strong>St</strong>amford. Although some of this, particularly that from Area 7,<br />
could represent redeposited Roman building material, the frequency of its occurrence within Phase III<br />
and later levels suggests that at least some of the friary buildings were roofed with stone. The use of<br />
such material, comparatively more costly than the locally produced and thus more readily available<br />
ceramic tiles, would have been a visible sign of affluence.<br />
Fragments of an unusually fossiliferous limestone, also used as roofing material, are from an as yet<br />
unidentified source. It may be significant that all are from the eastern part of the site (Areas 6, 7 and<br />
8); the majority (fourteen of a total of seventeen fragments) are from the fill of pit cgll, probably<br />
associated with the robbing of ST1.<br />
The only other items of note are two fragments of glazed and collared ceramic water pipe and some<br />
glazed floor tile. One of the two pieces of water pipe was found within the robbing (cg586) of ST9,<br />
while the other came from the backfill of a Phase III burial (cg889) in ST27. Only four complete<br />
examples (of a total of thirteen) glazed floor tiles survived; where the glaze remains it is green, or<br />
yellow slip. All are likely to date from the late 14th century onwards.<br />
A small quantity of medieval plaster was recovered from levels associated with the demolition and<br />
robbing of the friary, the majority of it painted with a plain, white wash. Several dozen fragments<br />
(0.3kg) recovered from the demolition of the north wall of ST12 include a number that show evidence<br />
of a more decorative treatment, with traces of purple paint, but too little of this survives to suggest the<br />
nature of the decoration.<br />
3.0 Further work<br />
Several items, including the fragments of the two unusual ceramic objects noted above, require further<br />
work to locate possible parallels and are worth illustration. The source of the fossiliferous limestone<br />
roof tiles requires identification by specialist and/or petrological examination. It is possible that full<br />
integration of the stratigraphic record and the building materials with the other finds (particularly the<br />
architectural stone) may shed further light on the nature of individual buildings and the development of<br />
the friary.<br />
1.0 Introduction<br />
6: THE HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS<br />
by Lynda Isaac and Charlotte Roberts,<br />
(Calvin Wells Laboratory, University of Bradford)<br />
Sixty-four burial contexts were discovered at the site of <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> (zeb95), offering an important<br />
opportunity to add to the knowledge of health and longevity of individuals from <strong>Lincoln</strong>, with potential<br />
at a local level and in a wider context.<br />
Burials were located in three main areas, firstly in Area 7 (Fig 1, A) which was situated to the north of<br />
the railway station; these lay to the south and east of a substantial friary building in a sparsely<br />
21
Friary burial ground<br />
<strong>St</strong>. Edward's Church burial ground<br />
footprint of proposed development<br />
evaluation trenches<br />
previously recorded burials<br />
• redeposited human remains<br />
remains of Church?<br />
existing structures retained<br />
impact of new development areas on<br />
'' / / / burial grounds<br />
ft 1995-96 burials/ZEB 95<br />
Fig. 1: Location map.<br />
Turnhibts.<br />
/<br />
I<br />
V<br />
>3<br />
CLAUReport No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
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populated graveyard which extends to the <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet boundary. There was no evidence of friaryrelated<br />
activity predating or postdating the graves which cut directly into a phase of early medieval<br />
timber structures. Further burials were located in Area 6 to the south of Kingdom Hall (Fig 1, B), and<br />
several lay below grave slabs and may have been within a chapter house. To the south of this group, in<br />
the Combined <strong>Service</strong>s Trench (Fig 1, C), further burials were located at the eastern end of the trench.<br />
All graves were orientated east-west, which is normal Christian practice.<br />
Also recovered from this area and related to the Carmelite friary, was a small group of burials<br />
excavated in 1986-7 (z86), which were excavated from an area between Area 6 and the Combined<br />
<strong>Service</strong>s Trench, and a femur and tibia (bra95 109) which were recovered from the corner of the<br />
station portico found during a geotechnical test pit. Although this report mainly concentrates on the<br />
1995-96 excavations, some comparison was made with this earlier work.<br />
2.0 Recording Procedure<br />
A total of 21 boxes containing the human remains from 64 contexts was received for study. One extra<br />
mandible with no context number was included in the sample and could not be associated with any of<br />
the remains. All skeletons were bagged and labelled according to bone, side and context. Apart from<br />
the skulls, all the bone had been washed. The author also received the site context sheets and plans to<br />
allow for an integrated analysis of the archaeological and osteological evidence. Each skeleton was<br />
individually recorded on standard forms which document the bones present, age, sex, stature and<br />
preservation. They also allow for measurement of cranial and post-cranial bones which were taken<br />
using an osteometric board, sliding or spreading callipers. The dentition was recorded with regard to<br />
teeth present and evidence of disease. Post-cranial and cranial non-metric traits were scored as present<br />
or absent where possible and, finally, pathological conditions were recorded using descriptive methods<br />
and grading. The disarticulated material was recorded as fully as possible and quickly observed for<br />
pathological changes. The original recording forms comprise part of the Calvin Wells archive in the<br />
Department of Archaeological Sciences Bradford, and may be consulted for future research.<br />
3.0 Preservation<br />
Recording preservation is important as it largely determines the minimum number of individuals and<br />
the ease with which pathological conditions can be recognised Therefore, preservation of each burial<br />
was categorised with reference to three factors: the percentage of bone present, the percentage of postmortem<br />
breakage and the percentage of surface erosion. A combination of these three factors gave a<br />
grade between one (excellent) and five (very poor). The articulated remains from zeb95 were<br />
predominantly well-preserved and relatively complete. A total of seven skeletons were recorded as<br />
being grade one (excellent) and seven as grade two (good). The second category mainly contained<br />
skeletons which, although complete, had suffered more post-mortem damage. Five were recorded as<br />
fair (grade 3), five as poor (grade 4) and two as very poor (grade 5). As can be seen from Figure 2, the<br />
majority of skeletons were in the top two categories.<br />
Subdivision of preservation by age showed no particular trends with the best preserved skeletons being<br />
in a variety of age divisions. Subdivision by sex revealed that all but two of the males were grades 1<br />
and 2 whilst no females were in these categories. However, since there were only three females<br />
available for study this may be a biased view. It is also worth noting that the females were all in the<br />
older middle and mature adult categories, and may have suffered from postmenopausal osteoporosis,<br />
resulting in lower bone mineral content and increased risk of degradation in the soil. Burial and soil<br />
conditions contribute to preservation and it is worth noting that the majority of skeletons from grades 1<br />
and 2 were excavated from Area 7. -<br />
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Fig. 2: Preservation of articulated skeletons.<br />
Key<br />
• Grade 1 - Excellent<br />
Grade 2 - Good<br />
•<br />
r<br />
•<br />
Grade 3 - Fair<br />
Grade 4 - Poor<br />
Grade 5 - Very Poor<br />
Grade 1 - Under 25%<br />
of bone affected<br />
Grade 2 - 25% to 75%<br />
of bone affected<br />
Grade 3 - Over 75%<br />
of bone affected<br />
Fig. 3: Percentage of postmortem damage and surface erosion on commingled and unstratified<br />
remains.<br />
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The incomplete, commingled and unstratified material was graded with reference to the percentage of<br />
post-mortem damage and surface condition. This was graded from one (under 25% of bone affected)<br />
to three (over 75% of bone affected). The majority of bone was in the best preservation category, nine<br />
contexts were grade 2, whilst thirteen contexts were badly preserved (see Fig. 3).<br />
4.0 Physical Anthropology<br />
Minimum number of individuals<br />
A total of 29 inhumations were recognised archaeologically along with 35 contexts which contained<br />
human remains. Inhumation 7730, a mature adult male with additional skull and mandible was<br />
recovered from the fill of a pipe trench and was recorded as disarticulated. Five contexts (1000, 1004,<br />
2000, 8099, 10021) all contained human remains and were unstratified. Inhumation 6464, a mature<br />
adult male, also contained a subadult skull and mandible. Inhumation 8362, an undetermined adult,<br />
also contained part of a subadult maxilla. During the osteological analysis skeletal elements, such as<br />
the ends of the long bones, foot bones, mandible, maxilla and certain landmarks on the pelvis and<br />
skull, were counted according to side in order to calculate the minimum number of individuals (see<br />
full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 1). The osteological analysis revealed that 13 males, 3 females,<br />
8 adults and 7 subadults were recovered during excavation. A total of 31 individuals were recognised<br />
along with 33 contexts which included unstratified, commingled, and single bones which one could<br />
not identify as belonging to separate individuals. The most common bone elements to survive were the<br />
proximal femur, proximal humerus, mandible and acetabulum. These elements are amongst the most<br />
recognisable and robust so perhaps it is not surprising that they are the most frequently recovered.<br />
Estimation of sex<br />
Assessment of sex was based on cranial and pelvic morphology and followed the scoring system<br />
proposed in Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). Additional information was provided by measuring the<br />
diameters of the femoral and humeral heads, and femoral condyles (<strong>St</strong>ewart 1979). Skeletons were<br />
only placed in definite categories if the majority of cranial and pelvic traits were of one sex. Where<br />
the evidence was contradictory the individuals were placed in probable male or female categories. This<br />
also applied to individuals where measurements could be taken but only either the skull or pelvis was<br />
present. Where preservation was poor and inhibited the assessment of sex, the skeleton was either<br />
placed in a probable category or the category of adult. The adult category also applies to skeletons<br />
with no cranium or pelvis but whose long bones were adult (i.e. epiphyses fused) and for skeletons<br />
which offered only metrical data. Subadults (individuals whose skeleton had not developed to the adult<br />
state) were not sexed as they have not normally acquired sexual dimorphism; this is in accordance with<br />
current practices.<br />
The adults from zeb95 displayed a good level of sexual dimorphism with regard to pelvic traits. The<br />
male crania were more distinct than those of females, which were often scored as ambiguous. Metrical<br />
analysis of skeletons from zeb95 was, in many cases, ambiguous, with many of the males having<br />
measurements which just fell within the male range, and females who fell into the undetermined<br />
category. The osteological analysis of zeb95 revealed 11 males and 2 probable males, 2 females and 1<br />
probable female, and 8 of indeterminate sex. This sample is heavily biased towards males and may be<br />
representative of the population buried at a Carmelite friary. Rates of male to females at other<br />
medieval monastic burial sites such as Blackfriars in Carlisle (93:52) and Merton Priory in Surrey<br />
(34:1) suggest similar patterns (<strong>St</strong>roud and Kemp 1993). However, earlier excavations in 19S6 at <strong>St</strong>.<br />
<strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation (z86) revealed 16 burials and a watching brief recovered a further 5 burials. The<br />
combined information gave 7 males, 2 male?, 3 females, 1 female? and 3 adolescents. The biases in<br />
the present study may therefore relate to cemetery sampling, as the presence of both sexes is more<br />
apparent when studied in conjunction with previous excavations. The presence of both sexes is not<br />
surprising since in 1250 AD the friars obtained permission from Pope Innocent IV to bury lay<br />
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members of the community in their cemeteries (Lawrence 1989). It is also possible that female<br />
benefactresses may be buried in the cemetery.<br />
Estimation of age<br />
<strong>St</strong>andard age categories used in the Calvin Wells Laboratory are as follows:<br />
YEARS<br />
Feotal/neonatal < 1<br />
Infant 1 - 5<br />
child 5 - 10<br />
Adolescent 11-17<br />
Young adult 18-25<br />
Young middle adult 26-35<br />
Older middle adult 36-45<br />
Mature adult 46+<br />
Adult > 18<br />
Adult age assessment was determined by closely examining the changing morphology of the pubic<br />
symphysis (Katz and Suchey 1986), the auricular surface of the ilium (Lovejoy et al 1985), and the<br />
sternal end of the 4th rib (Iscan et al 1984, 1985), in addition to observation of the rate of cranial<br />
suture closure and the dental attrition (Brothwell 1981). Subadult ageing was determined by the<br />
development of the deciduous and permanent dentition (Hillson 1986), the stage of epiphyseal fusion<br />
of the bones of the skeleton (Williams and Warwick 1980), and the measurement of long bone shafts<br />
(Workshop of European Anthropologists 1980).<br />
The remains from zeb95 constituted 2 infants, 1 child/adolescent, 4 adolescents, 1 young adult, 3<br />
young middle adults, 5 older middle adults, 7 mature adults and 8 adults, a total of 7 subadults and 24<br />
adults. In the case of individuals who spanned two age categories, the different results were compared<br />
and discussed with other laboratory staff. For example burial 7534, which was originally assigned to<br />
the young adult age category during the assessment stage (Boylston 1996), is now assigned the mature<br />
adult category; this individual was borderline between the older middle and mature adult categories.<br />
After discussion and comparison of the available data it was decided that, due to the extent of thyroid<br />
cartilage calcification and dental attrition, 7534 just fell into the mature category.<br />
The assemblage from <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation does not necessarily represent the normal demography of a<br />
medieval monastic site, as it is small and perhaps biased. The information from previous excavations<br />
at <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation (Boylston and Roberts 1995) have been combined with those from this study to<br />
offer a comparison with other late medieval sites from <strong>Lincoln</strong>. The following table compares the<br />
monastic site to Pennell <strong>St</strong>reet (sus96), which was a burial ground serving the parish of <strong>St</strong>. Michael in<br />
Wigford, in <strong>Lincoln</strong> (Boghi and Boylston 1997).<br />
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Table 1: Numbers of Individuals.<br />
zeb95 and z86 sus96<br />
Age Category Number % Number %<br />
Subadult 13 27.7 12 16.7<br />
Young Adult 3 6.4 3 4.2<br />
Young MA 7 14.9 12 16.7<br />
Older MA 6 12.8 20 27.8<br />
Mature Adult 10 21.3 17 23.5<br />
Adult 8 17.0 8 11.1<br />
Total 47 100 72 100<br />
The low number of burials from zeb95 leads to unrepresentative and slightly biased results which in<br />
many ways do not compare with other contemporary sites. The high percentage of adult burials at<br />
zeb95 is due to incomplete burials which could not be aged accurately. At both sites the younger adult<br />
categories are not well represented. If they were being buried in a specific area this may not have been<br />
excavated; however, if it is a true reflection of late medieval populations then there may have been less<br />
difference in mortality between monastic and non-monastic urban populations than has been assumed.<br />
At both sites a reasonable percentage of the population was surviving to later life suggesting, again,<br />
advantageous living conditions at both sites. The combined information on age and sex estimation<br />
gives the following demographic profile which is presented in Tables 2 and 3 and illustrated in graph<br />
form in Figure 4.<br />
Table 2: Demographic profile of zeb95.<br />
Age Category Male Male? Female Female ? Indeterminate<br />
Subadult<br />
Infant (1-5)<br />
Child (6-10) 1*<br />
Adolescent (11-17) 4<br />
Young adult 1<br />
Young/middle Adult j<br />
Middle/older Adult 2 1 1 1<br />
Mature Adult 5 1 1<br />
Adult 8<br />
TOTAL 11 2 2 1 15<br />
* one individual was aged as 10-12 which falls into the child/adolescent category<br />
Table 3: Demographic profile of z86.<br />
Age Category Male Male ? Female Female ? Indeterminate<br />
Subadult<br />
Infant (1-5)<br />
Child (6-10)<br />
Adolescent (11-17) 6<br />
Young adult 2<br />
Young/middle Adult 3 1<br />
Middle/older Adult 1 1<br />
Mature Adult 1 2<br />
Adult<br />
TOTAL 6 2 0 6<br />
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•••<br />
©<br />
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Estimation of stature<br />
<strong>St</strong>ature was calculated for individuals with complete limb bones according to the formulae devised by<br />
Trotter (1970). Where possible, the lower limbs were used in preference to those of the upper<br />
extremities; this is because the combined formulae for the femur and tibia has the lowest standard<br />
error. When any degree of post-mortem damage had occurred to the bone which affected its maximum<br />
length, the stature was not calculated; this is standard practice in the Calvin Wells Laboratory.<br />
Table 4: Mean stature at zeb95.<br />
Sex Range (cm) Mean Number<br />
Male 161.4- 181.5 172.0 12<br />
Female 143.1 - 162.8 156.2 3<br />
As an isolated phenomenon stature indicates the height of each individual, but comparison between<br />
populations in time and space can provide a more detailed analysis. The remains from zeb95 have<br />
been compared with other late medieval sites revealing that the stature estimates for zeb95 are normal<br />
for the period; see Table 5.<br />
Table 5: Differences in mean stature around Britain (cm).<br />
SITE DATE (AD) MALE FEMALE<br />
Number Mean Number Mean<br />
LINCOLN<br />
zeb95 (this study) 13th- 16th 12 172.0 3 156.2<br />
sus96 9th- 16th 7 169.7 16 158.6<br />
<strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> Church<br />
YORK<br />
10th- 16th 66 171.0 61 156.0<br />
Jewburv 12th- 13th 135 167.0 116 156.0<br />
<strong>St</strong>. Helen-on-the-<br />
Walls<br />
10th - 16th 240 169.0 268 157.0<br />
Fishergate 11th- 12th 45 172.0 30 158.0<br />
1195 - 16th 160 171.0 42 159.0<br />
Clementhorpe<br />
LONDON<br />
12th- 16th 25 171.0 55 156.0<br />
<strong>St</strong>. Nicholas<br />
Shambles<br />
ELSEWHERE<br />
11th- 12th 50 173.0 40 158.0.<br />
Blackfriars,<br />
Cumbria<br />
13th- 16th 54 171.0 20 160.0<br />
Exeter Cathedral,<br />
Devon<br />
Medieval 73 171.0 52 158.0<br />
Guildford Friary,<br />
Surrey<br />
Medieval 50 173.0 9 161.0<br />
Rothwell Charnel<br />
House,<br />
Northants.<br />
13th- 16th 173 172.0 156 158.0<br />
Adapted from Boghi and Boylston 1997, 5, Table 8<br />
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Cranial measurements<br />
A number of cranial measurements were taken in order to establish population variability.<br />
Measurements were taken according to Bass (1987) and Brothwell (1981) and results classified in<br />
accordance with Bass (1987). Unfortunately, for this site, a large number of skulls were damaged post<br />
mortem and, in almost all cases, the base was fragmented. The most complete skull was 6552, that of<br />
an older middle adult male, and for many measurements the results are derived from this individual.<br />
No female skulls could be measured due to the high degree of fragmentation. In past work, metrical<br />
analysis of the cranium has been used for ethnic determination and studying changing cranial<br />
morphology throughout time. Unfortunately, sample size for this site is too small and cannot be<br />
regarded as being representative of the population, but comparison was made with other late medieval<br />
cemeteries.<br />
Calculation of cranial indices, based on more than one individual, reveal that the males and male? had<br />
a physical type which ranged from narrow or long headed (dolichocrany) to broad or round headed<br />
(brachychrany). Generally, they consisted of the average skull type, described as mesocrany. The male<br />
skulls also had average skull breadth, average width and length of palate.<br />
Other cranial indices are derived solely from 6552 and, although not representative of the group, this<br />
individual gives the only information available for facial type: broad face, narrow nasal aperture, and<br />
wide orbits. The cranial vault also has a high length-height and high breadth-height. These are very<br />
specific to this individual and give no indication of general types for the population as a whole.<br />
Comparison of zeb95 with other late medieval groups indicates a similarity of physical type. Pennell<br />
<strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> (sus96) and <strong>St</strong>. Helen-on-the-Walls, York also contained males whose mean skull type<br />
was mesocrany, and whose mean palatal length and breadth was average (Boghi and Boylston 1996).<br />
In conclusion, from the small amount of available data it would appear that the males from zeb95 had<br />
similar cranial morphology to males from other late medieval cemeteries, although what these data<br />
mean in terms of population variation is debatable.<br />
Post-cranial measurements<br />
Measurements taken to assist in sex and stature estimation can be used to provide additional<br />
information about individuals from archaeological groups. In addition, anterio-posterior and mediolateral<br />
measurements were taken for the femur and tibia in order to establish the platymeric and<br />
platycnemic indices respectively for males and females. All measurements were taken as outlined in<br />
Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994); indices were calculated according to Brothwell (1981). (For results, see<br />
full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 8, illustrating the mean indices relating to males and females at<br />
zeb95.)<br />
The platycnemic index expresses the degree of medio-lateral flatness of the tibia (Bass 1987, 223). The<br />
males and females showed variation from platycnemic to eurycnemic but, on average, both left and<br />
right tibiae were eurycnemic. These results were consistent with Pennell <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> (sus96),<br />
where mean platycnemic indices for males were 74.9 for right and 73.0 for left, for females the mean<br />
was 71.2 for the right and 74.5 for the left (Boghi and Boylston 1996).<br />
The platymeric index expresses the degree of anterio-posterior flattening of the proximal tibia. As with<br />
platycnemic indices, the male and female femoral measurements exhibit variations from platymeric to<br />
eurymeric, but on average both left and right in both sexes were eurymeric. Brothwell (1981, 89)<br />
suggests that for 17th-century English populations the platymeric index has a mean of 85; this is<br />
consistent with the finding from zeb95.<br />
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Non-metric traits<br />
Non-metric traits can be described as minor discontinuous variants in the skeleton since they cannot<br />
be measured on an interval scale. They consist mainly of hyperostotic traits (e.g. atlas bridge),<br />
hypostotic traits (e.g. sternal foramen), minor variants in the foraminae or extra sutural bones<br />
(Saunders 1989). A total of 30 cranial and 30 post-cranial traits were recorded where possible.<br />
The post-cranial non-metric traits examined (as shown in the full archive report, Appendix 3, Table<br />
10) were mainly the traits listed in Finnegan (1978). Boghi and Boylston (1997, 9) suggest that the<br />
validity of post-cranial non-metric traits as a way of establishing family relationships is debatable.<br />
Many traits may be the result of biomechanical stress upon ligamentous attachment sites, and on<br />
articular facets, and may be related to muscular development. At <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation there was a high<br />
prevalence of double anterior calcaneal facets, Allen's fossae and bipartite transverse foraminae.<br />
Cranial non-metric traits (as shown in the full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 11) examined were<br />
mainly the traits listed in Berry and Berry (1967). The most common traits include ossicles at<br />
lambdoid, ossicles in the coronal suture, zygomaticofacial foramen, parietal foramen, bridging of<br />
supraorbital notch, accessory supraorbital foramen and mastoid foramen extrasutural; other<br />
occurrences are isolated. The low occurrence of some traits is due to poorer preservation, especially in<br />
the case of traits potentially present on the base of the skull. Amongst the traits that scored a very low<br />
frequency, despite the high occurrence of that bone, was metopic suture (1 of 11), palatine torus (1 of<br />
10) and mandibular torus (0 of 11). Cranial non-metric traits may allow for the study of family<br />
relationships within sites, and perhaps within a wider context. Unfortunately, due to the relatively low<br />
number of individuals available for this study, the application of those techniques is somewhat limited.<br />
5.0 Pathological Conditions<br />
Human remains form the most important source of primary evidence for disease in the past, although<br />
only chronic diseases leave their mark on the skeleton. Information on diseases that kill within a matter<br />
of days, or those that only affect the soft tissues are not available to the biological anthropologist,<br />
because the skeleton is not affected Therefore, only a fraction of diseases that affected past populations<br />
will be visible. Fortunately the teeth, which contain a lot of information, often survive very well.<br />
Dental health and disease<br />
Teeth are a valuable source of information; they provide evidence of age, diet, physiological adequacy<br />
of diet, methods of procuring food and oral hygiene, amongst others. Along with joint disease and<br />
trauma, dental disease and anomalies are the most frequently occurring abnormalities reported for past<br />
population (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 44).<br />
Dental health at zeb95 was recorded with regard to teeth present, antemortem tooth loss, tooth wear,<br />
caries, calculus, enamel hypoplasia, abscesses and dental anomalies. Great care was taken in the postexcavation<br />
treatment of the mandibles and maxillae; they were not washed or cleaned until they<br />
reached the laboratory. Teeth were gently brushed to record wear accurately but great care was taken<br />
not to dislodge any calculus deposits, and not to damage the fragile alveolar bone surrounding the<br />
teeth. The results of the complete dental analysis are summarised below in Table 6.<br />
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Table 6: Dental Health Summary.<br />
Male / M? Female/ F? Adult Sub Per Sub Decid Total<br />
Total teeth 310 44 47 147 8 559<br />
PM loss 33 20 42 6 0 101<br />
AM loss 44 6 3 0 0 53<br />
Caries 18 3 1 0 0 22<br />
Calculus 219 9 35 57 0 320<br />
Enamel<br />
Hypoplasia<br />
26 1 0 15 0 42<br />
At zeb95 there was a total of 556 permanent teeth (filling 78.3% of tooth sockets present) available for<br />
observation; 53 teeth (7.5% of sockets) had been lost antemortem and a further 101 teeth (14.2% of<br />
sockets) had been lost post-mortem; the total number of sockets was 710. Antemortem tooth loss,<br />
which may be due to destruction of the tooth by caries or periodontal disease, was most commonly<br />
seen in the male mandible. The most common teeth to be shed antemortem were the molars; this is<br />
perhaps not that unlikely as they are towards the back of mouth and may accumulate food and bacteria<br />
which attack them and lead to disease. The least likely teeth to be lost antemortem were equally the 1st<br />
incisor, canine, and both premolars. The most common teeth to be lost post-mortem were the incisors;<br />
this is a common finding as these anterior single rooted teeth may easily become dislodged during<br />
burial and/or excavation (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 45). There was a total of eight deciduous teeth<br />
available for observation; none had been lost antemortem or post-mortem, as only parts of deciduous<br />
jaws were available. (See full archive report, Appendix 3, Tables 12-13 for the data from which this<br />
information was extrapolated.)<br />
Dental caries<br />
Dental caries is reported more frequently in archaeological populations than other dental diseases<br />
(Roberts and Manchester 1995, 45). Caries is caused by the interaction of sugar and bacteria contained<br />
in the plaque which adheres to the teeth. When the correct combination of plaque bacteria and sugar<br />
occurs, acids are produced which demineralize the teeth and leave cavities. (Hillson 1986, 287).<br />
Carious lesions were recorded with regard to the tooth affected and the position and size of the cavity<br />
(see full archive, report, Appendix 3, Tables 17 and 18).<br />
At <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation, caries rates are relatively low compared with other late medieval sites. Although<br />
the rates are relatively consistent with <strong>St</strong>. Giles, Jarrow and <strong>St</strong>. Helen-on-the-Walls, York, there are<br />
larger differences with Pennell <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> (sus96) which, geographically, is the closest to <strong>St</strong>.<br />
<strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation. This may be a result of the better oral hygiene and diet within the Carmelite friary, but<br />
Powell (1985, 317, fig 10.1) suggests there are a number of exogenous factors to take into<br />
consideration, such as environmental factors (e.g. trace elements in food and water), pathogenic agents<br />
(the bacteria causing the disease), and endogenous factors (e.g. the shape and structure of the teeth).<br />
The difference in caries rates at zeb95 may be due to biases in sampling and may not be representative<br />
of the site as a whole. The most common sites for carious lesions were multiple, mesial and distal (see<br />
full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 18).<br />
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Table 7: Caries rates at different late medieval sites.<br />
SITE TOTAL TEETH CARIOUS %<br />
zeb95 (this study) 556 22 4.0<br />
sus96 (Pennell <strong>St</strong>reet) 733 164 22.4<br />
Jarrow, Co. Durham 957 42 4.4<br />
<strong>St</strong>. Helen-on-the-Walls,<br />
York<br />
7806 345 4.4<br />
Blackfriars, Gloucester 1112 81 7.3<br />
<strong>St</strong>. Giles, North Yorkshire 665 57 8.6<br />
Fishergate, York 1406 61 4.3<br />
2945 356 12.1<br />
Blackfriars, Ipswich 461 28 6.1<br />
Adapted from Roberts and Manchester (1995, 49 ) and Boghi and Boylston (1997, 10)<br />
Dental abscesses<br />
No abscesses were recorded on individuals from zeb95, however it is worth noting their relatively low<br />
frequency in other late medieval populations; see Table 8.<br />
Table 8: Abscess rates at different late medieval sites.<br />
SITE NO. TOOTH<br />
POSITIONS<br />
NO. ABSCESSES %<br />
zeb95 (this study) 710 0 0<br />
z86 313 5 1.6<br />
sus96 733 7 0.9<br />
Jarrow, Co. Durham 1128 16 1.1<br />
<strong>St</strong>. Helen-on-the-<br />
Walls<br />
Blackfriars,<br />
Gloucester<br />
<strong>St</strong>. Giles, North<br />
Yorks<br />
9788 113 1.2<br />
644 14 2.3<br />
639 15 2.4<br />
Fishergate, York ? 9 1.9<br />
0 ? 4.5<br />
Blackfriars, Ipswich 1589 25 1.6<br />
Since dental caries can predispose to the development of a dental abscess, it is perhaps no surprise that<br />
there are no abscesses in this very small sample. That is not to suggest that the population as a whole<br />
did not suffer; indeed, Boylston and Roberts (1995, 68) found two individuals with abscesses from<br />
earlier excavations at <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation (z86). A combination of the results from both excavations<br />
gave an abscess rate (5 out of 1023 or 0.5%) which was consistent with Pennell <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong><br />
(sus96), where the abscess rate was recorded as 0.9%.<br />
Dental calculus<br />
In societies where dental hygiene is not practised, calculus accumulates on the teeth as a result of<br />
mineralization of plaque. It tends to localize particularly on the lingual surface of the lower incisors<br />
and the buccal surface of the upper molars near the salivary glands from which the calcium is derived.<br />
n i<br />
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Calculus is much less frequent in children but in the past the condition was very common in adults.<br />
Calculus was recorded as slight, medium or heavy on each tooth surface in accordance with Brothwell<br />
(1981), and the colour was noted in cases where the calculus was greenish in appearance; this indicates<br />
subgingival calculus which is related to the process of periodontal disease (Hillson 1986, 302).<br />
In the present study 263 of 556 permanent adult teeth (47.3 %) were affected by calculus formation,<br />
whilst only 57 subadult teeth (38.7%) were involved (see full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 19).<br />
The most commonly affected teeth overall were the first molars whilst the least commonly affected<br />
were the third molars. Two hundred and nineteen male teeth (68.9%) were affected, whilst only nine<br />
female teeth (20.5%) were involved. Unfortunately, the results for the females may be slightly biased<br />
due to the poorer preservation of female teeth. Inhumation 18620, sexed as female?, only had one<br />
tooth, a lower second premolar which not commonly affected, whilst the other two females (6539 and<br />
6614), only have less than half the total number of molars preserved; as these appear to be the most<br />
commonly affected teeth the results may be slightly biased.<br />
In two individuals subgingival calculus was recorded. In all other cases calculus was supragingival.<br />
None of the skeletons had occlusal calculus deposits which would have reflected the lack of attention<br />
given to dental hygiene; this is consistent with the low occurrence of caries and abscesses.<br />
Dental enamel hypoplasia<br />
Goodman (1991, 1280), has described enamel hypoplasia as 'deficiencies in enamel matrix<br />
composition.' Its aetiology is largely unknown, but they are thought to represent episodes of childhood<br />
illness, such as fevers or infantile diarrhoea. Conditions such as these cause an interruption in the<br />
formation of the enamel matrix and result in the appearance of a pit, line or hoizontal groove on the<br />
tooth. Roberts and Manchester (1995, 58) suggest that it is most commonly viewed on the buccal<br />
surface of the incisors and canines. Although not applied to this study, some authors have attempted to<br />
age the time at which the stress occurred since the laying down of enamel is a well documented fact<br />
(Hillson 1992; Sciulli 1992; Hodges and Wilkinson 1990).<br />
Only 51 of 556 teeth (9.2%) had defects which were consistent with the description of enamel<br />
hypoplasia (see full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 20). The author recorded enamel hypoplasia<br />
according to methods described in Hillson (1986), and was careful only to record true disturbances of<br />
enamel using oblique lighting and a dental probe to assist the interpretation. Sixteen teeth (31.4%)<br />
affected with enamel hypoplasia were canines, 23.5% were lateral incisors, 17.6% were central<br />
incisors, 15.7% were second pre-molars, 7.8% were first premolars, 2% were first and second molars,<br />
whilst no third molars were affected. Only 2% of hypoplastic teeth were female, whilst 68.6% were<br />
male; 29.4% of hypoplastic teeth were subadult.<br />
Periodontal disease<br />
A major predisposing factor in the development of periodontal disease is the accumulation of calculus<br />
between the tooth and soft tissue and bone of the jaw. This results in chronic inflammation of the gums<br />
and results in resorption of the alveolar bone. Hillson (1986, 308) suggests that the disease is more<br />
prevalent and more serious in older age groups. Periodontal disease was recorded according to<br />
Brothwell (1981) where jaws were recorded as having slight, medium or severe resorption. At <strong>St</strong>.<br />
<strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation, the age of individuals affected by periodontal disease was as expected; only older<br />
middle adults and mature adults were affected. Mandibular periodontal disease affected more<br />
individuals but was commonly graded as slight, whilst maxillary periodontal disease, which affected<br />
less individuals, was more commonly medium grade (see full archive report, Appendix 3, Tables 21<br />
and 22).<br />
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Dental anomalies<br />
An individual was recorded as having dental anomalies when the number, position or eruption pattern<br />
was different from normal. Four individuals were recorded as having dental anomalies: 7409 had a<br />
rotated lower left canine, 7511 had dental overcrowding, where the third molars, in particular the<br />
maxillary molars had erupted at an angle, 1272 had mandibular overcrowding of the incisors, 7506 had<br />
slight mandibular overcrowding of the lower left lateral incisor and canine. Interestingly, this skeleton<br />
also had impacted upper canines and retention of the deciduous canines and lateral right incisor<br />
(lateral left incisor lost post-mortem), see PI. 1.<br />
Plate 1: Skeleton 7506 - Impacted maxillary canines, retained deciduous dentition removed for<br />
photography (young middle adult male).<br />
Congenital and developmental defects<br />
Congenital malformations are defined as such because they are present at birth. However many skeletal<br />
abnormalities only become apparent in childhood with growth and development. Ninety percent of<br />
such conditions have a genetic basis (Barnes 1994, 10), the spinal column is often affected by minor<br />
structural alterations which may be asymptomatic.<br />
At zeb95, congenital and developmental abnormalities were limited to one case of unilateral<br />
spondylolysis (6474), and one skeleton (7414) with bifid neural arches and an anterior cleft of the<br />
sacrum, a bifurcated rib and a few minor variants of the spine. Spondylolysis involves separation of<br />
the neural arch from the vertebral body at the pars interarticularis. Explanations for the frequencies of<br />
separate neural arches are complex. Whilst some evidence shows this to be a genetically influenced<br />
trait, there is also suggestion that this may be, in part, a result of mechanical stress of the spine (Turkel<br />
1989, 120). Skeleton 6474, a male mature adult, had unilateral spondylolysis; the neural arch was not<br />
completely separated and did not therefore result in spondylolisthesis, where one or more vertebrae slip<br />
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forward. It is interesting to note that 6474 also has osteoarthritis of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae,<br />
Bradtmiller (1984, 327) suggests that arthritis patterns may be an important variable in the<br />
development of this condition.<br />
Skeleton 7414, a younger adult male had several developmental defects of the ribs and sacrum; defects<br />
which occur in specific regions of the body reflect disturbances in a particular developmental field<br />
(Barnes 1994, 11). In 7414 the affected parts of the skeleton arise from the same sclerotomic tissue<br />
which forms the posterior portion of the vertebral bodies and neural arches and eventually forms the<br />
ribs along the thoracic spine. This suggests that this individual suffered from defects of the paraxial<br />
mesodermal field, which begin to segment at twenty-one days in an embryo (Barnes 1994). 7414 had<br />
incomplete closure or development of the neural arches of the sacrum, an anterior cleft between SI and<br />
S2 and a bifurcated or bifid rib (see PI. 2-4). This occurs when a single rib divides into two near the<br />
sternum and is most common in the third or fourth rib, which is consistent with 7414, whose left fourth<br />
rib had this condition. Barnes (1994) further suggests that approximately one third of the individuals<br />
affected by developmental disturbances display more than one defect which are likely to develop<br />
independently of one another, and that developmental defects are population specific.<br />
Plate 2: Skeleton 7414 - Anterior cleft between first and second sacral segments (young middle adult<br />
male).<br />
Infectious disease<br />
Infective lesions are a common finding in skeletons from archaeological sites and can be divided into<br />
specific and non-specific infection. The former term is used to describe changes noted in the bone<br />
which can be ascribed to a particular bacterium whilst non-specific infection of bone may be from any<br />
number of bacterium which cannot be distinguished (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 125).<br />
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Plate 3: Skeleton 7414 - Incomplete closure of sacral neural arches.<br />
Plate 4: Skeleton 7414- Bifurcated left fourth rib.<br />
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Non-specific infection<br />
Evidence of infection is seen on dry bone where there is formation of new bone in response to an<br />
incident which may have been traumatic or infectious. Periostitis affects the surface of the bone under<br />
the periosteum and is often seen on the tibiae; osteitis affects cortical bone and may cause thickening<br />
of the shaft and narrowing of the marrow cavity; osteomyelitis is transmitted via the bloodstream and<br />
affects the entire bone causing thickening which results in the formation of a cloaca for drainage of the<br />
pus produced.<br />
Table 9 summarises the prevalence of periosteal new bone formation which indicates the age and sex<br />
of the individual affected, the location of the new bone, and which type of bone is present (e.g. woven,<br />
lamellar or mixed).<br />
Table 9: Individuals affected by periostitis.<br />
Skeleton Sex Age Location Type<br />
2991 Male ? Adolescent Left tibia Mixture<br />
7409 Male Young middle Left tibia Lamellar<br />
Right tibia Lamellar<br />
1272 Male Older middle Right tibia Lamellar<br />
Left tibia Lamellar<br />
Right femur Woven<br />
6539 Female Older middle Right tibia Lamellar<br />
Right fibula Lamellar<br />
6560 Male Mature Adult Right tibia Lamellar<br />
Left tibia Mixture<br />
Left fibula Lamellar<br />
Due to small sample size, the following prevalence rates were derived from males, females and<br />
subadults combined. Four of nineteen left tibiae (21.1%), and five of twenty-seven right tibiae (18.6%)<br />
were affected with periostitis. Two of nineteen (10.5%) right fibulae and one of nineteen (5.3%) left<br />
fibulae had periostitis, and one of twenty-six (3.8%) right femurs had periostitis. Periosteal new bone<br />
formation was most prevalent on the left tibiae.<br />
Osteitis occurred in one individual, 6552, an older middle adult male, from Area 6 in the cemetery (see<br />
PI. 5). Both left tibiae and fibulae were affected by osteitis; radiographically the cortical thickness had<br />
greatly increased and there is no evidence of a cloaca; the sacrum of this individual also appears<br />
thickened anteriorly on radiograph. An individual from an earlier watching brief (bra95 109) exhibited<br />
similar pathological changes of the tibia.<br />
Specific Infection<br />
This covers a range of disease such as parasitic infection, leprosy and tuberculosis, which were not<br />
observed on the remains from zeb95. However, as discussed by Boylston (1996, 3) in the assessment<br />
of the material from this site, one individual 6552 (discussed above) may have characteristic changes<br />
of the treponemal diseases (which include syphilis) affecting the tibiae and sacrum; this was confirmed<br />
by Don Ortner (pers. comm.). However, there is no involvement of the skull which would confirm the<br />
diagnosis of treponemal disease.<br />
Trauma<br />
Trauma has been defined as any bodily injury or wound (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 65). Four<br />
individuals from zeb95 suffered trauma; all were male mature adults, meaning that 36% (4/11) of
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males and 57% (4/7) of mature adults had suffered fractures. None of the females showed evidence of<br />
trauma; this is not to suggest that females were not predisposed to fractures or trauma, because the<br />
sample is small and poorly preserved. The evidence for fractures is summarised in Table 10, which<br />
indicates the age, sex and site of the fracture(s), as well as the state of healing and alignment of the<br />
bone.<br />
In total, 4.4% of right and 1.9% of left ribs were fractured. At this site, rib fractures appear to be one of<br />
the most commonly occurring injuries which can result from a direct fall or blow. In all but one case<br />
the fractures were well healed; 7322, however, had non-union of fractured ribs with periosteal reaction.<br />
This is considered to be a case of true non-union and not occurring at the time of death because some<br />
attempt at healing has been made which is also visible on x-ray (see PI. 6). Judd (1984), who studied<br />
fractures sustained by individuals from the medieval period in urban and rural environments, found<br />
that the clavicle was most often subjected to trauma amongst males. At zeb95, 9.1% of male left<br />
clavicles were fractured and 10% of right fibulae were also fractured; this is also expected because the<br />
fibula is on the outside of the lower leg and may be subject to greater risk of trauma. All the healed<br />
fractures were well aligned with the exception of 6560, where the bones are overlapped slightly which<br />
resulted in shortening of the fibula and bone formation on the medial shaft. This, perhaps, indicates the<br />
level of aftercare in this community, especially in the case of individuals with well aligned rib<br />
fractures, as the person affected cannot move around much after the injury and would need someone<br />
else to care for them. Perhaps it is of no surprise that it was the elderly members of the community who<br />
were most at risk from these type of injuries and, although one can infer the force that may have<br />
caused a fracture, one cannot usually presume more unless it is a weapon injury.<br />
Table 10: Individuals affected by trauma.<br />
Skeleton Sex Age Site Number Healed ? Alignment<br />
6464 Male Mature 1 R rib 1/115 Well healed Well aligned<br />
Male Mature 1 L rib 1/108 Well healed Well aligned<br />
Male Mature L clavicle 1/11 Well healed Well aligned<br />
7322 Male? Mature 4 R ribs 4/115 Non-union -<br />
7730 Male Mature 1 L rib 1/108 Well healed Well aligned<br />
6560 Male Mature R fibula 1/10 Well healed 60% apposition<br />
Metabolic disorders<br />
Certain deficiency disease can leave traces on the skeleton, e.g. rickets, which is caused by a lack of<br />
vitamin D. Porosity of the orbital roofs, known as cribra orbitalia, is common in British archaeological<br />
populations (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 167). These lesions are thought to be related to iron<br />
deficiency anaemia in childhood. Iron deficiency may have had a protective effect against infections<br />
and parasites in the past by depriving pathogens of a source of iron (<strong>St</strong>uart-Macadam 1991), although a<br />
diet deficient in iron may also be the cause.
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Plate 5: Skeleton 6552 - Osteitis of left tibia and fubula in an older middle adult male.<br />
Plate 6: Skeleton 7322 - Non-union of fractured ribs -with periosteal reaction (mature adult male?).<br />
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Cribra orbitalia<br />
Crania were examined for this condition by the method devised by <strong>St</strong>uart-Macadam (1991), where<br />
each orbit is examined and graded according to position and grade of the lesions; the results of this<br />
analysis are summarized in Table 11.<br />
Table 11: Individuals affected by cribra orbitalia.<br />
Skeleton Sex Age Left Orbit Right Orbit<br />
7511 Male Young Adult Type 4 Type 3<br />
7508 Male ? Adolescent Type 2 Type 3/4<br />
6485 ? Infant Type 2/3 Type 2<br />
7513 ? Adolescent Type 3 Type 3<br />
7534 Male Mature Adult Type 2 none<br />
The more severe types of porosity were found in the right orbit although the left was more commonly<br />
affected. Grouping the subadults together, three had cribra orbitalia in both orbits, meaning that 50% of<br />
left orbits and 60% of right subadult orbits were affected. Three adult males were recorded as having<br />
cribra orbitalia, meaning that 20% of male left orbits and 20% of male right orbits were affected. None<br />
of the females had cribra orbitalia; however, the crania were poorly preserved and only one right and<br />
one left orbit were present for this study.<br />
Endocrine disease<br />
Endocrine diseases are not very common in archaeological skeletal material. Two contexts of human<br />
remains from zeb95 were diagnosed as possibly exhibiting the very early stages of hyperostosis<br />
frontalis interna (H.F.I), a disease which is related to pituitary gland disorders and produces<br />
characteristic new bone formation on the endocranial surface of the skull. Although it has been<br />
associated with post-menopausal women it had a male:female ratio of 1:9 (Barber et al 1997, 157). The<br />
very severe thickening is rarely seen on archaeological bone but this represents the later phases of the<br />
disease process; the raised projections viewed on skeletons 6464 and 18377 may be an early indication<br />
of the disease.<br />
Table 12: Prevalence of Hyperostosis Frontalis Interna.<br />
SITE PERIOD %<br />
zeb95 (this study) 13th - 16th 11.8<br />
Fishergate, York 12th - 16th 1.0<br />
Home for the Aged, USA Modem 62.0<br />
Elderly USA citizens Modern 40.0<br />
Table adapted from Barber et al 1997, 157<br />
The disease has a low prevalence in the past compared with modern populations. Modern samples<br />
exhibit a prevalence of up to 70% in women over 40 years of age, compared with an archaeological<br />
prevalence of between 1% and 4% (Barber et al 1997, 157). Perhaps the low prevalence is due to under<br />
diagnosis of the earlier stages of the disease as seen on 6464 and 18377, or because life expectancy<br />
was lower. Although the number of individuals with H.F.I from zeb95 does appear unusually high this<br />
is due to the overall low number of frontal bones present for analysis.<br />
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Joint disease<br />
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This condition has been subdivided into joint disease of the spine and osteoarthritis or erosive<br />
arthropathies affecting the major synovial joints of the body or the small joints of the hands and feet.<br />
The topic must not be viewed in isolation since osteoarthritis of the facet joints of the spine is often<br />
associated with the same condition in the other joints of the body.<br />
Spinal joint disease<br />
Vertebrae were examined by the method of Sager (1969) for the presence of osteophytes, porosity,<br />
Schmorl's nodes and ebumation. Individuals with no spines were 7545, 1197 and 8632. Individuals<br />
with spines but no pathological changes were 6552, 2991, 7513, 7377, 2928, 6485, 7508 and 7341.<br />
The majority of these are from the subadult category and one would not expect them to have spinal<br />
pathology; 6552 does have severe ossification of the ligamentum flavum. (See full archive report,<br />
Appendix 3, Tables 23-26 for the detailed information regarding spinal pathologies from which these<br />
results were extrapolated.)<br />
Spinal osteoarthritis<br />
Following Rogers and Waldron (1995), osteoarthritis was only diagnosed with the presence of<br />
eburnation, or at least two of the following: porosity, osteophytes and joint contour change.<br />
Osteoarthritis represents the "natural reaction of a synovial joint to failure" as a consequence of ageing,<br />
injury, activity or genetic predisposition (Rogers and Waldron 1995, 33). Table 13 gives a summary of<br />
each individual with spinal osteoarthritis.<br />
Table 13: Individuals with spinal osteoarthritis.<br />
Skeleton Sex Age Affected Vertebrae<br />
6464 Male Mature C3-C4<br />
6614 Female Mature C5-T6<br />
6474 Male Mature C2-C3, T4-T6<br />
7534 Male Mature C4-T2<br />
10034 Male Older middle C3-C4, T3-T4<br />
6560 Male Mature T1,T3,T4<br />
6195 ? Adult C3,C5,T1<br />
At zeb95, osteoarthritis of the vertebral column was more commonly found in the upper spine.<br />
Osteoarthritis is mulitfactorial in aetiology; indeed, Bridges (1994, 91) suggests that neck osteoarthritis<br />
can be a result of carrying heavy loads, although other causes range from a genetic predisposition,<br />
activity/lifestyle and environmental factors such as climate. However, the individuals from zeb95 are<br />
all older and the changes are likely to be related to the natural degeneration of the joints, which would<br />
no doubt have caused stiffness, neck and backache. One cannot determine if males had a higher<br />
prevalence of cervical arthritic changes as only four cervical vertebrae belonging to a female were<br />
recovered, again a reflection of poorer preservation amongst the few females present.<br />
Intervertebral disc disease<br />
Degeneration of the intervertebral disc is a common finding in archaeological samples. The distribution<br />
of degenerative changes to vertebrae, which could not be classified as osteoarthritis, are summarised<br />
below in Table 14 (and in the full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 25, which indicates the percentage<br />
of males and females with osteophytes, porosity and Schmorl's nodes at each vertebrae).<br />
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Table 14: Distribution of degenerative disc disease at zeb95.<br />
Osteophytes Porosity Schmorl's Nodes<br />
Male Female Male Female Male Female<br />
Cervical 19/77 3/4 24/77 0/4 0/77 0/4<br />
Thoracic 34/143 16/24 5/143 6/24 48/143 2/24<br />
Lumbar 24/63 5/13 8/63 3/13 28/63 0/13<br />
Osteophytes were most common on the lumbar vertebrae in males and thoracic vertebrae in females,<br />
whilst porosity was most common on cervical vertebrae in males and thoracic in females. The high<br />
occurrence of cervical osteophytes is interesting in conjunction with the high prevalence of neck<br />
osteoarthritis; however, it should be noted that osteophytes on their own are likely to be age-related.<br />
Schmorl's nodes<br />
Schmori's nodes occur as the result of the prolapse of intervertebral disc material into the vertebral<br />
body, creating a depression in the superior and/or inferior articular surface of the vertebral body which<br />
is visible on dry bone. They reflect weakening of the vertebral bodies as a consequence of ageing<br />
and/or traumatic events associated with an overload of the weight-bearing capacity of the spine. Table<br />
15 summarises which individuals from zeb95 had Schmorl's nodes.<br />
Table 15: Individuals with Schmorl's nodes.<br />
Skeleton Sex Age Affected Vertebrae<br />
7414 Male Young middle T5-L4<br />
7409 Male Young middle T7<br />
6474 Male Mature T8-L4<br />
7506 Male Young middle T5-T11 L2-L3<br />
7534 Male Mature T6-L2<br />
1272 Male Older middle T5-L4<br />
6539 Female Older middle Tll-Ll<br />
7322 Male? Mature L2-L5<br />
10034 Male Older middle T11-L2<br />
6560 Male Mature T8-T12<br />
7511 Male Young adult T6-T10 T12-L5<br />
8361 ? Adult T8-T9<br />
6560 Male Mature T8-T12<br />
From Table 15, one can see that Schmorl's nodes affected 76.9% of males, 33.3% of females and<br />
12.5% of adults; a variety of age classes were involved (the percentages of vertebrae affected can be<br />
found in the full archive report, Appendix 3, Table 26). No cervical vertebrae from any age category<br />
were affected, whilst 50% of young adults had thoracic Schmorl's nodes and 100% had lumbar<br />
Schmorl's nodes (there was only one young adult present in this study). Young middle adults males<br />
also had a high prevalence of Schmorl's nodes where 47.1% of thoracic vertebrae and 40% of lumbar<br />
vertebrae were affected. Older middle adults had 31.6% of thoracic vertebrae and 53.8% of lumbar<br />
vertebrae affected. Twenty one point three percent of mature adults had affected thoracic vertebrae<br />
whilst 20.7% had affected lumbar vertebrae. Therefore, Schmorl's nodes appear to be more prevalent<br />
in the younger age categories. This would seem to concur with the ideas of Varin (1996) who suggests<br />
that carrying heavy loads at a young age when the vertebral end plates are still impressionable can<br />
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cause Schmorl's nodes; only one of the three females had Schmorl's nodes and these affected 16.7% of<br />
the thoracic vertebrae.<br />
Extra-spinal joint disease<br />
Distributions and prevalence rates for extra-spinal osteoarthritis are given in Table 16, which illustrates<br />
the number and percentage of joints affected in males and females.<br />
Table 16: Extra-spinal osteoarthritis.<br />
Joint Male % Male % Female % Female % Total<br />
Right Left Right Left<br />
Hip 1/13 7.8 0/13 0 0/3 0 0/3 0 1/32<br />
Foot 1/11 9.1 1/11 9.1 0/2 0 0/2 0 2/26<br />
Elbow 0/12 0 1/11 9.1 0/2 0 1/3 JJ.J 2/28<br />
Hand 0/13 1/13 7.7 0/3 0 0/3 0 1/32<br />
Wrist 1/12 8.3 2/12 16.7 1/3<br />
-(<br />
JJJ 0/2 0 3/29<br />
Knee 0/12 0 0/11 0 1/2 50.0 1/2 50.0 2/27<br />
Acromioclavicular<br />
3/12 25.0 4/12 jj.J 0/2 0 0/2 0 7/28<br />
All of the individuals affected by osteoarthritis were mature adults. The most common site for arthritic<br />
changes was the acromio-clavicular joint in males. This is a frequent finding amongst older individuals<br />
and it results in pain during motion of the upper arm (Resnick and Niwayama (eds) 1988, 1427). The<br />
female sample size is too small to be taken as representative but from this collection one can say that<br />
knee osteoarthritis was common. Roberts and Manchester (1995, 113) suggest that, along with the hip,<br />
this is a common finding in archaeological and modern samples as these are the weight-bearing joints<br />
which undergo most stress. Males had a high prevalence of wrist osteoarthritis; however, one male<br />
(6474), had arthritic changes to the left wrist which may have been related to underlying infection<br />
and/or trauma. The distal radius and carpals showed severe ebumation, contour change to joint<br />
surfaces, and complete destruction of the distal radius (see Pis. 7-8). However, the individual probably<br />
still used that hand as none of the metacarpals showed signs of atrophy; this must have caused a great<br />
deal of deal of pain during flexion and extension of the wrist. In males the hip, the hand and the foot,<br />
and the elbow, are similarly affected. It is difficult to suggest any patterning with such small numbers,<br />
although all the arthritic changes may be age-related, since osteoarthritis is multifactorial in aetiology<br />
and causes may include body weight and genetic predisposition. Roberts and Manchester (1995, 106)<br />
suggest that involvement of hands and feet is common but this varies between populations, and that<br />
elbow osteoarthritis is relatively rare today. The distribution and prevalence of other joints in changes<br />
which could not be classified as osteoarthritis, are shown in Table 17.<br />
44
Plate 7<br />
Plate 8<br />
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w<br />
/<br />
Skeleton 6474 - Plate 7: Mature adult male showing osteoarthritis of the left wrist with underlying<br />
infection and/or trauma. The distal radius illustrates the destructive changes and contour change to the<br />
wrist joint. Plate 8: 'A ' illustrates the degree of change in the lunate, one of the wrist bones. 'B' is a<br />
normal example.<br />
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Table 17: Distribution of degenerative changes to extra-spinal joints.<br />
Joint Male % Male % Female % Female % Total<br />
Right Left Right Left<br />
Medial clavicle 1/11 9.1 1/11 9.1 1/2 50.0 1/1 100.0 4/25<br />
Proximal<br />
humerus<br />
0/12 0 0/13 0 1/3 33.3 0/3 0 1/31<br />
Ribs 2/115 1.7 3/108 2.8 0/21 0 1/18 0 5/262<br />
Distal femur 1/12 8.3 1/11 9.1 0/2 0 0/2 0 2/27<br />
Acetabulum 1/12 8.3 0/12 0 0/2 0 0/3 0 1/29<br />
Proximal Ulna 1/13 7.7 1/11 9.1 0/2 0 0/3 0 2/29<br />
Foot 1/11 9.1 0/11 0 0/3 0 0/2 0 1/26<br />
Erosive arthropathies<br />
Rogers and Waldron (1995:12), suggest that erosive lesions present much more of a problem<br />
diagnostically than those that are proliferive. Two individuals, 6560 and 1272, had erosive lesions on<br />
their feet and special attention is given to 6560, a mature adult male. As well as having osteoarthritis of<br />
the cervical vertebrae and both acromio-clavicular joints, intervertebral disc degeneration, and<br />
osteophytosis of the ribs and distal femur, this individual also suffered from severe, multiple erosive<br />
arthropathies of the metatarsals. The affected areas were the left first head, the lateral shaft of both<br />
third, fourth and fifth metatarsals, and the medial shaft on the right fifth. All metatarsals were affected<br />
bilaterally expect for the first. The lesions are characteristic of the changes of gouty arthritis (see Pis. 9-<br />
10). Skeleton 1272, a male older middle adult also had an erosive arthropathy on the left first<br />
metatarso-phalangeal joint; this is not bilateral and involves no other porosity or osteophytosis. Due to<br />
the problems of diagnosing lesions of this type it cannot be classified further than an erosive<br />
arthropathy.<br />
Enthesopathies<br />
These are bony outgrowths which develop at the insertions of tendons and ligaments. Their aetiology is<br />
largely unknown and likely to be a response to multiple stimuli which may include traumatic,<br />
degenerative or metabolic events; cortical defects may also be present in areas such as the costoclavicular<br />
ligament on the inferior clavicle.<br />
At zeb95 the occurrence of enthesopathies was restricted to the males and their distribution is shown in<br />
Table 18. This reveals that the most common site was on the patella, and this is a common finding in<br />
archaeological populations. Mann and Murphy (1990, 120), suggest that this is a common finding in<br />
most populations and is usually bilateral and symmetrical in appearance.<br />
Table 18: Distribution and prevalence of enthesopathies.<br />
Insertion site Right % Left %<br />
Patellar ligament 3/6 50.0 3/11 27.3<br />
Soieus 1/13 7.7 2/12 16.7<br />
Achilles tendon 5/11 45.5 4/11 36.4<br />
Peroneus brevis 1/10 10.0 0/11 0<br />
Conoid 0/11 0 1/11 9.1<br />
Linea aspera 2/13 15.4 1/12 8.3<br />
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Plate 9: Skeleton 6560 - Erosive arthropathies of left metatarsals in a mature adult male.<br />
Plate 10: Skeleton 6560 - Detail of erosive arthropathy on left first metatarsal in a mature adult male.<br />
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Seven individuals from zeb95 had cortical defects; one female (18620), five males (6464, 6552, 7414,<br />
7506, 7534) and one subadult (7513). The subadults had such defects at the biceps insertion on the<br />
humerus, costo-clavicular ligament and pectoralis major insertions. Mann and Murphy (1990, 139) also<br />
suggest that such findings are common in subadults and are a normal response to rapidly growing<br />
bone. The common site for a cortical defect in adults was at the insertion for the costo-clavicular<br />
ligament on the inferior medial clavicle. This affected two males bilaterally and one asymmetrically on<br />
the right hand side.<br />
D.I.S.H. (Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis)<br />
This disease (also known as Forestier's disease) is characterised by the ossification of the anterior<br />
longitudinal ligament of the spine, ossification of neck and rib cartilage and extraspinal ligaments. The<br />
fusion of four contiguous vertebrae is needed to diagnose D.I.S.H., and the osteophytes produced are<br />
commonly on the right hand side. Males are more commonly affected than females and the age of<br />
onset is normally over 50 years of age (Resnick and Niwayama (eds) 1988, 1563). Waldron (1985) has<br />
suggested that a rich diet and lack of exercise predisposed people at Merton Priory to obesity and lateonset<br />
diabetes. D.I.S.H. has a low prevalence rate in the archaeological record and this may be due to<br />
confusion with ankylosing spondylitis, a progressive inflammatory disease of unknown aetiology,<br />
which also involves the spine. However, ankylosing spondylitis has no extraspinal manifestations and<br />
the hallmark is sacro-iliac fusion which does not usually occur in D.I.S.H.<br />
One individual from zeb95 had pathological changes which are consistent with D.I.S.H. Skeleton<br />
7730, a mature male had 6 fused vertebrae; unfortunately the high degree of fragmentation meant that<br />
it was difficult to decide if these were contiguous. Extraspinal enthesopathies were located along the<br />
iliac crest, both linea aspera, the right acetabulum, and the left ulna and radius. No ossification of neck<br />
or rib cartilage was found but it is likely these were lost or not recovered during excavation, bearing in<br />
mind the poor condition of the burial.<br />
Miscellaneous<br />
The pathological condition of both feet of 6552 have been placed in this category as the articulation of<br />
both calcanei, both talus and naviculars are rather unusual and appear to be displaced medially. It is<br />
possible that 6552 was walking almost on the ankles. This would certainly have caused some<br />
discomfort during walking and produced stress on the legs; however, it is not thought to be the cause of<br />
the osteitis affecting this individual's tibiae and fibulae.<br />
Skeleton 7409, a younger adult male, had a spinous process which appears to be displaced to the right<br />
but this is probably not a result of a traumatic episode. This affected the sixth thoracic vertebra and was<br />
not found in any other individuals.<br />
5.0 Summary and Conclusions<br />
Sixty-four contexts of human bone were excavated and recorded by the City of <strong>Lincoln</strong> Archaeological<br />
Unit. These included 5 unstratified contexts and 28 disarticulated contexts, which ranged from single<br />
bones to commingled remains. The remaining 31 individuals were generally very well preserved with a<br />
high recovery rate of smaller bones which indicates care during excavation.<br />
The osteological analysis of zeb95 revealed 13 males, 3 females, 7 subadults and 8 adults, of whom<br />
one was a young adult, 3 were young middle adults, 5 were older middle adults and 7 were mature.<br />
The demographic profile at this site does not reflect that of a normal population; females are largely<br />
under-represented which may be due to the nature of the site or sampling.<br />
A number of metrical and non-metrical criteria were recorded to assess population variability. The<br />
results showed a usual mean stature for the period. The calculations of cranial indices were somewhat<br />
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limited due to poorer preservation of crania; in fact in many instances the mean indices were based on<br />
one skull alone and no female indices could be calculated. On average, skulls showed a tendency<br />
towards mesocrany which was also usual for this period. The values for platycnemia were consistent<br />
with Pennell <strong>St</strong>reet, a contemporary <strong>Lincoln</strong> site. Non-metric trait analysis revealed a high rate of<br />
ossicles in the cranial sutures which again is not unusual for the period. Unfortunately spatial analysis<br />
was not possible with such small numbers.<br />
Pathological conditions were recorded using descriptive terminology and grading systems. Dental<br />
health appears to be consistent with many other late medieval sites. It is interesting that the caries rate<br />
is so much lower than at Pennell <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong>, which perhaps offers an insight into the difference in<br />
diet between monastic and lay communities, although it is possible that lay people could also have<br />
been buried at <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>.<br />
As with most other palaeopathological investigations, the most common conditions were joint disease,<br />
non-specific infection, and trauma. Again, the results are heavily biased towards the males due to the<br />
smaller number of females and their poorer preservation. Joint disease was restricted to the older age<br />
categories with the exception of Schmorl's nodes which had a high prevalence in young categories.<br />
However, only one young adult was available for study and this may be a reflection of sampling.<br />
Trauma was restricted to males, showed evidence of healing and ail but one fracture showed good<br />
alignment, perhaps reflecting the level of care in that community. Non-specific infection was also more<br />
common in males and, as one would expect, the highest rates were associated with the tibia. As at<br />
other late medieval sites, there were high rates of cribra orbitalia which confirms the interpretation of<br />
high levels of stress undergone by urban societies.<br />
Other pathological conditions were relatively isolated and included occurrences of hyperostosis<br />
frontalis interna, minor development defects and congenital abnormalities. The appearance of such<br />
conditions in the palaeopathological record is somewhat limited and this may be a reflection of disease<br />
in the past, but it may also be that these conditions are not being recognised or diagnosed correctly.<br />
The findings from zeb95 to an extent reflect those expected for a late medieval skeletal assemblage,<br />
with the under representation of certain age classes and of certain pathological conditions. In many<br />
cases it is difficult to propose a precise diagnosis for conditions and almost impossible to give an exact<br />
cause, especially since many conditions were multifactorial in origin. It should also be remembered<br />
that one individual may suffer from numerous conditions which, although treated in isolation for the<br />
purpose of this report, should not be viewed in that way as disease in the past must not be regarded as a<br />
static and isolated event.<br />
In conclusion, the analysis of the human remains from the former <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> railway station offered a<br />
good opportunity to compare the inhabitants of the Carmelite friary with previous excavations in the<br />
same area and with other sites in <strong>Lincoln</strong>. Hopefully this will help lead to a better understanding of the<br />
life of past populations of the city. Unfortunately, the small sample did somewhat limit the<br />
demographic profile reconstruction and interpretation of health. However, in the event of future<br />
excavations this report may be used in conjunction with other investigations.<br />
6.0 Acknowledgements<br />
We would like to thank Mr. Russell Trimble for his helpful suggestions and comments on the<br />
archaeological background of the site, Ms. Anthea Boylston for her help with the skeletal analysis and<br />
write-up, Ms. Jean Brown for carrying out the photography, Mr. John Rigby for producing Figures 1-4,<br />
and Mr. Jason Maher for his help in demonstrating the X-ray equipment.<br />
49
7.0 Glossary<br />
CLAU Report No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
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Abscess - a pus-forming inflammation of the tissues around the root of a tooth.<br />
Aetiology - the cause of the disease.<br />
Alveolar bone - the part of the mandible and/or the maxilla which surrounds and supports the teeth.<br />
Ankylosis - complete immobility of a joint.<br />
Antemortem - occurring before death.<br />
Articular - the point of contact between adjacent bones, i.e. joints.<br />
Atrophy - the wasting, or decrease in size of the normal bone or tissue.<br />
Bifurcated - divided into two segments.<br />
Buccal - used to describe the cheek surface of the teeth.<br />
Caries - decay of the teeth resulting in the production of a cavity.<br />
Cloaca - a passage between a pus-containing cavity within a bone and the surface of the bone,<br />
through which the pus is discharged.<br />
Commingled - bone assemblages which contain the remains of more than one individual.<br />
Condyle - a rounded articular surface.<br />
Congenital - existing at birth.<br />
Deciduous dentition - commonly referred to as the 'milk teeth' or 'baby teeth'; refers to the 20 teeth<br />
present before the permanent dentition.<br />
Dental calculus - tartar, a hard substance which forms on the teeth through the calcification of dental<br />
plaque.<br />
Diaphysis - the shaft of a long bone.<br />
Distal - opposite of proximal; situated away from the centre of the body, remote from the attachment<br />
or origin, e.g. hand is distal to forearm.<br />
Eburnation - smooth, polished appearance of exposed subchondral bone caused by bone to bone<br />
contact.<br />
Enamel hypoplasia - deficient or defective enamel matrix composition, resultsing in horizontal lines<br />
pits or grooves visible to the naked eye on the surface of the teeth.<br />
Endocranial - the internal surface of the flat cranial bones.<br />
Enthesophytes - projections or spicules of bone at sites of tendinous or ligamentous attachment.<br />
Epicondyle - a projection from a long bone located above or upon the condyles.<br />
Epiphysis - a secondary bone-forming centre attached to a bone and separated by cartilage.<br />
Erosion - any superficial destructive process that wears away the external bone surface.<br />
Exostosis - a benign new growth protruding from the surface of a bone and characteristically capped<br />
by cartilage; usually forms in response to chronic irritation, trauma or osteoarthritis.<br />
Extension - the act of straightening.<br />
Flexion - the act of bending.<br />
Fracture - structural failure (breaking) of bone or cartilage.<br />
Impacted - with reference to the dentition; used to describe the position of a tooth which could not<br />
erupt in the normal position due to lack of available space in the jaw.<br />
Inferior - opposite from superior; situated lower down in relation to a specific structure or reference<br />
point.<br />
Lateral - towards the sides of the body.<br />
Lamellar bone - refers to older woven bone which can be striated or smooth in appearance; it<br />
organised in appearance and is a similar colour to the rest of the bone.<br />
Lesion - a broad term referring to a wide range of erosive/destructive pathological changes.<br />
Lingual - used to describe the surface of the tooth which is next to the tongue.<br />
Medial - mesial; nearer the mid-line of the body.<br />
MNI - minimum number of individuals.<br />
Non-metric trait - minor non-pathological variations of bone.<br />
Occlusal - relating to the chewing surfaces of the teeth.<br />
Ossicle - a small bone.<br />
Ossification - conversion of soft tissue to bone.<br />
Osteitis - inflammation of the cortical bone which may result in thickening of the shaft and narrowing<br />
of the marrow cavity.<br />
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Osteomyelitis - an infection which is transmitted via the bloodstream to the bone.<br />
Osteophyte - a small abnormal bony outgrowth, normally located in areas where ligaments attach to<br />
bone.<br />
Pars interarticularis - the area between the superior and inferior articular processses of the vertebrae.<br />
Pathognomic - a characteristic sign which allows diagnosis of a pathological condition to be made.<br />
Perimortem - around the time of death.<br />
Periostitis - inflammation of the periosteal layer of a bone.<br />
Permanent dentition - adult teeth (32 teeth).<br />
Porosity - condition which is used to describe bone which has small pathological openings.<br />
Posterior - opposite of anterior; used to indicate the surface towards the back.<br />
Post-mortem - occurring at some point after death.<br />
Proximal - opposite of distal; used to describe a structure which is nearer the trunk.<br />
Prevalence - percentage of bones affected by a pathological change.<br />
Resorption - the process of destruction of bone by osteoclasts.<br />
Sclerotomic - ventromedial part of the embryonic somite that develops into the vertebrae and ribs.<br />
Subgingival - with reference to the dentition; describes an area of tooth which is beiow the cementoenamel<br />
junction.<br />
Supragingival - with reference to the dentition; describes an area of tooth which is above the<br />
cemento-enamel junction.<br />
Superior - opposite to inferior; refers to a structure which is directed to the top or upwards.<br />
Synovial joint - mobile joint containing synovial fluid.<br />
Woven bone - primary bone, fibrous or non-lamellar; usually consists of a network of intermingled<br />
trabeculae, greyish in colour, porous and disorganised in appearance<br />
8 Bibliography<br />
Barber, G, Watt, I, and Rogers, J, 1997 A Comparison of Radiological and Palaeopathological<br />
Diagnosis Criteria for Hyperostosis Frontalis Interna, Int J Osteoarchaeol, 7, 157-64<br />
Barnes, E, 1994 Developmental defects of the axial skeleton in paleopathology<br />
Bass, W M, 1987 Human Osteology: a laboratory and field manual<br />
Berry, A C, and Berry, R J, 1967 Epigenetic variants in the human cranium, JAnat, 101, 361-79<br />
Boghi, F, and Boylston, A, 1997 The Medieval cemetery of Pennell <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong>, <strong>Lincoln</strong>shire,<br />
Unpublished archive report, CLAU<br />
Boylston, A, 1996 Proposal for the analysis of human skeletal remains from the former <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong><br />
railway station. Unpublished archive report, CLAU<br />
Boylston, A, and Roberts, C A, 1995 <strong>Lincoln</strong> excavations 1972-87: report on the human skeletal<br />
remains, Ancient Monuments Laboratory Rep, 13/97<br />
Bradtmiller, B, 1984 Congenital anomalies of the lower spine in two Arikara skeletal series, Plains<br />
Anthropol, 29, 327-33<br />
Bridges, P S, 1994 Vertebral Arthritis and Physical Activities in the Prehistoric Southeastern United<br />
<strong>St</strong>ates, Amer J Physical Anthropol, 93, 83-93.<br />
Brothwell, D R, 1981 Digging up bones, 3rd edn<br />
Buikstra, J E, and Ubelaker, D H (eds), 1994 <strong>St</strong>andards for data collection from human skeletal<br />
remains, Arkansas Archaeol Survey Res Ser, 44<br />
Finnegan, M, 1978 Non-metric variation of the infra-cranial skeleton, J Anat, 125, 23-37<br />
Gilmour, B J J, and <strong>St</strong>acker, D A, 1986 <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> Church and Cemetery, The <strong>Archaeology</strong> of<br />
<strong>Lincoln</strong>, 13/1<br />
Goodman, AH, 1991 <strong>St</strong>ress, adaptation and enamel developmental defects, in Ortner, D, and<br />
Auferheide, A (eds), Human paleopathology: current syntheses and future options, 280-7<br />
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CLAU Report No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
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Hamilton, B, 1986 Religion in the West<br />
Hillson, S, 1986 Teeth<br />
, 1992 Impression replica methods for studying hypoplasia and perikymata in human tooth<br />
crown surfaces from archaeological sites, Int J Osteoarchaeol, 2, 65-78<br />
Hodges, D C, and Wilkinson, R G, 1990 Effect of tooth size on the ageing and chronological<br />
distribution of enamel hypoplasia defects, Amer J Human Biol, 2, 553-60<br />
Iscan, M Y, and Kennedy, KAR (eds), 1989 Reconstruction of Life from the Skeleton<br />
Iscan, M Y, Loth, S R, and Wright, R K, 1984 Age estimation from the rib by phase analysis:white:<br />
males, J Forensic Sci, 29, 1094-1104<br />
853-63<br />
, 1985 Age estimation from the rib by phase analysis:white: females. J Forensic Sci, 30,<br />
Judd, M, 1984 Fracture patterns from two Medieval populations in Britain, Unpublished MSc. thesis,<br />
Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford<br />
Katz, D, and Suchey, J M, 1986 Age determination of the male os pubis, Amer J Physical Anthropol,<br />
8, 65-79.<br />
Lawrence, C H, 1989 Medieval monasticism: forms of religious life in Western Europe in the Middle<br />
Ages, 2nd edn<br />
Lovejoy, C O, Meindl, S, Przybeck, T R, and Mensforth, B P, 1985 Chronological metamorphosis of<br />
the auricular surface of the ilium. A new method for the determination of adult skeletal age at death,<br />
Amer J Physical Anthropol, 68, 15-28<br />
Mann, R W, and Murphy, S P, 1990 Regional atlas of bone disease: a guide to pathological and<br />
normal variation in the human skeleton<br />
Powell, M L, 1985 The Analysis of Dental Wear and Caries for Dietary Reconstruction, in Gilbert, R<br />
I, and Mielke, J H (eds), The Analysis of Prehistoric Diets, 306-38<br />
Resnick, D, and Niwayama, G (eds), 1988 Diagnosis of bone andjoint disorders, 2nd edn<br />
Roberts, C A, and Manchester, K, 1995 The archaeology of disease, 2nd edn<br />
Rogers, J, and Waldron, T, 1995 A Field Guide to Joint Disease in <strong>Archaeology</strong><br />
Sager, P, 1969 Spondylosis cervicalis<br />
Saunders, S, 1989 Non metric skeletal variation, in Iscan and Kennedy (eds), 95-108<br />
Sciulli, P W, 1992 Estimating age occurrence of enamel defects in deciduous teeth, J Paleopathol, 2,<br />
31-9<br />
<strong>St</strong>ewart, T D, 1979 Essentials of forensic anthropology<br />
<strong>St</strong>roud, G, and Kemp, R L, 1993 Cemeteries of the Church and Priory of <strong>St</strong>. Andrew, Fishergate, The<br />
<strong>Archaeology</strong> of York: the Medieval Cemeteries, 12/2<br />
<strong>St</strong>uart-Macadam, P, 1991 Anemia in Roman Britain: Poundbury Camp, in Bush, H, and Zvelebil, M<br />
(eds), Health in past societies. Biocultural interpretations of human skeletal remains in archaeological<br />
contexts, BAR Int Ser, 567, 101-13<br />
Trotter, M, 1970 Estimation of stature from intact long limb bones, in <strong>St</strong>ewart, T D (ed), Personal<br />
Identification in Mass Disasters, 71 -4<br />
Turkel, S J, 1989 Congenital Abnormalities in Skeletal Populations, in Iscan and Kennedy (eds), 109-<br />
27<br />
Varin, J, 1996 The aetiology of Schmorl's nodes and marginal osteophytes in the human spine and<br />
their prevalence in a British Medieval population, Unpublished MSc. thesis, Department of<br />
Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford<br />
Waldron, T, 1985 DISH at Merton Priory: evidence for a 'new' occupational disease, Brit Medical J,<br />
291, 1762-3<br />
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Williams, P L, and Warwick, R 1980 Grays Anatomy, 36th edn<br />
Workshop of European Anthropologists, 1980 Recommendations for age and sex diagnosis of<br />
skeletons, J Human Evolution, 9, 517-49<br />
1.0 Introduction<br />
7: ANIMAL BONE ASSESSMENT<br />
by James Rackham<br />
(Environmental <strong>Archaeology</strong> Consultancy)<br />
A collection of hand excavated animal bone and a small sample of bone deriving from sieved soil<br />
samples from the excavations at the former <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> <strong>St</strong>ation, <strong>Lincoln</strong>, were submitted for assessment.<br />
These samples comprised a total of 10,291 fragments and one dog skeleton of hand excavated<br />
material, weighing 144.7 kg, and 578 grammes of bone recovered from 23 samples.<br />
The brief required an archive catalogue so a full post-excavation catalogue of the bone was produced<br />
(see the full archive report, Appendices 1, 2 and 3), while only a very short summary report of this<br />
material and its potential has been written. No further data would require collection for the full postexcavation<br />
analysis to be produced but a longer period of analysis and report writing would be<br />
necessary to complete the final text.<br />
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2.0 Methods<br />
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At the time of cataloguing no phasing was available so the whole collection was recorded. In the event<br />
a number of contexts could not be phased and a proportion of the collection (5.3%) was catalogued<br />
but unassigned to phase.<br />
The recording followed the system used by the Environmental <strong>Archaeology</strong> Consultancy (summarised<br />
in the Appendices of the full archive report). This is a bone by bone record, except where fragments<br />
are sufficiently similar to warrant an identical entry. Each record (see full archive report, Appendices)<br />
includes context, species, bone, number, part, age (visual assessment-entries usually made only for<br />
juvenile or immature animals), sex (anatomically recognisable), weight (in grammes), zones<br />
(diagnostic zones - see Watson 1979; Rackham 1986), fusion (state of fusion of the epiphyses),<br />
butchery (physical evidence of cuts, chops and sawing), burning, gnawing, tooth wear (recorded after<br />
Grant 1982), measurements (after von den Driesch 1979), pathology (present or absent) and a<br />
comments field, which normally contains a brief description of the fragment, any butchery or<br />
pathology, etc. Non-metrical features were not consistently recorded, although absence of the last<br />
column on the mandibular molar 3 of cattle was noted, and no detailed location and angle data for<br />
butchery marks was collected. All these data were entered directly into an ACCESS database on<br />
computer after perusal of each bone fragment.<br />
The individual identification of the mammal and domestic bird bones was by comparison to reference<br />
material in the authors collection, while the wild bird bones were compared with specimens in the bird<br />
osteological collection of the Natural History Museum, Tring. The fish bones were identified by Mrs<br />
Alison Locker using her own fish reference collection.<br />
The data submitted with the collection noted a fragment total of 11,480 pieces of bone. During<br />
recording it was noted that many fragments included modern breaks and all pieces that could be<br />
assigned to a single original fragment were recorded as one record, and the number of pieces noted in<br />
the comments field. The dog skeleton, comprising 323 fragments, was entered as a single entry in the<br />
database. The discrepancy between this figure and the total catalogued material therefore results from<br />
the occurrence of numerous modem breaks and skeletons being entered as a single record.<br />
The recording of the material from the soil samples was limited to the presence of all categories of<br />
animal except the fish bones. The number of fragments of each identified species of fish bone was<br />
recorded (see Table 5).<br />
3.0 Results<br />
General Summary<br />
A phasing framework for all the contexts was supplied and the animal bone collection has been<br />
assessed with this framework. Table 1 summarises the number of bone fragments from each area of<br />
excavation within these phases. These phases are as follows:<br />
Phase I - Early environment and Roman<br />
Phase II - Late Saxon and early medieval<br />
Phase III - Construction and use of the Carmelite friary<br />
Phase IV - Dissolution and Post-medieval<br />
Phase V - Victorian and modern, 19th/20th century (disturbed) levels<br />
Roman material was only recovered from Area 7, and the bulk of this derived from a single context,<br />
7445 (see Table 2), which is in fact an early lOth-century context with a large residual Roman pottery<br />
component. 11th- to mid-13th-century levels produced bone in areas Areas 2, 7 and the Remediation<br />
Trench. The largest assemblages from across the site derive from the Carmelite friary and post-<br />
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Dissolution phases of occupation. 7.5% of the collection derived from disturbed 19th-century and<br />
modern levels across the site.<br />
Owing to problems of residuality and phasing this table is slightly misleading. We have already noted<br />
that context 7445, assigned to Phase I, has an early lOth-century ceramic group. It is clear that a<br />
number of contexts assigned to Phase IV contain material from the friary phase, and in Area 7 the<br />
pottery suggests that most of the contexts assigned to Phase III could predate the friary. Area 2<br />
includes bone assemblages from grave cuts that are likely to derive from the earlier occupation<br />
deposits through which the graves are cut and levels of residual pottery are quite high in a number of<br />
contexts. The presence of human bones (Table 3) among a number of the contexts in Phases III-V,<br />
particularly III, testify to redeposition probably through grave-cutting and subsequent activity over the<br />
graveyard.<br />
In Table 2 are listed the archaeological contexts that produced over 50 individual bone fragments. It<br />
can be seen that these are concentrated in the post-Dissolution levels of Area 2 with a few friary<br />
contexts in Areas 2, 7 and the Remediation Trench. The relatively small number of larger bone<br />
samples (over 150 or 200 fragments) means that little information can be expected on the spatial<br />
distribution of activities across the site, since this tends to rely on specific contexts producing<br />
assemblages illustrative of butchery, craft activities, skinning, kitchen waste, etc. It may be that the<br />
gross analysis of the individual areas, within phase, may permit the recognition of broad differences<br />
across the whole site, for instance the Area 2 friary levels may reflect the possible location of the<br />
kitchen. The post-Dissolution levels in Area 2 particularly offer the best opportunity for considering<br />
spatial patterns, although individual contexts elsewhere on the site may prove to contain specifically<br />
interpretable assemblages.<br />
Bone condition<br />
The condition of the bones is variable but in general good, with only a few bones showing evidence of<br />
having been rolled, and none with evidence of solution or corrosion. The most serious factor in the<br />
condition of the material is the level of recent (excavation and post-excavation) fragmentation.<br />
Allowing for the discrepancy between the number of fragments recorded during washing and marking,<br />
11,480, and those recorded during identification and cataloguing, 10,291 (+ one dog skeleton), one can<br />
see that approximately 900 fragments must have been generated by modern breaks that occurred prior,<br />
and subsequent, to marking and boxing.<br />
Considering factors that affected the bone before burial, 7.2 percent of the phased material is recorded<br />
as having shown physical evidence of butchery, 1.7% of the fragments were burnt and 2.4% had been<br />
gnawed, mainly by dogs, but with rare cat and rodent gnawing also recorded. The latter suggests that<br />
dog scavenging was not extensive and although some juveniles and pig bones are likely to have been<br />
destroyed by gnawing the damage to the whole assemblage may not have been severe.<br />
Table 1: Total number offragments by phase from each excavation area.<br />
Phase I II III Ilia* IV V unphased N/A<br />
Area<br />
2 157 528 1618 285 238<br />
3 124 34 11<br />
6 254 185 39 144<br />
7 318 463 580 43 37<br />
8 134 52 105 83 90<br />
8a 15 333 86 7 17<br />
CST 12 352 264 298 56<br />
REM 553 569 90 4<br />
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Table 2: Contexts with more than 50 bone fragments.<br />
Area Context I II III Ilia* IV V unphased<br />
2 7038 127<br />
2 2485 102<br />
2 2691 67<br />
2 2844 52<br />
2 2025 51<br />
2 2209 111<br />
2 2361 90<br />
2 2369 65<br />
2 2389 187<br />
2 2427 216<br />
2 2441 134<br />
2 2448 61<br />
2 2458 159<br />
2 2646 67<br />
2 2000 253<br />
6 6471 70<br />
6 6060 82<br />
7 7445 276<br />
7 7428 65<br />
7 7593 51<br />
7 7306 53<br />
7 7308 71<br />
8 18334 68<br />
8 18300 90<br />
8a 18483 173<br />
CST 1390 56<br />
CST 1270 59<br />
CST 1225 101<br />
CST 1000 80<br />
REM 150 147<br />
REM 156 77<br />
REM 120 175<br />
REM 129 61<br />
REM 140 65<br />
The level of fragmentation in the collection has been briefly assessed by counting the number of bones<br />
carrying zones and those with no zones. 6,798 (66% of the whole sample) fragments carried no<br />
diagnostic zones (see full archive report, Appendix - bone recording keys), while 34% did. Among the<br />
individual species 32% of the identified cattle bones carried no zones, 34% of the pig bones, and 26%<br />
of the sheep (and goat) bones. This suggests that the level of fragmentation is similar among the main<br />
domestic species, although the sheep appear a little less broken up than the cattle and pig. A<br />
fragmentation index (total no. zones/total no. fragments) was calculated for the pig bones, apparently<br />
the most fragmented of the domestic farm species. This gave an average of 1.05 zones per identified<br />
pig fragment. This indicates that the collected assemblage is not severely fragmented, since figures of<br />
0.5 for a fragmentation index are common.<br />
Burnt and calcined bone was present in most of the sample residues and with numerous fragments, in<br />
these samples, much too small to have been collected during hand excavation it is clear that a very<br />
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high proportion of the small bone fragments were not recovered. This recovery clearly impacts upon<br />
figures such as the fragmentation index noted above but whether it significantly affects the analysis<br />
and interpretation of the identified component of the main dietary species is a perennial problem.<br />
Payne (1975) has drawn attention to the impact on the frequency of sheep bones in a collection of wet<br />
sieving the archaeological deposits, and it is clear from Table 5 that sheep bones were identified from a<br />
greater number of samples than cattle, despite the latter's overall dominance among the hand collected<br />
fragments. In quantifying the different species at this site it will be necessary to take such factors into<br />
account.<br />
Species present and relative abundance of the main domesticates<br />
In Table 3 are listed the number of bone fragments of each identified category arranged within the<br />
phasing framework supplied, but with no account taken of the problems of residuality or discrepancies<br />
in phase assignment. Fragments of cattle are the most frequent throughout the deposits, followed by<br />
sheep and goat, and then pig. There is some indication that cattle are more frequent in Phases I and II,<br />
with sheep increasing in the friary and post-Dissolution levels. This is apparent using both the<br />
fragments and the weights (Table 4). This change appears to begin in the 1 Oth/11th century since in<br />
context 7445, the early lOth-century deposit, sheep are only 21% of the cattle/sheep/pig assemblage,<br />
although it cannot be ruled out that this group includes a high proportion of residual Roman bone<br />
debris. The proportion of pigs drops in Phases Ilia* and IV, but then reaches its highest in the 19thcentury<br />
and modern contexts.<br />
Table 3: Species and fragments count of the hand excavated bone from <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>Lincoln</strong>.<br />
Phase I II lit Ilia * IV V unphased N/A<br />
Species 1<br />
Human 1 75 2 14 38 21 3<br />
Horse 1 15 3 8 3 1<br />
Cattle 114 257 507 80 415 171 70 25<br />
Cattle size 93 393 714 106 855 184 145 25<br />
Sheep or goat 40 171 417 68 350 136 78 25<br />
Sheep 3 12 19 3 26 4<br />
Goat 1 1<br />
Pig 25 70 149 16 85 63 17 10<br />
Sheep size 25 165 323 53 326 91 63 8<br />
Dog 1 5 5 2 2 6 1 1<br />
Cat 1 22 2 1<br />
Red deer 1 1<br />
Fallow deer<br />
1<br />
Roe deer 2 2<br />
Deer sp.<br />
1<br />
Cetacean, dolphin size 1<br />
Brown hare 1 3 1 1<br />
Rabbit 1 9<br />
Field Vole<br />
1<br />
Water vole<br />
1<br />
Rat sp.<br />
1<br />
Common shrew<br />
1<br />
Small mammal 4 10 1<br />
Unidentified mammal 8 54 108 37 90 27 10 6<br />
Chicken 4 20 72 2 85 18 12<br />
Chicken size 1<br />
Goose, domestic 2 19 43 3 47 7 12 1<br />
Goose size 2 3<br />
Duck,domes tic 2 j 3<br />
.Mallard/domestic duck 2 1 1<br />
Mallard 1 j<br />
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Table 3: Species andfragments count of the hand excavated bone from <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>Lincoln</strong>.<br />
Swan, cf mute 2<br />
Crane 1<br />
Grey Heron 1<br />
Greylag/Bean goose 2 2 1<br />
Whitefronted goose 1 1 1 2<br />
cf Lesser Whitefronted goose 1<br />
Anas sp. 2<br />
Teal 1<br />
Aythya sp. (cf pochard/scaup) 1 1<br />
Aythya sp. (small) 1<br />
Wild duck, indet. 1<br />
Wild duck, not id. 1 1<br />
Curlew 1<br />
Woodcock 1<br />
Wader, not identified 2<br />
Jackdaw 2 6<br />
Goshawk 1<br />
Kite 1<br />
Little owl 1<br />
cf Rock dove 2 2<br />
Passerine 1<br />
Frog or toad 5<br />
Unidentified bird 6 20 2 38 4 2<br />
Cod 1 3 4 3 I<br />
Cod ? 2 4<br />
Ling 3 2<br />
Pollack ? 1<br />
Haddock 2 1 1<br />
Gadid 2 17 2 1<br />
Gadid ? 1<br />
cfPlaice 1<br />
Flatfish 1<br />
Herring 1<br />
Pike 1<br />
Unidentified fish 2 1 2<br />
These figures do not agree with those recorded by Dobney et al (1996) from a number of sites in<br />
<strong>Lincoln</strong> which show much higher proportions of sheep in the Saxo-Norman deposits and lower<br />
percentages in the medieval and post-medieval phases, but is not dissimilar to the figures obtained by<br />
O'Connor (1979) from the Flaxengate assemblages. It may be that the higher sheep numbers at <strong>St</strong>.<br />
<strong>Mark's</strong> are related to the activities of the friary.<br />
Table 4: Proportions of cattle, sheep (and goat) and pig in each phase by fragments and weight.<br />
fragment Nos % weight<br />
1 II III Ilia* IV V I II III Ilia* IV V<br />
Cattle 62.6 50.4 46.4 47.9 47.4 45.7 88 75.6 73.5 71.1 74.5 73.1<br />
Sheep 23.6 35.9 40 42.5 42.9 37.4 7.8 16.7 18.4 27.3 20.4 16.7<br />
Pig 13.7 13.7 13.6 9.6 9.7 16.8 4.1 7.7 8.2 6.6 5.1 10.2<br />
N= 182 510 1093 167 876 374 6644g 12644 22762 2904 23207 10231<br />
Chicken and domestic goose are present throughout the deposits. Dog and cat finds also occur<br />
throughout and a dog skeleton was recovered from context 18420 in Phase V. Wild game include red,<br />
fallow and roe deer and hare, although only one of the red deer fragments derives from a carcass, the<br />
other fragment is antler. Rabbit bones first appear during the friary phase. A number of wild bird<br />
58
Table 5: Bone finds from the soil sample residues.<br />
zea95<br />
Sample 1 2 8 10 2 4 10 16 17 21 24 25 26 27 28 30 39 40 42 45 48 49 63<br />
Coulext 172 176 142 2527 2708 2727 3058 3055 3144 3120 8123 7434 3136 3137 1102 7690 7678 7691 9506 7679 7682 7416<br />
bone wl. 53 92 2 11 14 5 1 5 1 24 3 2 6 37 9 7 9 12 3 74 180 3 25<br />
bin ill IXIIIC I I + + + + * I-<br />
+ H + 1 + -I + + + + +<br />
cattle + + + +<br />
sheep H- + + + + + + + + +<br />
I'ig + +<br />
hare<br />
+<br />
house mouse<br />
+<br />
vole sp.<br />
+<br />
cattle size + + + + +<br />
sheep size + + + + + + + + +<br />
mammal,in (let + + + + + + + + + + + I + f + + + + + + +<br />
chicken + +<br />
goose + +<br />
bird, indet. + + + + +<br />
frog/loail + + + + + +<br />
herring 2 2 2 1 2<br />
cod 1<br />
cod family<br />
mackerel 1<br />
flounder<br />
cf flatfish 1<br />
eel 1 1 1 1<br />
pike<br />
cyprinid 1<br />
iudet fish 6 4 3 II 1 4 1 8 2 4 43 1<br />
zcl)95<br />
1<br />
1<br />
2<br />
CJ<br />
So<br />
O<br />
g<br />
Uj<br />
U)<br />
Co<br />
Co<br />
k<br />
ft<br />
s<br />
to"<br />
3<br />
o<br />
R- £?<br />
3<br />
re<br />
fes<br />
Er<br />
S'<br />
re<br />
O<br />
S"<br />
>(<br />
CLAU Report No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
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species were recovered mainly from Phases III and IV. The majority of these were food species and<br />
included crane, swan, wild goose, grey heron, a number of wild duck species, curlew and woodcock.<br />
Finds of Jackdaw and Rock Dove suggest birds roosting and living around the towers and roofs of the<br />
friary, possibly also the Little Owl. The occurrence of goshawk suggests a bird from the mews but the<br />
kite will have been a scavenger of late and post-medieval <strong>Lincoln</strong>. A number of bird bones were not<br />
matched during the assessment but could be expected to be identified with further work.<br />
Although a number of fish bones were recovered during excavation (Table 3), and were dominated by<br />
the bones of gadids (cod family), this sample is probably heavily biased against the smaller species.<br />
The fish bones recovered from the samples that were processed (Table 5) show both a greater variety<br />
of species and a larger number of bones. Herring and eel occurred with the greatest frequency in the<br />
samples and, although one herring operculum was recovered during hand excavation, these species are<br />
so small that they are generally not recovered by hand excavation. Fish must have made a very much<br />
higher contribution to the dietary economy of the site than these few bones suggest. Their frequency in<br />
these few small soil samples indicates that they must have been present in the soil matrix of the<br />
excavated site in their tens of thousands.<br />
Apart from chasing a few of the unidentified bird bones no additional identification work is required<br />
on the collection. But for a full discussion of the relative importance of the different species during the<br />
occupation of the site further consideration of the fragmentation and the use of different relative<br />
quantification techniques would be needed.<br />
Patterns of bone distribution<br />
The representation of the different parts of the skeleton of the main domestic species was briefly<br />
considered within phase groupings. However these are very broad and as has been noted above the<br />
interest in this aspect of the study is primarily concerned with the recognition of different activities<br />
taking place across the site. Consideration of the frequency of different parts of the skeleton is<br />
therefore best addressed at the level of large contexts, stratigraphic context groups and individual<br />
areas, such as the supposed kitchen structure in Area 2. This has not been attempted during the<br />
assessment and is clearly only feasible for Phases III and IV, and one or two of the largest contexts and<br />
context groups. Areas 2, 7 and the Remediation Trench offer the best site areas for consideration of<br />
patterns that might relate to butchery, skinning, craft use or purely domestic discard after consumption.<br />
It will be necessary to conduct a fragmentation analysis before considering this aspect of the study in<br />
detail since it is clear from Table 6, which shows the frequency of measured bones, that humeri and<br />
tibiae of sheep occur in a measurable state with much greater frequency than the other bones. The<br />
distal ends of these bones are relatively robust and their frequency in the deposits may be related to<br />
post-depositional taphonomic processes rather than the specific actions of the human occupants of the<br />
site.<br />
Animal husbandry<br />
The data relating to the age at death, size and sex ratio of the animals making up these assemblages has<br />
been collected but has not been analysed. While the sizes of the sample clearly indicate that good<br />
estimates of the age structure of the cattle, sheep and pig should be possible for the friary and post-<br />
Dissolution phases at the site this is more problematic for the earlier phases. Little time depth can<br />
therefore be expected although it would be interesting to consider whether the economics of the<br />
animals supplying the friary and, presumably, those supplying the urban population that followed are<br />
different. Juvenile cattle and adult and elderly beasts are present in the assemblages. For the sheep,<br />
initial study of the mandibular dentition suggests that there may be a change between the friary and<br />
post-Dissolution phases. Lambs and elderly sheep are present in the early phases, but a higher<br />
percentage of the mandibles in the later phases are adult. The majority of the pig jaws indicate that, as<br />
usual in urban deposits, the animals were largely juvenile and immature, only one mandibular molar 3<br />
indicating an adult animal.<br />
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During the identification and cataloguing of the bone, measurements were recorded on all bone<br />
fragments (see full archive report, Appendix 3) where two or more of the measurements listed by von<br />
den Driesch (1976) could be taken. These measurements enable the consideration of the frequency of<br />
the different sexes in the samples and any changes in stock type and size during the history of the site.<br />
Table 6 shows the frequency of measured bones of the main domestic species. Sufficient bones of<br />
cattle and sheep were measured for these data to contribute to the analysis and interpretation of the<br />
collection. These data can be compared with that published by Dobney et al (1996) and any changes in<br />
stock size across the history of the site may be recognisable. For the other species the data sets are too<br />
small although analysis of the chicken and goose measurements may illustrate changes in animal size.<br />
Table 6: Number of measured bones of each of the major species in the whole collection.<br />
name horse cattle sheep/ sheep P'g chicken goose duck mallard<br />
goat<br />
horn core 1<br />
skull 1<br />
mandible 3 10<br />
coracoid 8 3<br />
scapula 13 31 5 1<br />
humerus 1 17 93 8 18 6<br />
radius 1 12 57 12 2 1 1<br />
ulna 1 17 14 4 2 1<br />
matacarpus 42 8 26 5 10 2 2<br />
matacarpus 3 2<br />
metacarpus 4 4<br />
metacarpus 5 1<br />
phalanx 1 2<br />
1st wing<br />
3<br />
phalanx<br />
femur 11 4 17 5<br />
patella 3<br />
tibia 17 71 3 20 10<br />
lateral<br />
1<br />
malleolus<br />
astragalus 1 21 9<br />
calcaneum 7 12<br />
centroquartal 11 1<br />
metatarsus 36 11 32 27 1<br />
metatarsus 4 1<br />
4.0 Recommendations<br />
The archive catalogue as it stands is sufficient for a full post-excavation analysis of the animal bone<br />
assemblages from the site. Apart from the possible identification a few bird bird bones that were not<br />
taken to species during this assessment no further identification is needed.<br />
A number of areas need further analysis, but prior to this a slightly tighter phasing framework and<br />
more detailed assessment of the level of residual pottery in the contexts is required. Apart from one or<br />
two earlier features the only phases at the site that warrant any detailed further work are Phases III and<br />
IV. The data should allow us to consider general patterns of disposal across the site in Phases III and<br />
IV, and permit an analysis of the slaughter pattern of the main domesticates in these two phases. The<br />
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pattern of the friary assemblages in comparison with those of the post-Dissolution phases and previous<br />
contemporary faunal samples from <strong>Lincoln</strong> (Dobney etal 1996; O'Connor 1979) needs study.<br />
5.0 Acknowledgements<br />
I should like to thank Alison Locker for identifying the fish bones from the site. I am grateful to the<br />
Bird Section, Natural History Museum for access to the bird osteological reference collection at Tring.<br />
* Contexts assigned to sub-phase Ilia at the time of writing this report are now allocated to Phase III.<br />
6.0 Bibliography<br />
Dobney, K, Jacques, D, and Irving, B, 1996 Of Butchers and Breeds<br />
Grant, A, 1982 The use of tooth wear as a guide to the age of domestic ungulates, in Wilson, B,<br />
Grigson, C, and Payne, S (eds), Ageing and Sexing animal bones from archaeological sites, BAR Brit<br />
Ser, 109, 91-107<br />
O'Connor, T P, 1982 Animal Bones from Flaxengate, <strong>Lincoln</strong> c 870-1500, The <strong>Archaeology</strong> Of<br />
<strong>Lincoln</strong>, 18/1<br />
, 1991 The Animal Bone, in <strong>St</strong>acker, D, <strong>St</strong> Mary's Guildhall, <strong>Lincoln</strong>, The<br />
<strong>Archaeology</strong> of <strong>Lincoln</strong>, 12/1, 88-91<br />
Payne, S, 1975 Partial recovery and sample bias, in Clason, A T (edj, Archaeozoological <strong>St</strong>ud, 7-17<br />
Rackham, D J, 1986 Assessing the relative frequencies of species by the application of a stochastic<br />
model to a zooarchaeological database, in Wijngaarden-Bakker, L H (edj, <strong>Data</strong>base Management and<br />
Zooarchaeology, PACT, 14, 185-192<br />
von den Driesch, A, 1976 A Guide to the measurement of animal bones from archaeological sites,<br />
Peabody Mus Bull, 1<br />
Watson, J P N, 1979 The estimation of the relative frequency of mammalian species: Khirokitia 1972,<br />
J Archaeol Sci, 6, 127-137<br />
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1.0 Introduction<br />
by Val Fryer and Peter Murphy<br />
(Centre of East Anglian <strong>St</strong>udies, University of East Anglia, Norwich)<br />
Twenty-five samples were submitted for assessment: four from zea95 (samples 1, 2, 8 and 10) and<br />
twenty-one from zeb95. The contexts sampled were all from Phases II (ZEA95 samples 1, 2, 8 and 10<br />
plus ZEB95 samples 21, 23, 25, 26, 36, 39, 40, 42 ,45, 48, 49 and 63), III (ZEB95 2 ,4, 10, 16, 17, 24<br />
and 30) and IV (ZEB95 27 and 28), that is from the Late Saxon to Post-Dissolution periods. They<br />
included layers and other occupation deposits, possible 'dark earth' deposits, an ash layer and possible<br />
hearth, and the fills of ditches, pits (including stone lined pits), culverts and garderobes.<br />
The following report is based on dating supplied, although some dating may be subject to alteration<br />
after a review of the pottery.<br />
2.0 Methods<br />
The samples were processed by manual water flotation/washover, collecting the flots in a 500 micron<br />
mesh sieve. The dried flots were scanned under a binocular microscope at low power and the<br />
macrofossils and other remains noted are listed in Tables 1 - 7. Sample ZEB95 36 proved to be of<br />
particular significance both to the site and to a wider understanding of malting in the Late Saxon<br />
period. This sample was therefore fully analysed to better enable comparison with existing data. The<br />
results of this analysis appear in Table 8. In the tables, the samples from possible 'dark earth' deposits<br />
of Late Roman to Late Saxon date have been placed with the Phase II material although these samples<br />
were not phased at the time of writing. Plant macrofossils were predominantly preserved by charring<br />
but mineral-replaced and possible waterlogged specimens were also noted. Modern contaminants were<br />
rare and included fibrous roots, seeds/fruits, arthropods, fungal sclerotia and cereal chaff. The nonfloating<br />
residues were collected in a 2mm mesh sieve and dried.<br />
3.0 Plant Macrofossils<br />
Cereals and other food plants<br />
Cereal grains and/or chaff were present at varying densities in all but sample ZEB95 16. Preservation<br />
was moderate to good. Seeds of Pisum sativum (pea), Vicia faba (field bean), Linum usitatissimum<br />
(flax) and rare fruitstone fragments were also noted. Cereals and other food plants were particularly<br />
abundant in Phase II samples. Avena sp. (oat), including A. sativa (cultivated oat) and A. fatua (wild<br />
oat), and Hordeum sp. (barley), including asymmetrical lateral grains of H. vulgare (six rowed barley),<br />
were predominant, but grains and/or chaff of Secale cereale (rye) and Triticum aestivum/compactum<br />
(bread wheat) type were also present. Germinated oat and barley grains were common. A single glume<br />
base of T. spelta (spelt wheat) is perhaps residual from nearby Roman deposits. Cereals, pulses and<br />
flax were still present in Phase III deposits but at a greatly reduced density. The Phase IV samples<br />
contained no oats, pulses or flax, but did have an increased density of rye.<br />
Wild flora<br />
Seeds/fruits of common weed species were present at varying densities in all but sample ZEB95 16.<br />
The assemblages from Phase II samples were particularly rich and included Agrostemma githago (corn<br />
cockle), Anthemis cotula (stinking mayweed), Anthriscus sylvestris (cow parsley), Atriplex sp (orache),<br />
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Brassica sp. (cabbage/turnip/swede), Bromus sp. (brome), Chenopodium album (fat-hen), Conium<br />
maculatum (hemlock), Fallopia convolvulus (black bindweed), Galium aparine (goosegrass),<br />
Hyoscyamus niger (henbane), Lapsana communis (nipple wort), Lamium sp. (dead-nettle), Malva sp.<br />
(mallow), Papaver sp. (poppy), Persicaria maculosa/lapathifolia (persicaria/pale persicaria), Plantago<br />
lanceolata (ribwort plantain), Polygonum aviculare (knotgrass), indeterminate grasses, Ranunculus<br />
acris /repens /bulbosus (meadow /creeping/bulbous buttercup), Raphanus raphanistrum (wild radish),<br />
Rumex sp. (dock), Spergula arvensis (corn spurrey), Silene sp. (campion), Urtica sp (nettle),<br />
Vicia/Lathyrus sp. (vetch/vetchling) and Viola sp. (pansy). Wetland /aquatic species were also noted<br />
from the ditch deposits and included Alisma plantago-aquatica (water-plantain), Carex sp. (sedge),<br />
Cladium mariscus (saw-sedge), Eleocharis sp. (spike-rush), Lemna sp. (duckweed), Menyanthes<br />
trifoliata (bog bean) and Montia fontana (blinks). Nutshell fragments of Corylus avellana (hazel) and<br />
seeds of Rub us sp. (bramble) and Sambucus nigra (elderberry) were also present.<br />
The assemblages from the Phase III deposits were less species rich but still contained weed species,<br />
wetland/aquatic species and tree/shrub species. Additional taxa included Chelidonium majus (greater<br />
celandine), Euphorbia helioscopia (sun-spurge), Medicago/Trifolium/Lotus sp. (medick/clover/trefoil),<br />
Ranunculus flammula (lesser spearwort) and Solanum nigrum (black nightshade). The Phase IV<br />
assemblages were sparse. Seeds of Anisantha sterilis (barren brome) were noted in sample ZEB95 27.<br />
Other plant macrofossils<br />
Charcoal fragments were noted at varying densities in all samples. Charred, mineral-replaced and<br />
waterlogged root/rhizome/stem fragments were also present. <strong>St</strong>em, floret/capsule and leaf fragments of<br />
an indeterminate Ericaceae (heath) and pinnule fragments of Pteridium aquilinum (bracken) were<br />
common and were probably imported on to the site as litter, bedding or fuel. Fragments of<br />
indeterminate buds, culm nodes, inflorescence, seeds and thorns were also recovered.<br />
4.0 Other materials<br />
Mollusc shells<br />
Mollusc shells, including rare burnt specimens, were noted in sixteen samples at varying densities.<br />
Land and freshwater species were both present. Freshwater species were only present in the Phase II<br />
ditch deposits and included Anisus leucostoma, Armiger crista, Bathyomphalus contortus, Bithynia<br />
sp., Pisidium sp., Planorbis sp. and Valvata cristata. The land snails present fell into three of Evans'<br />
(1972) classes, that is woodland/shade loving species (Discus rotundatus, Vitrea sp. and Zonitidae<br />
indet.), open country species (Helicella itala, Pupilla muscorum, Vallonia costata, V. excentrica, V.<br />
pulchella) and catholic/synanthropic species ( Cochlicopa sp., Helix sp. and Trichia hispida group).<br />
Shells of Cecilioides acicula were noted in Phase III deposits but as this is a burrowing species they<br />
may be modern contaminants.<br />
Other animal macrofossils<br />
Bone fragments, fish and small mammal/amphibian bones, eggshell, mineral replaced arthropods and<br />
mineralised/faecal concretions were present throughout.<br />
Protist microfossils<br />
These samples were not processed with retrieval of microfossils in mind, but large foraminifers (>500<br />
microns) were noted in a few Phase II contexts. These tests suggest some marine influence at the site,<br />
though not necessarily more than exceptional storm surges.<br />
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Other material<br />
Other materials were noted at varying densities throughout and included black porous 'cokey' material,<br />
black tarry material and siliceous globules, (which are all possibly the residues of the combustion of<br />
organic materials at very high temperatures), burnt or fired clay, burnt stone, glass fragments, metallic<br />
globules, slag and small coal fragments.<br />
5.0 Discussion<br />
The Phase II assemblages appear to indicate that a major activity on, or adjacent to, the site in this<br />
period was the processing of cereals and particularly the malting of oats and barley. Sample ZEB95 36<br />
contained a high density of oat and barley grains, including clearly germinated examples, and detached<br />
'sprouts' (see Table 8 where only complete grains or embryo ends are quantified). The sample<br />
included grains with characteristic rounded broken surfaces showing that the material had become<br />
charred after 'gristing' or rough grinding of grains. Samples ZEB95 39, 40, 48 and 49 had similar<br />
assemblages with a high grain to chaff/weed seed ratio and evidence of sprouted grains although<br />
gristed grains were not apparent during scanning.<br />
Similar assemblages composed of charred barley and oat malt grist have come from a late 1 lth-century<br />
cellared building at the Buttermarket, Ipswich (Murphy 1991), and charred batches of malted barley<br />
and oat grains have also been recovered from pre-Conquest contexts at Castle Mall, Norwich (Murphy,<br />
in prep.). Evidently, both cereals were used for malting in Eastern England during the Late Saxon<br />
period, but malting kilns of 14th-century and later date have produced only barley malt (Murphy 1985,<br />
1995). The reasons for this apparent change are not at present clear.<br />
The Phase II ditch samples (ZEA95 1, 2, 8 and 10), particularly samples 8 and 10, produced<br />
assemblages which contained both wetland/aquatic plant macrofossils and shells of freshwater obligate<br />
molluscs. The ditches were probably permanently wet, though some of the mollusc shells could be<br />
allochthonous, relating to river flooding. Foraminifera imply some marine influence.<br />
The low density of material in the remaining Phase II samples precludes the identification of further<br />
activities on the site during this period and, with the exception of sample ZEB95 26 which appears to<br />
contain possible sewage residues, the assemblages are probably derived from a low density scatter of<br />
domestic, dietary and other refuse.<br />
The Phase III samples contained low densities of plant macrofossils and appear to give little insight<br />
into activities contemporary with the use of the friary with the possible exception of industrial<br />
activities, the residues of which (burnt/fired clay, metallic globules, possible slag and small coal<br />
fragments) are notably more common in Phase III deposits. Sample ZEB95 2 from the fill of a stone<br />
drain/culvert included a very low density of charred cereals. Sample ZEB95 30 and possibly samples<br />
ZEB95 4 and 17, appeared to contain dietary residues (bone fragments, eggshell and fish bone as well<br />
as cereals, peas, flax seeds and possible fruit stone fragments), possibly derived from sewage deposits.<br />
The molluscan remains indicate that the features on site at this period were largely open with some<br />
shaded elements.<br />
The Phase IV samples both came from the fill of stone-lined pit cg463 (3027). The assemblages<br />
indicate that this was probably a refuse or cesspit, faecal concretions being abundant in sample ZEB95<br />
28. The mollusc assemblages were too small to add further to this interpretation.<br />
6.0 Conclusion<br />
One activity represented in the Late Saxon pre-friary deposits was the processing and malting of<br />
cereals, principally oats and barley. No samples predominantly composed of charred chaff or weed<br />
65
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Volume II<br />
seeds were noted, and the high grain to chaff/weed seed ratio suggests that cleaned prime grain (with<br />
some residual contaminants) was being imported to the site for malting. At Alms Lane, Norwich, the<br />
archaeobotanical evidence for malting provided a basis for interpreting structural features (ovens, clay<br />
floors, pits etc.) in terms of the malting and brewing process (Atkin 1985, 256), and it would be worth<br />
considering the structural evidence from <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> in this light.<br />
The presence of seeds of Anthemis cotula suggests that heavy clay soils were being used for cereal<br />
production and the abundance of heather and bracken fragments indicates that heathland habitats were<br />
also being utilised.<br />
Cereals were much less common in samples relating to friary and post-friary periods although this may<br />
be a result of the limited number of contexts sampled rather than an accurate reflection of the site.<br />
Residues of probable industrial activities similar to those seen at, for example, Greyfriars, Norwich<br />
(Emery, forthcoming) were noted at a low density in the Phase III deposits. As only one context of<br />
post-friary date was sampled, little can be said about this period of the site.<br />
7.0 Bibliography<br />
Atkin, M, 1985 Excavations on Alms Lane (Site 302N), in Atkin, M, Carter, A, and Evans, D H,<br />
Excavations in Norwich 1971-1978, Part II, East Anglian Archaeol, 26, 144-257.<br />
Emery, P (forthcoming), Excavations at Greyfriars, Norwich, East Anglian Archaeol<br />
Evans, J G, 1972 Land Snails in <strong>Archaeology</strong><br />
Murphy, P, 1985 The plant remains, in Atkin 1985, 228-34<br />
, 1991 Ipswich, Suffolk: plant macrofossils from sites IAS 3104 (Buttermarket), IAS 3201<br />
(ABC Cinema) and IAS 5203 (Greyfriars Road), Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report, 33/91<br />
, 1995 Plant macrofossils, in Andrews, P, Excavations at Redcastle Furze, Thetford, 1988-<br />
89, East Anglian Archaeol, 72, 131-5.<br />
Kev to Tables 1-8<br />
X = 0-10 specimens<br />
XX = 10 - 100 specimens<br />
XXX = 100+ specimens<br />
b = burnt<br />
coty = cotyledons<br />
fgs = fragments<br />
m = mineral replaced<br />
P = present<br />
sil = siliqua fragment<br />
ss = sub-sample<br />
tf = testa fragment<br />
w = waterlogged<br />
66
CLAUReport No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
Table 1: Macrobotanical and other remains from Phase II contexts.<br />
Sample No. 1 2 8 10<br />
Context No. 175 172 176 142<br />
Cereals and other food plants<br />
Avena sp. (grains) XX X X<br />
(awn) X<br />
Cereal indet. (grains) XX X<br />
Large Fabaceae indet. X<br />
Hordeum sp. (grains) X X<br />
(rachis nodes) xcf<br />
Triticum sp. (grains) X X<br />
T. spelta L. (glume base) X<br />
:<br />
Herbs<br />
. :<br />
Anthemis cotuia L. XX<br />
¥ - V; -<br />
Anthriscus sylvestris (L.)Hoffm. xcf<br />
Apiaceae indet. X<br />
Asteraceae indet. x xm<br />
Atrip lex sp. xcf<br />
Brassicaceae indet. X<br />
Bromus sp. X X<br />
Chenopodium album L. X<br />
Chenopodiaceae indet. X<br />
Fabaceae inet. xcoty m<br />
Galium sp. X<br />
Lamium sp. xm<br />
Papaver sp. xcf<br />
Poaceae indet. xcf<br />
Large Poaceae indet. X x<br />
Polygonum aviculare L. X<br />
Polygonaceae indet. xw X<br />
Ranunculaceae indet. xcf<br />
Vicia/Lathyrus sp. X xcoty<br />
Wetland/aquatic plants lllllltev^ : .<br />
Alisma plantago-aquatica L. xw<br />
Carex sp. X X XX<br />
Cladium mariscus (L.)Pohl XX<br />
Eleocharis sp. X XX<br />
Lemna sp. xm xxm<br />
Menyanthes trifoliata L. xcf<br />
Montia fontana L. X<br />
Trees/shrubs jfllillfeilj|lsls " 'l •<br />
Corylus avellana L. X<br />
Rubus sp. X<br />
~ - - - t<br />
* , x ^ '• -i" X , ~<br />
Sambucus nigra L. xm xm<br />
67
CLAUReport No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
Table I: Macrobotanical and other remains from Phase II contexts.<br />
Other plantmacrofossils<br />
Charcoal 2mm<br />
Charred root/rhizome/stem<br />
Mineral replaced root/rhizome/stem<br />
XXX<br />
XXX<br />
XX<br />
XXX<br />
XX<br />
XXX<br />
X<br />
XXX<br />
X<br />
XX<br />
X<br />
XX<br />
X<br />
XX<br />
.<br />
*<br />
-<br />
.<br />
Waterlogged root/rhizome/stem X<br />
Characeae indet.<br />
Ericaceae indet. (stem)<br />
(floret)<br />
X<br />
X<br />
XX<br />
XX<br />
X<br />
XX X<br />
(leaves) X<br />
Mineral replaced root channels X<br />
Pteridium aquilinum (L.)Kuhn<br />
Indet. buds<br />
Indet. culm nodes<br />
xcf<br />
x<br />
x<br />
X<br />
XX<br />
X<br />
X<br />
X<br />
X<br />
X<br />
Indet. inflorescence frags. X X<br />
Indet. seeds<br />
Animal macro fossils<br />
x<br />
Bone x bx x bx X<br />
Eggshell X<br />
Fish bone<br />
Mineralised/faecal concretions<br />
X XX X<br />
X<br />
X<br />
Mineral replaced arthropods X<br />
Waterlogged arthropods X<br />
Small mammal/amphibian bones X X X<br />
Protist microfossils<br />
Foraminifera<br />
Other material<br />
X X<br />
. : ~ ~ ~ „ ~I •> V" -<br />
Black porous 'cokey' material X X X X<br />
Black tarry material X<br />
Burnt/fired clay X X<br />
Siliceous globules X X X<br />
Soil concretions XXX<br />
Vitreous material<br />
Sample volume (lit.)<br />
Volume of flot (lit.)<br />
% flot sorted<br />
X<br />
7<br />
0.3<br />
50%<br />
7ss<br />
0.6<br />
12.50%<br />
5.5<br />
0.2<br />
100%<br />
6<br />
0.7<br />
12.50%<br />
68
im<br />
CT\<br />
Table 2: Macrobotanical and other remains from Phase II contexts.<br />
Sample No. 21 23 25 26 36 39 40 42 45 48 49 63<br />
Context No.<br />
Ct-ii-als ami oilier food plants ;S'<br />
3144 8119 8123 7434 7420 7690 7678 7691 9506 7679 7682 7416<br />
A vena sp. (grains) X XX XXX XXX XXX XX X XXX XX X<br />
(sprouted grains) X<br />
(awn) X X X X X<br />
A. falua L. (floret bases) X<br />
A. saliva L. (floret bases) XX X X xcf<br />
Cereal indet. (grains) XX X X X XX XX X X X X XX X<br />
(sprout frags.) X XX X X X XX<br />
(detached embryos) X X X X<br />
(basal racliis nodes) X<br />
Large Fabaeeae indet. xcfcoty<br />
Hordeum sp. (grains) X X X XXX XX xcf X X XX XX xcf<br />
(sprouted grains) X X XX<br />
(racliis nodes) X xcf<br />
II. vulgarc L. (grains) xxcf X X X<br />
Linum Lisitatissimuin L. X X<br />
Pisum sativum L. xcf xcf<br />
Secale ccrealc L. (grains) xcf<br />
Secale cerale/IIordeum sp. (raeliis nodes) X x<br />
Triticum sp. (grains) X X X X X X X X<br />
T. aeslivum/compaetum (racliis nodes) X X X<br />
Vicia faba L.<br />
lie) !>>><br />
xcf coty<br />
Agrosteinma gilliago L. xcf xm<br />
Antlicinis cotula L. X XX X X X xcf<br />
Apiaceae indet. X<br />
Asteraceae indet. X<br />
Atriplex sp. X X<br />
Urassiea sp.<br />
X<br />
a<br />
cs<br />
o<br />
I<br />
a<br />
o<br />
re<br />
5"<br />
OQ<br />
s<br />
a<br />
<<br />
oq<br />
R
Table 2: Macrobotanical and other remains from Phase II contexts.<br />
lironius sp. X xcf XX X X X x<br />
Clienopodiuiii album L. X X X X<br />
Chenopodiaccae indct. X X X X X X<br />
Caryophyllaccae indct. X<br />
Conium macuiatuin L. xcf<br />
Fallopia convolvulus( L) A. Love. X xcf<br />
Galium sp. X<br />
G. apai inc L. X X X<br />
Hyoscyamus niger L. xcf<br />
Lapsana communis L. X<br />
Malva sp. X<br />
IMantago lanceolata L. X<br />
Poaceae indcl. xcf<br />
Large Poaccae indct. X X X<br />
Pcrsicaria maculosa/lapathifolia xcf<br />
Polygonum aviculare L. X<br />
Polygonaceae indct. X X<br />
Ranunculus sp. X<br />
It. acris/repens/bulbosus X<br />
Kanunculaccac indet. X<br />
Raphanus raplianistrum L. xsil<br />
Rumcv sp. X X x xcf xcf<br />
Ruincx/Carex sp. X<br />
Silcne sp. X<br />
Spcrgula arvensis L. X X<br />
Solanum nigrum L. X<br />
llrtica sp. xcfm<br />
Vicia/Latliyrus sp. xcf xcoty xcoty<br />
Viola sp.<br />
Wcllaud/iiqualic (lUinls<br />
Carex sp. X X X<br />
xcf<br />
II<br />
C!<br />
>3<br />
O<br />
£<br />
Uj<br />
Oo<br />
a-<br />
as<br />
o<br />
I<br />
CXs<br />
o<br />
£<br />
8<br />
as<br />
OQ<br />
R ^<br />
5'<br />
a<br />
to
Table 2 : Macrobolanical and other remains from Phase II contexts.<br />
Oliiilium mariscus (L.) l'olil X X X<br />
Elcocharis sp. X<br />
Montia lonlana L. X<br />
Tri-tsMirulisi<br />
Corylus avcllana L. X X X<br />
Olht r plant tmHrolosMLs<br />
Charcoal 2min XX XX XX X XX X XX<br />
Charred root/rhizome/stem XX X X XX X XXX XX X XX XX X XX<br />
Mineral replaced rool/rhizoinc/stcni X<br />
Ericaceae indel. (stem) X X XXX X xcf X X XX XX<br />
(lloret) X X X X<br />
(leaves) X<br />
Indet. buds X X X<br />
lndel. culm nodes X X X X X<br />
Indct. inflorescence frags. X XXX XX X X X<br />
Indel. seeds X X X<br />
Indet. thorns X X<br />
Animal matrulo-SMK<br />
Bone X X x bx X X X X<br />
Eggshell X<br />
Fish hone X X X XX X X X X XX<br />
Mineralised/faecal concretions XX<br />
Mineral replaced arthropods X X<br />
Small mammal/amphibian bones X X<br />
IVtilitt muTolWsils<br />
Foraminifera X<br />
Other material<br />
Black porous 'cokey material X X XX X x X X X<br />
Black tarry material X X X<br />
Burnt organic concretions<br />
X<br />
D<br />
>3<br />
©<br />
&<br />
Co<br />
s?<br />
I<br />
3-<br />
^ r<br />
3 3<br />
re re<br />
S<br />
o<br />
0<br />
5"<br />
1<br />
| 5<br />
re<br />
o<br />
C§<br />
8<br />
a<br />
<<br />
a.<br />
I<br />
©
Table 2: Macrobotanica! and other remains from Phase II contexts.<br />
liurnt slunc<br />
Glass<br />
Metallic globules X X<br />
Siliceous globules X X XX XXX XXX XXX XXX XX XXX XX X<br />
Small coal frags. X<br />
Vitreous material X X<br />
Sample volume (lit.) 5.5 2 2.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 3.5 6 6.5 4 7ss<br />
Volume of Hot (lit.) 0.2
CLAU Report No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
Table 3: Macrobotanical and other remains from Phase III contexts.<br />
Avena sp. (grains)<br />
Cereal indet. (grains)<br />
(sprout frags.)<br />
Hordeum sp.(grains)<br />
Large Fabaceae indet. xcoty<br />
Linum usitatissimum L.<br />
Pisum sativum L.<br />
Prunus sp. (fruit stone frag.)<br />
Triticum sp. (grains)<br />
Bromus sp.<br />
Chelidonium majus L.<br />
Chenopodium album L.<br />
Chenopodiaceae indet.<br />
Euphorbia helioscopia L.<br />
Fabaceae indet.<br />
Galium sp.<br />
Lamiaceae indet.<br />
Medicago/Trifolium/Lotus sp.<br />
Poaceae indet.<br />
Large Poaceae indet.<br />
Polvgonaceae indet.<br />
Ranunculus acris/repens/bulbosus<br />
Rumex sp.<br />
Rumex/Carex sp.<br />
Solanum sp.<br />
S. nigrum L.<br />
Urtica sp.<br />
Vicia/Lathyrus sp.<br />
Wetland/aquatic plants<br />
Alisma plantago-aquatica L.<br />
Carex sp.<br />
Cladium mariscus (L.)Pohl<br />
Ranunculus flammula L.<br />
Trees/shrubs t®<br />
Corylus avellana L.<br />
Rubus sect. Glandulosus<br />
x xm<br />
xm<br />
xm<br />
xcf<br />
xm<br />
xcf<br />
Ifi<br />
xm<br />
xcftn<br />
xm<br />
xm<br />
xm<br />
xm<br />
RIP<br />
xm<br />
xcoty<br />
xcf<br />
£ yS'x'k * - ;<br />
Wimmer&Grab<br />
Sambucus nisra L. xm<br />
Other plant macrofossils 1 mmm f mm<br />
Charcoal 2mm xx<br />
Charred root/rhizome/stem<br />
Ericaceae indet (stem)<br />
Indet. buds<br />
Indet. culm nodes<br />
73
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CLAUReport No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume 11<br />
Table 3: Macrobotanical and other remains from Phase III contexts.<br />
Indet. inflorescence frags. X<br />
Indet. seeds xm X<br />
Bone X X X xb X x bx X<br />
Eggshell X X X X<br />
Fish bone X XXX X X X X XX<br />
Mineral replaced arthropods X X X<br />
Mineralised/faecal concretions X X XX<br />
Small mammal/amphibian bone X X X X<br />
N • '<br />
•<br />
Black porous 'cokey' material XX XXX XX XX XX XXX X<br />
Black tarry droplets X X X XX<br />
Burnt/fired clay XXX XXX XX<br />
Metallic globules X X X X<br />
Siliceous globules X<br />
Slag xcf xcf xcf xcf xcf<br />
Small coal fraas. XX XXX XX XXX xx XX X<br />
Vitrified material X<br />
Sample voiume (lit.) 6.5 4ss 5ss 2 3.5 2.5 5<br />
Volume of flot (lit.) 0.1
CLAU Report No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
Table 4: Macrobotanical and other remains from Phase IV contexts.<br />
Ericaceae indet. (stem) X XX<br />
(floret) X<br />
Indet. buds X X<br />
Indet. culm nodes X X<br />
Indet. seeds x mx<br />
Animal macrofossils<br />
Bone xx bx X<br />
Eggshell X X<br />
Fish bone XX XX<br />
iMineral replaced arthropods X X<br />
Mineralised/faecal concretions X XXX<br />
Small mammal/amphibian bone X XX<br />
Other material T 'r ' ."*•" - - '<br />
Black porous 'cokey' material X X<br />
Small coal frags. X X<br />
Sample volume (lit.) 4 4<br />
Volume of flot (lit.) 0.2 0.2<br />
% flot sorted 50% 100%<br />
Table 5: Molluscan remains from Phase II contexts.<br />
Sample No. 1 2 8 10 39 49 63<br />
Context No. 175 172 176 142 7690 7682 7416<br />
"Woodland/shade loving species -<br />
Zonitidae indet. X<br />
Open country species<br />
-<br />
Helicidae indet. X<br />
Vallonia sp. X<br />
Catholic species<br />
Trichia hispida group X<br />
Freshwater species : .<br />
Anisus leucostoma X X<br />
Armiger crista xb xcf X<br />
Bathyomphalus contortus x X<br />
Bithynia sp. XX x xb<br />
Bithynia sp. (opercula) XX<br />
Planorbis sp. xb XX X<br />
Pisidium sp. X XX<br />
Valvata sp. X X<br />
V. cristata X<br />
Sample volume (lit.) 7 7ss 5.5 6 5 4 7ss<br />
Volume of flot (lit.) 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.2<br />
% flot sorted 50% 12.50<br />
%<br />
100% 12.50% 50% 50% 50%<br />
75
CLAU Report No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
Table 6: Molluscan remains from Phase III contexts.<br />
Sample No. 2 4 10 16 17 24 30<br />
Context No. 2527 2708 2727 3058 3055 3120 1102<br />
Woodland/shade loving species . ^ §|jjj|j|jjjl|| ^iSllilllii^<br />
Discus rotundatus X X X XX X<br />
Vitrea sp. X<br />
Zonitidae indet. X X X X X<br />
Open country species ilSiPiitSiiiite<br />
Helicella itala X X X<br />
Helicidae indet. X<br />
Pupilla muscorum X X<br />
Vallonia sp. X X XX<br />
V. costata X X X<br />
V. excentrica xcf X<br />
V. pulchella X<br />
Catholic species<br />
Cochlicopa sp. X X X<br />
Helix sp. X<br />
Trichia hispida group X X X XX X<br />
Other<br />
Cecilioides acicula p p P p p p<br />
Sample volume (lit.) 6.5 4ss 5ss 2 3.5 2.5 5<br />
Volume of flot (lit.) 0.1
CLAUReport No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
Table 8: Quantitative analysis of sample 36, Phase II.<br />
Sample No. 36<br />
Context No. 7420<br />
. : . , :<br />
A vena sp. (grains) 455<br />
(grains with embryo ends missing) XXX<br />
(possible 'gristed' grains) 12<br />
(awn) 2<br />
(floret bases) 13 +2cf<br />
A. fatua L. (floret bases) 2cf<br />
A. sativa L. (floret bases) 65<br />
Cereal indet. (grains) 34<br />
(sprout frags.) 46<br />
(detached embryos) 13<br />
(rachis node) 1<br />
Hordeum sp. (grains) 131<br />
(grains with embryo ends missing) XX<br />
(possible 'gristed' grains) 13<br />
H. vulgare L. (grains) 13<br />
Linum usitatissimum L. lcf<br />
Secale cereale L. (grains) lcf<br />
Triticum sp. (grains) 9<br />
Her os !i|!jl!!f!jBi|llll|«SiSSi :<br />
Agrostemma githago L. 1<br />
Anthemis cotula L. 16<br />
Atrip lex sp. 2cf<br />
Brassica sp. 1<br />
Bromus sp. 40+14fgs<br />
Chenopodium album L. 1<br />
Chenopodiaceae indet. j<br />
Fallopia convolvulus (L.)A.Love 1+ltf<br />
Plantago lanceolata L. 2<br />
Small Poaceae indet. 1<br />
Scrophulariaceae indet. 1<br />
Spergula arvensis L. 1+lcf<br />
Vicia/Lathyrus sp. lcoty<br />
Other plant macrofossils<br />
Charcoal
CLAUReport No. 338: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>High</strong> <strong>St</strong>reet, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - Archaeological Investigations<br />
Volume II<br />
9: SOILS MICROMORPEK<br />
by Richard I Macphail, BSc., MSc., PhD., (Institute of <strong>Archaeology</strong>, UCL)<br />
and<br />
Gill M Cruise, BSc., PhD., (Dept. of Geography, London Guildhall University)<br />
1.0 Introduction<br />
A field visit was made to <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>Lincoln</strong>, on the 12th of February 1996. The site was examined<br />
and sampled in the company of Russell Trimble (site director, City of <strong>Lincoln</strong> <strong>Archaeology</strong> Unit).<br />
Previously the site had been discussed by telephone with James Rackham, who considered that he had<br />
recognised floor levels at the site. He believed that previous interpretations of such stratigraphy could<br />
be improved upon by a specialist soil micromorphological approach (Courty et al 1989).<br />
2.0 Methods<br />
Three areas were examined and described in the field and seven monolith samples were collected<br />
(Table 1). In addition, 50cm long monoliths previously sampled from the South Platform Trench<br />
(SPT1 and SPT2) by Russell Trimble were also collected after discussions with him and the Unit (M.<br />
Jones, Unit Director, J. Hockley, and A. Vince).<br />
Monoliths were unwrapped in the laboratory, and small samples were scanned in water under the<br />
microscope to check and further detail the field evaluation. This procedure, for example, enabled the<br />
clear identification of ashes (using polarising microscopy) and allowed the noting of the presence of<br />
microfossils such as phytoliths, diatoms and pollen-like material.<br />
3.0 Results<br />
Introduction<br />
It is apparent that a remarkable sequence spanning the Roman to medieval periods has been preserved<br />
in the two areas (at least some 50 metres apart) being evaluated at <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>. It appears that a possibly<br />
extensive series of Late Saxon floors and occupation levels are exceptionally well-preserved at the site.<br />
These appear to overlay post-Roman 'dark earth' and underlay Late Saxon 'dark earth' deposits. The<br />
remarkable preservation here suggests enormous potential not only for detailed study of the Late<br />
Saxon occupation but also for elucidating the periods covered by the 'dark earth' deposits. Such<br />
seemingly undisturbed and well stratified sequences spanning these periods are only very rarely<br />
excavated because they were all too often subject to digging, cellaring, etc. in antiquity. Two examples<br />
of possibly similarly well preserved deposits have been found at Flaxengate, <strong>Lincoln</strong> (Perring 1981)<br />
and Guildhall Yard, London (Bateman 1994). Detailed study of the new findings at <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> will<br />
enable comparison with those sites.<br />
Post-Roman "dark earth"<br />
All too often the top of the dark earth is not available for study due to it having been lost in antiquity or<br />
because it has been removed by machine excavation. The presence here of dark earth beneath a Saxon<br />
floor suggests that it has been well sealed and thus worthy of further study.<br />
At other sites where soil micromorphology of the dark earth has been studied from rare well sealed<br />
contexts (e.g. Pevensey Castle; Deansway, Worcester; Guildhall, London) there are distinct horizons<br />
that relate to dumping episodes, whereas others have become weathered during periods of probable<br />
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zero accretion. It has also been suggested that Middle Saxon occupation stratigraphy also became<br />
biologically transformed into dark earth and was possibly used as agricultural land at some sites (e.g.<br />
Bruce House, London; Macphail and Cruise 1994). In addition soil micromorphology has been used to<br />
identify the parent materials of dark earth, such as the in situ weathered construction materials of<br />
decayed buildings (Courages, Southwark), midden dumps and sweepings (28 Park <strong>St</strong>., Southwark),<br />
cereal processing dumps (Scole, Norfolk) and burned residues from animal stabling (Deansway,<br />
Worcester; Macphail and Courty 1984; Macphail 1994). Spatial variations in dark earth at the small<br />
towns of Scole and Heybridge are under current investigation by the authors and their colleagues, and<br />
combine linked chemical analyses.<br />
Late Saxon floors and occupation levels<br />
These appear to comprise very well stratified layers of clay floors, humic materials, probable ashes,<br />
charcoal etc. and these underlay (SPT2) a sandy silt, humic soil. Microscopic examination of small<br />
amounts of soil placed on a glass slide, with distilled water and a cover slip placed over the top, has<br />
indicated that microfossils are likely to be recovered if chemical preparation procedures are undertaken<br />
in the future. Pollen-like material may be present in thin, between-floor humic layers and other humic<br />
deposits, while phytoiiths and diatoms are also present. The presence of diatoms might suggest that<br />
soil/plant materials from wet environments could have been imported onto the site as building<br />
materials, floor coverings, etc.<br />
A probable similar series of floors were exposed at Flaxengate, <strong>Lincoln</strong>, where they were broadly<br />
interpreted as being a series of burnt grassy floors sealed by layers of sand (Perring 1981). The last, it<br />
was assumed, may have been introduced to the site for the purpose of controlling fires. It was further<br />
suggested that loam dumps were laid, serving to level the site in advance of redevelopment. This<br />
seems, from the detailed evaluation of the <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> stratigraphy and current knowledge, to be<br />
possibly an over-simplified understanding of what may have been rather complicated and interesting<br />
occupation levels.<br />
More recently, occupation surfaces of European caves and Middle Eastern tell sites have been<br />
subjected to detailed scrutiny through soil micromorphology Ge et al 1993) and these studies have<br />
enabled the authors to identify a number of specific features associated with the occupation of floors.<br />
Matthew's and Postgate's (1994) exhaustive investigation of floors in an early Mesopotamian city has<br />
revealed a plethora of information on building materials and technology, floor coverings, use of space<br />
within the urban area, dumps, etc. In the U.K. an ongoing combined soil micromorphological and<br />
palynological study of well stratified Norman occupation deposits at Guildhall, London, is making a<br />
major contribution to discussions on use of space, building materials, floor coverings and animal diet<br />
(Macphail and Cruise 1995). This work, for example, is linked to experimental research<br />
(micromorphology, palynology and chemistry) into house and stabling floors at Butser Ancient Farm<br />
(Macphail and Goldberg in press/1996) and turf roof weathering in Sweden (Cruise et al, in prep).<br />
The unique preservation of Late Saxon floor levels across the site at <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong> may provide a rich<br />
ground for the study of a number of important topics and questions:<br />
1) Constructional materials. What were the constructional materials and methods? Were they levelled<br />
or prepared surfaces? Were wet/fen resources used (e.g. fen carr silts, peat, reeds and rushes)?<br />
2) <strong>St</strong>ratigraphy. Is it possible to identify outside and inside surfaces and the possible uses of these<br />
spaces?<br />
3) Ashes. Do they relate to cereal waste processing/wood burning/industrial activity/building<br />
debris/burned dung?<br />
4) Between-floor humic bands and other humic soils. Do these contain microfossil evidence of the<br />
types of materials being used? Can these data contribute to discussions on the use of space/buildings?<br />
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5) Hygiene. The presence/absence of phosphatic incrustations of floors may be looked for along with<br />
the occurrence of nematode eggs.<br />
4.0 Recommendations<br />
Because of the importance of the site and the preservation of the materials, it is recommended that the<br />
likely variation in materials can only be adequately studied by a detailed examination of sediments<br />
covering a reasonable sample of the wide range of contexts and materials on the site. It is<br />
recommended that 8 thin sections are made for soil micromorphological analysis and 16 samples<br />
should be examined for pollen content. The last will be subsampled from exactly the same locations as<br />
are to be studied in thin section, and potential results will, therefore, relate exactly to the materials and<br />
levels to be investigated using soil micromorphology. This is the best approach when dealing with<br />
stratified occupation deposits, because it may not only allow the identification of specific microsites<br />
where pollen is likely to be preserved, but also provide information on the pollen content of specific<br />
occupation deposits. A generalised understanding of the site from its pollen content, would be less<br />
useful in this context. Similarly, small buik samples will be taken for specific chemical tests to<br />
complement the soil micromorphology.<br />
5.0 Bibliography<br />
Bateman, N, 1994 The London Amphitheatre, Current Archaeol, 12, 59-70<br />
Courty, M A, Goldberg, P, and Macphail, R I, 1989 Soils and Micromorphology in <strong>Archaeology</strong><br />
Cruise, G M, Engelmark, R, and Linderholm, J (in prep.) An experimental turf roof: palynology, soil<br />
micromorphology and chemistry<br />
Ge, T, Courty, M A, Matthews, W, and Wattez, J, 1993 Sedimentary formation processes of<br />
occupation surfaces, in Goldberg, P, Nash, D T, & Petraglia, M D (eds), Formation Processes in<br />
Archaeological Context, Monog in World Archaeol, 17, 149-63<br />
Macphail, R I, 1994 The reworking of urban stratigraphy by human and natural processes, in Hall, R<br />
A, & Kenward, H K (eds), Urban-Rural Connexions: Perspectives from Environmental <strong>Archaeology</strong>,<br />
13-43<br />
Macphail, R I, and Courty, M A, 1984 Interpretation and significance of urban deposits, in Edgren, T<br />
& Junger, H (eds), Proceedings of the 3rd Nordic Conference on the Application of Scientific methods<br />
to <strong>Archaeology</strong>, 71-84<br />
Macphail, R I, and Cruise, G M, 1994 Assessment of the soils at Bruce House, Kemble <strong>St</strong>., London<br />
(BRU92), Unpublished report to MOLAS<br />
1995 Guildhall Yard East (GYE92): Brief Assessment of<br />
Microstratigraphy (Soil Micromorphology and Pollen), Unpublished report to MOLAS<br />
Macphail, R I, and Goldberg, P, 1996 (in press) Recent advances in micromorphological<br />
interpretations of soils and sediments from archaeological sites, in Barham, A J, & Macphail, R I,<br />
Archaeological Sediments and Soils: Analysis, Interpretation and Management<br />
Matthew, W, and Postgate, J N, 1994 The imprint of living in an early Mesopotamian city: questions<br />
and answers, in Luff, R& Rowly-Conwy, P (eds), Whither Environmental <strong>Archaeology</strong>?, 171-212<br />
Perring, D, 1981 "Early Medieval Occupation at Flaxengate <strong>Lincoln</strong>, <strong>Archaeology</strong> of <strong>Lincoln</strong>, 9/1<br />
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Table I: <strong>St</strong>. <strong>Mark's</strong>, <strong>Lincoln</strong> - sample list.<br />
Sample No. Area & <strong>St</strong>ratigraphy Local Depth<br />
(cm)<br />
1 column sample Area A.<br />
0-15 0-2cm Brown (7.5YR5/4)<br />
Saxon floors above<br />
mixed post-Roman<br />
clay floor<br />
occupation deposits.<br />
2-7cm Finely layered<br />
reddish floors and humic<br />
brown layers.<br />
2 Area B.<br />
Saxon floors and ash<br />
layers.<br />
Field Description Comments<br />
7-11cm Dark erevish<br />
brown (10YR4/2) mixed<br />
ashes and charcoal layers.<br />
11-15cm Pale brown<br />
(10YR6/3) ashy deposits.<br />
34-42 34-37cm Verv dark arevish<br />
brown (10YR3/2) floors<br />
and humic layers.<br />
3 ii 24-33<br />
37-42cm Possiblv<br />
microlayered ashy deposits.<br />
Yellowish brown<br />
(10YR5/4) ash and stone<br />
layer.<br />
4 it 15-23 Very dark greyish brown<br />
(10YR3/2) faintly stratified<br />
ashes, charcoal and humic<br />
materials.<br />
5 column sample it 11-51 As for 2, 3 and 4.<br />
6 Area C.<br />
Beneath clay floor.<br />
7 Area C.<br />
Dark earth beneath clay<br />
floor<br />
SPT2 8143 Post-Saxon dark<br />
earth.<br />
8134 ?dump.<br />
8146-8154 late Saxon<br />
layers.<br />
8160?<br />
SPTI 8156 Medieval<br />
graveyard.<br />
8161 ?<br />
8143 Post-Saxon dark<br />
earth.<br />
8134 enigmatic.<br />
25-33 Very pale brown<br />
(10YR8/3) clay floor above<br />
reddish layer with charcoal.<br />
36-44 Black (10YR2/1) soil.<br />
0.52m-<br />
1.02m<br />
0.42m-<br />
0.92m<br />
81<br />
0.52-0.75m Verv dark<br />
greyish brown (2.5Y3/2 to<br />
10YR3/2) sandy, humic<br />
mixed soil.<br />
0.75-0.81m 10YR3/2")<br />
sandy, silty humic soil.<br />
0.81-0.85m Dark vellowish<br />
brown (10YR3/4) to dark<br />
greyish brown (10YR3/2)<br />
floors and humic layers.<br />
0.85-1.02m Verv dark<br />
greyish brown (2.5YR3/2)<br />
sandy silty dump?.<br />
0.42-0.56m Verv dark<br />
greyish brown (10YR3/2)<br />
humic sandy soil.<br />
0.56-0.73m Mixed deposit<br />
with charcoal, ashes, burnt<br />
building debris.<br />
0.73-0.92m Verv dark grey<br />
(10YR3/1) humic soil with<br />
bone layer at 0.80m.<br />
Colour and reaction to<br />
HC1 in the field and<br />
birefringence under<br />
the polarising<br />
microscope suggest<br />
presence of ashes.<br />
Possible fragments of<br />
Equisetum-like<br />
material.<br />
Diatoms and ashes<br />
present.<br />
Phytoliths, ashes and<br />
diatoms present.<br />
Diatoms and<br />
phytoliths present.<br />
Pollen-like material<br />
present.<br />
Possible pollen-like<br />
material and ashes<br />
present.