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Samuel Adu Gyamfi et al.
in many departments. Furthermore, because of the large student numbers with its attendant budget
constraints, hardly do departments organise fieldtrips and practical sessions which are key ingredients
for discovery learning. This situation rather promotes teacher-centred methods of practice instead of
student-centred learning approach which facilitates effective PTS development (Drummond et al,
1998).
4. The argument for eLearning strategies
Grabinger (1999) has outlined some issues that need investigation in REALs such as individual
differences, learner control, scaffolding and support, learning and assessment. These are issues
which it is argued theoretically, could be supported by eLearning and consequently promote the
development of PTS. In order to justify the use of eLearning to facilitate the acquisition of PTS in
university education, it is prudent to look at the theories that are useful for examining and
understanding eLearning. In this article, much of the work on the theoretical framework of eLearning
relies heavily on the work of Andrews & Haythornthwaite (2007)
For the electronic aspect of eLearning Andrews & Haythornthwaite (2007) argue for the
communication theory (which draws on the contemporary rhetorical theory) and social informatics as
providing important perspectives. Contemporary rhetoric, according to Andrews & Haythornthwaite
(2007) is ‘concerned with the relationship among three key elements namely, the speaker/writer, the
audience and the subject matter. This communicative triangle enables exploration and definition of
the purpose of the communicative act, as well as the possibility of investigation of the means by which
the communication takes place’. Consequently, they argue that the rhetorical theory can be used to
analyse communication and predict the patterns and means of communication that might be
necessary in a particular situation. This theory is therefore in alignment with eLearning since
eLearning takes place in a particular situation because it is contextualised.
This rhetoric theory has been depicted in the adopted model in figure 1. Here learning is considered
as a “dialogic and dialectical exchange, not only between the learner and the teacher, but also
between the learner and the body of knowledge that is being explored” (Andrews & Haythornthwaite,
2007) . The model therefore places the learner in a more powerful, active position in relation to the
social dynamics of learning who can even critique the teacher’s mediation of existing knowledge
(Andrews & Haythornthwaite, 2007). This supports REALs co-operative learning strategies where
students work together to learn and are responsible for one another’s learning as well as their own.
Working together in groups helps students refine their knowledge through argumentation, structured
controversy and reciprocal teaching (Grabinger, 1999). Accordingly, co-operative learning and
problem-solving activities encourage generative learning (Grabinger, 1999) which eventually leads to
the development of students’ personal transferable skills.
Figure 1: Model of communication (source: Andrew and Haythornthwaite, 2007)
For social informatics theory, Andrews & Haythornthwaite (2007) quotes the definition of Kling,
Rosenbaum, & Sawyer (2005) to buttress their point of view. “Social informatics refers to the
interdisciplinary study of the design, uses, and consequences of ICTs that takes into account their
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