learning - Academic Conferences Limited

Samuel Adu Gyamfi et al.
completion of projects. Generative learning activities call for the use of cognitive apprenticeship
form of instruction (Grabinger & Dunlap (1995). According to Grabinger & Dunlap (1995) in
cognitive apprenticeship the goal of the teacher is to help students generalize and transfer their
learning through conditionalised and indexed knowledge. This is done through the presentation of
a range of tasks that encourage reflection and identification of common transferable elements
across tasks.
Authentic learning contexts – according to Grabinger & Dunlap (1995) authenticity is important to
REALs for three reasons. First realistic problems hold more relevance to students’ needs and
experiences because they can relate what they are learning to problems and goals they see every
day. Secondly, because the situations students encounter during learning are authentic, they
develop deeper and richer knowledge structures, leading to a higher likelihood of transfer to novel
situations. Finally, because complex problems require a team approach that provides natural
opportunities for learners to test and refine their ideas and to help each other understand the
content, it encourages collaboration and negotiation. REALs therefore, propose anchored
instructional strategies to achieve authenticity. According to Grabinger & Dunlap (1995) because
anchored instructional strategies encourage students to work together to solve complex problems
they are exposed to multiple perspectives in an environment that gives them the opportunity to
test out their ideas, solutions and processes and consequently overcome the problem of inert
knowledge.
Authentic assessment strategies – Authentic assessment strategies refer to the measurement of
intellectual accomplishments that are worthwhile, significant and meaningful as compared to
standardized tests inherent in conventional schooling (Grabinger & Dunlap (1995). Accordingly
Grabinger & Dunlap (1995), quotes Wiggins (1989) as explaining that authentic tests show the
intellectual design features that emphasize complexity, stress depth more than breath, include illstructured
tasks or problems, and require students to contextualize content knowledge. When
applying authentic assessment to student learning and achievement, a teacher applies criteria
related to “construction of knowledge, disciplined inquiry, and the value of achievement beyond
the school.
Co-operative support – according to Grabinger & Dunlap (1995), “working in groups helps
students refine their knowledge through argumentation, structured controversy and the sharing
and testing of ideas and perspectives”. “Co-operative learning and problem-solving groups also
address students’ needs for scaffolding during unfamiliar learning and problem-solving activities;
therefore, with the support of others in the group, students are more likely to achieve goals they
may not have been able to meet on their own (Dunlap, 1999). Grabinger & Dunlap (1995) suggest
problem-based learning as a REAL strategy for achieving co-operative learning. In problem-based
learning students work with problems in a manner that fosters reasoning and knowledge
application appropriate to their levels of learning. The skills and knowledge acquired by this study
are applied back to the problem to evaluate the effectiveness of learning and to reinforce learning
Grabinger & Dunlap (1995).
The five key principles of REALs amply demonstrate their achievement in promoting the development
of PTS in higher education institutions as outlined in the literature. Indeed Grabinger (1999) has
looked at some research conducted with various implementations of REALs which showed positive
results.
Paradoxically, research has shown that lecturers in our higher educational institutions are challenged
and de-motivated on a day-to-day basis with the practicalities of teaching increasing numbers of
students with a decreasing unit of resources in institutions, especially where competition for funding is
fierce and where there is pressure from external reviews of research and teaching performance, Kitts
& Hancock (1999). Consequently, students often find it difficult to get seating spaces in the lecture
halls let alone hear what the lecturer is saying. Libraries are overcrowded, books are out of date and
journal holdings lag years behind due to budgetary constraints. Therefore, the acquisition function in
higher educational institutions is unduly hampered in most developing economies.
Excessive student numbers have also resulted in a situation whereby academics could hardly set
meaningful exercises let alone mark and present feedback to students. There is also the pressure on
the academics to meet research targets in order to qualify for funding which has compounded the
problem of meeting students’ needs. Therefore, students hardly had time to practice what they learn.
Additionally, small group tutorials and seminars necessary for discussion exercises are hardly feasible
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